CHAPTER

Semiconductor & Digital Electronics

Properties Conductor
COMPARISON Semiconductor
BETWEEN CONDUCTOR, SEMICONDUCTOR AND Insulator
INSULATOR
Resistivity 10–2 – 10–8 Wm 10–5 – 10 6 Wm 1011 – 1019 Wm
Conductivity 102 – 108 mho/m 10-6 – 105 mho/m 10– 19 – 10–11 mho/m
Temp. Positive Negative Negative
Coefficient of
resistance (a)
Current Due to free electrons Due to electrons and holes No current
Energy band
diagram Con duction Band Conduction Band Conduction Band

Overlapping reg ion

Electron Energy
Electron Energy
E lect ron Energ y

Forbidden Gap E g £ 3eV E g > 3eV

No ga p Forbidden
Gap
Valenc e Band
Va lence Ba nd Val ence Band
Semi conductor
Condu ct or Insulator
Forbidden @ 0eV £ 3eV > 3eV
energy gap
Example Pt, Al, Cu, Ag Ge, Si, GaAs, GaF2 Wood, plastic,
Diamond, Mica

DEg
w Number of electrons reaching from valence band to conduction band : n = AT 3 / 2 e - 2kT
w CLASSIFICATION OF SEMICONDUCTORS :

SEMICONDUCTOR

Intrinsic Extrinsic semiconductor

semiconductor (doped semicondutor)

(pure form of Ge, Si)

ne =nh =ni
N-type P-type
pentavalent impurity trivalent impurity
(P, As, Sb etc.) (Ga, B, In, Al)
donor impurity (N D) acceptor impurity (N A)
ne>> n h nh>> n e

w MASS-ACTION LAW : n2i = n e ´ n h

r For N-type semiconductor ne ; ND r For P-type semiconductor nh ; NA
CONDUCTION IN SEMICONDUCTOR
Intrinsic semiconductor P - type N - type
ne = nh nh >> ne ne >> nh
J = ne [ ve + vh] (Current density) J @ e nh vh J @ e ne ve

1 1 1
s= = en [µ e + µ h] (Conductivity) s= @ e nh mh s= @ e ne me
r r r
Intrinsic Semiconductor N-type (Pentavalent impurity) P-type (Trivalent impurity)

CB CB CB
donor
acceptor
level impurity
VB VB level
VB

free hole
electron
positive negative
donor ion acceptor
ion
Current due to electron and hole Mainly due to electrons Mainly due to holes
ne = nh= ni nh << ne (ND ne) nh>>ne (N A nh)
I = Ie + Ih I Ie I Ih
Entirely neutral Entirely neutral Entirely neutral
Quantity of electrons and Majority Electrons Majority Holes
holes are equal Minority Holes Minority - Electrons

P-N JUNCTION COMPARISON BETWEEN

(At equilibrium condition) FORWARD BIAS AND REVERSE BIAS
Forward Bias Reverse Bias
– + P N P N
p n

V V
+ – – +
1 Potential Barrier reduces 1 Potential Barrier increases.
2 Width of depletion layer 2 Width of depletion layer
decreases increases.
hole free electron 3 P-N jn. provide very small 3 P-N jn. provide high
resistance resistance
potential
electric

4 Forward current flows in 4 Very small current flows.

V0 the circuit
distance 5 Order of forward current 5 Order of current is micro
is milli ampere. ampere for Ge or Nano
ampere for Si.
6 Current flows mainly due 6 Current flows mainly due
Direction of diffusion current : P to N side to majority carriers. to minority carriers.
and drift current : N to P side 7 Forward characteristic 7 Reverse characteristic
curves. curve
V r(volt)
If there is no biasing then diffusion current if Reverse
(mA) saturation
break down current
= drift current. So total current is zero knee
voltage
voltage
0
In junction N side is at high potential relative V(f volt) I r (m A)
8 Forward Resistance : 8 Reverse Resistance
to the P side. This potential difference tends D Vf
: R r = DVr @ 10 6 W
Rf = @ 100 W
DIf D Ir
to prevent the movement of electron from 9 Order of knee or cut in 9 Breakdown voltage
voltage
the N region into the P region. This
Ge® 0.3 V Ge ® 25 V
potential difference called a barrier Si ® 0.7 V Si ® 35 V
Special point : Generally Rr
= 10 4 : 1 for Si
potential. Rr
= 103 : 1 for Ge Rf
Rf
 BREAKDOWN ARE OF TWO TYPES
Zener Break down
Where covalent bonds of depletion layer, itself
break, due to high electric field of very high
Reverse bias voltage.
This phenomena take place in
(i) P – N junction having "High doping"
(ii) P – N junction having thin depletion layer
Here P – N junction does not damage permanently
"In D.C voltage stabilizer zener phenomena is used".
Avalanche Break down
Here covalent bonds of depletion layers are broken
by collision of "Minorities" which aquire high kinetic
energy from high electric field of
very-very high reverse bias voltage.
This phenomena takes place in
(i) P – N junction having "Low doping"
(ii) P – N junction having thick depletion layer
Here P – N junction damages permanentaly
due to abruptly increment of minorities
during repeatative collisions.

