Course: Foreign Policy of Pakistan-II (9355) Semester: Autumn, 2023

Program: BS (2.5) Name: Sana Saeed

ASSIGNMENT No. 1

Q.1 What were the causes of imposition of arms embargo on Pakistan by the US during the
1965 Indo Pakistan war? Elaborate the impacts of these arms embargo.

During The 1965 Indo Pakistan War:

During the 1965 Indo-Pakistan War, the United States imposed an arms embargo on both
India and Pakistan as a response to the conflict. The imposition of the arms embargo was
influenced by several factors:

1. Non-Alignment Policy:
The United States, during the Cold War, adhered to a policy of non-alignment. Both India
and Pakistan were non-aligned nations, but the U.S. was inclined towards Pakistan due to
their alliance during the SEATO (Southeast Asia Treaty Organization) and CENTO (Central
Treaty Organization) pacts.

2.Concerns about Escalation:

The U.S. was concerned about the escalating conflict between India and Pakistan. The fear was
that the provision of military assistance to either side could intensify the hostilities, potentially
leading to a broader regional conflict.

3.Efforts to De-escalate:
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 The U.S. government, along with other major powers, attempted to mediate and encourage
a ceasefire between India and Pakistan. The imposition of an arms embargo was seen as a
diplomatic tool to pressurize both nations into ending the conflict.

The impacts of the arms embargo on Pakistan during the 1965 war were significant:

1. Military Capability:
The embargo limited Pakistan's access to crucial military equipment and spare parts,
affecting the maintenance and operational readiness of its armed forces. This had a direct
impact on Pakistan's military capability during the conflict.

2.Shift in Procurement Sources:

Faced with the arms embargo, Pakistan turned to alternative sources for military assistance,
primarily China. This marked a shift in Pakistan's strategic alliances and contributed to the
strengthening of Sino-Pak relations.

3.Economic Strain:
The arms embargo imposed economic strain on Pakistan as it had to allocate resources to
maintain its military despite restrictions on acquiring new weapons and equipment. This had
repercussions for Pakistan's overall economic development.

4.Diplomatic Consequences:
The arms embargo strained U.S.-Pakistan relations and contributed to a reevaluation of
Pakistan's foreign policy. Pakistan's leaders felt let down by the U.S. during a time of military
conflict, influencing subsequent diplomatic and strategic decisions.

5. Sovereignty Concerns:

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 The embargo reinforced Pakistan's concerns about relying on external powers for its security
needs. It led to a reevaluation of Pakistan's defense strategy, emphasizing self-reliance and
diversification of sources for military equipment.

6. Impact on the Ceasefire:

The arms embargo, along with diplomatic efforts, played a role in pressuring both India and
Pakistan to agree to a ceasefire. The Tashkent Agreement, brokered by the Soviet Union,
ultimately brought an end to the war in January 1966.

CONCLUSION:

In conclusion, the imposition of the arms embargo on Pakistan during the 1965 Indo-Pakistan
War had profound effects on Pakistan's military capabilities, diplomatic relations, and
strategic outlook. It played a role in shaping Pakistan's foreign policy and its approach to
security in the subsequent years.

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Q.2 Discuss in detail Pakistan-US strategic collaboration in order to counter USSR

onslaught to warm waters during 1980s. What were the reasons for the success of this
collaboration?

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 During the 1980s, Pakistan and the United States collaborated strategically to counter the
Soviet Union's expansion into Afghanistan and its potential threat to warm waters, primarily
through the following means:

1.Strategic Importance of Pakistan:

Pakistan's geographic location was pivotal for the US in countering Soviet influence. Its proximity
to Afghanistan and the Soviet Union made it a strategic ally for logistical support, intelligence
gathering, and a base for anti-Soviet operations.

2.US-Pakistan Military and Intelligence Cooperation:

The United States provided military aid, including weapons, training, and financial support
to Pakistan. This assistance was crucial for Pakistan to arm and train Afghan mujahidin
fighters resisting the Soviet occupation of Afghanistan.

3. Clandestine Operations:

The CIA, in collaboration with Pakistan's Inter-Services Intelligence (ISI), orchestrated

covert operations to support the Afghan resistance. Pakistan served as a conduit for funneling
weapons and resources to the mujahidin, facilitating the insurgency against Soviet forces.

4. Diplomatic Support:

The collaboration included diplomatic efforts to garner international support for the Afghan
resistance. Pakistan and the US worked together to rally support from other nations and
international organizations to isolate the Soviet Union diplomatically for its actions in
Afghanistan.
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5.Common Interest in Regional Stability:

Both countries shared an interest in preventing Soviet expansionism and maintaining stability
in the region. Pakistan, concerned about its own security due to the Soviet presence in
Afghanistan, aligned its interests with the US in resisting Soviet influence.