APPLICATION OF DIODE
• Zener diode : It is highly doped p-n junction diode used as a voltage regulator.
• Photo diode : A p-n junction diode use to detect light signals operated in reverse bias.
• LED : A p-n junction device that emits optical radiation under forward bias conditions
• Solar cell : Generates emf of its own due to the effect of sun radiations.

V
ideal diode
+ t
HALF WAVE RECTIFIER v=Vmsinwt V0
- V0
t
Vin

CENTRE – TAP FULL

WAVE RECTIFIER

D1 D2 D1 D2 D1 D2 D1 D2 D1 D2

Vin

FULL WAVE BRIDGE

REACTIFIER

D1D2 D3D4 D 1D 2 D 3D 4

Pdc I2 R
I RECTIFIER EFFICIENCY: h = = 2 dc L
RIPPLE FACTOR : r = ac Pac Irms (R F + R L )
Idc
r For HWR r = 1.21 40.6 81.2
For HWR : h% = & FWR h% =
r For FWR r = 0.48 RF R
1+ 1+ F
RL RL
 FOR TRANSISTOR
IE = I B + I C

C C

VBC VCB

B PNP B NPN

VBE VBE

E E
(a) (b)

COMPARATIVE STUDY OF TRANSISTOR CONFIGURATIONS

1. Common Base (CB) 2. Common Emitter (CE) 3. Common Collector (CC)

CB CE CC

E C B C B E
CB CE CC
B B E E C C

IE IC C E
IC IE
B B
IB IB
IB IE IC
B B E E C C

Input Resistance Low (100 W ) High (750 W ) Very High @ 750 kW

Output
Very High High Low
resistance

(AI or a) (AI or b) (AI or g )

Current Gain IC IC IE
a= <1 b= >1 g= >1
IE IB IB

Vo I C R L Vo IC R L Vo IE R L
AV = = AV = = AV = =
Vi IER i Vi I BR i Vi I BR i
Voltage Gain
RL RL RL
Av = a @ 150 Av= b @ 500 Av= g <1
Ri Ri Ri

Po R Po R Po R
Power Gain Ap = = a2 L Ap = = b2 L Ap = = g2 L
Pi Ri Pi Ri Pi Ri

Phase difference
(between output same phase opposite phase same phase
and input)

Application For High Frequency For Audible frequency For Impedance

Matching
Amplifier Amplifier
 TRANSISTOR CHARACTERISTICS

æ DVBE ö r Current amplification factor

r Input resistance (r1) çè Dl ÷ø
B V CE =constan t
æ Dl ö
• For CE bac = ç C ÷
(for CE) è Dl B ø V
CE =constant

æ DVCE ö
r Output resistance (r0) çè Dl ÷ø æ Dl ö
C • For CB a ac = ç C ÷
I B=cons tan t
è Dl E ø V
CB =constant

(for CE)

APPLICATIONS OF TRANSISTORS
There are three regions of transistor operation: r Transistor as a Switch
r Cut off region * Active region * Saturation A transistor can be used as a switch if it is
region operated in its cutoff and saturation states only.
r Transistor as Voltage amplifier
* To operate it as an amplifer we need to fix its r Transistor as an Oscillator
operating voltage somewhere in active region An oscillator is a generator of an ac signal using
where it increases the strength of input ac signal positive feedback
and produces an amplified output signal.
1
V0 R out Frequency of oscillations if f =
2p LC
* Voltage gain A V = V = -b ac R
i in
r Relation between a, b and g :
* Power gain A P = A V ´ bac a 1
b= , g = 1 + b, g =
1- a 1- a
 SUMMARY OF LOGIC GATES
Names Symbol Boolean Truth table Electrical Circuit diagram
Expression analogue (Practical Realisation)

A B Y
A
0 0 0
Y 0 1 1
OR Y=A+B
B 1 0 1
1 1 1

A B Y 1

A 0 0 0
Y"
Y 0 1 0
AND Y = A. B
B
1 0 0
1 1 1

NOT or A Y Y= A A Y
Inverter 0 1
1 0

A B Y
A
0 0 1
Y 0 1 0
NOR Y= A+B
B 1 0 0
(OR +NOT)
1 1 0

A B Y
A 0 0 1
NAND Y
0 1 1
(AND+NOT)
Y" Y = A. B
B 1 0 1
1 1 0

A B Y
0 0 0
XOR A Y = AÅB
(Exclusive Y or 0 1 1
DE MORGAN'S THEOREM
OR) B Y = A.B + AB
1 0 1
1 1 0 A + B = A gB, A gB = A + B

OR AND NOT
A+0=A A. 0 = 0 A+A =1
A
Y A B Y A +1= 1 A. 1 = A A×A =0
XNOR Y=A¤B
0 0 1 A+A= A A.A=A
(Exclusive B or A×A = A
0 1 0
NOR) Y = A. B + A. B 1 0 0
or
1 1 1
Y = AÅB