Reasons for the success of this collaboration:

1. Shared Strategic Objectives:

Both Pakistan and the US had a common enemy in the Soviet Union. Their shared goal of
countering Soviet expansionism and preserving regional stability provided a strong foundation for
collaboration.

2. Mutual Benefits:

The collaboration was mutually beneficial. Pakistan received significant military and
economic aid from the US, strengthening its military capabilities and providing much-needed
support during a time of economic difficulty. Meanwhile, the US gained a strategic ally in the
region and was able to contain Soviet influence.

3. CIA-ISI Cooperation:

The close coordination between the CIA and ISI allowed for effective planning and execution of
covert operations. This collaboration enabled the efficient transfer of resources to the Afghan
mujahidin, bolstering their resistance against the Soviet forces.

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 4. Strategic Alignment:
5. Both countries strategically aligned their interests and resources, utilizing Pakistan's geographical
advantage and the US's military and financial capabilities to counter the Soviet threat effectively.

The success of this collaboration significantly weakened the Soviet position in Afghanistan
and contributed to the eventual withdrawal of Soviet forces from the country. However, it
also had long-term consequences, including the rise of militant groups and instability in the
region, which continued to pose challenges for both Pakistan and the United States in the
following decades.

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Q.3 Discuss China as a factor in Pakistan USSR relations during 1960s. How had China
affected Pakistan’s relations with the USSR?

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 During the 1960s, China played a significant role in shaping Pakistan's relations with the
Soviet Union. The Sino-Soviet split, a diplomatic and ideological rift between the People's
Republic of China (PRC) and the Soviet Union, had profound implications for global
geopolitics. Pakistan found itself in a unique position, strategically positioned between two
major communist powers.

Here's how China influenced Pakistan's relations with the USSR during this period:

1.Alignment with China:

Pakistan, despite being a close ally of the United States through the Central Treaty
Organization (CENTO) and Southeast Asia Treaty Organization (SEATO), started
developing closer ties with China in the early 1960s.

The border disputes between India and China in the early 1960s led to increased collaboration
between Pakistan and China. Pakistan viewed China as a valuable ally against the common
adversary, India.

2. Impact on Pakistan-USSR Relations:

Pakistan's growing closeness to China had a noticeable impact on its relations with the Soviet
Union. The Soviet Union and India shared ideological and strategic interests, and the USSR
viewed Pakistan's alignment with the United States as contrary to its own interests.

3.Diminishing Soviet-Pakistani Ties:

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 As Pakistan deepened its ties with China, its relations with the Soviet Union faced challenges.
The Soviets were concerned about Pakistan's role in facilitating communication between the
United States and China and viewed Pakistan as part of the U.S.-led anti-communist bloc.

4. Indirect Diplomacy through China:

China served as a conduit for diplomatic communication between Pakistan and the Soviet
Union. The Sino-Soviet split meant that direct communication channels between Pakistan
and the USSR were strained, and China played a role in mediating between the two.

6. Influence on Regional Dynamics:

The alignment of Pakistan with China contributed to a complex geopolitical scenario in South
Asia. The Indo-Soviet Treaty of Friendship and Cooperation in 1971 further solidified the
Soviet-Indian alliance, and Pakistan found itself in a delicate position amid these regional
power dynamics.

6. 1971 War and Realignment:

The 1971 Indo-Pak War and the subsequent creation of Bangladesh further strained relations
between Pakistan and the Soviet Union. The Soviet Union sided with India during the
conflict, which led to a further deterioration of ties with Pakistan.

In summary, China's role in Pakistan's relations with the Soviet Union during the 1960s was
marked by Pakistan's strategic alignment with China against common adversaries,
particularly India. While China served as a bridge for indirect communication between
Pakistan and the USSR, the overall impact was a cooling of relations between Pakistan and

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 the Soviet Union, with long-term consequences that played out in subsequent regional
conflicts and realignments.

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Q.4 Elaborate Pakistan Russia relations after Soviet military withdrawal from
Afghanistan.

The withdrawal of Soviet forces from Afghanistan in 1989 marked a significant turning point
in the geopolitical landscape of South Asia and Central Asia. Following the Soviet
withdrawal, Pakistan and Russia (then part of the Soviet Union) found themselves in a post-
Cold War era where the dynamics of international relations were undergoing substantial
changes. Here's an overview of the evolution of Pakistan-Russia relations after the Soviet
military withdrawal from Afghanistan:

1. Post-Soviet Era (1991 Onward):

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 With the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991, the newly independent Russian Federation
emerged as the successor state. This period saw a thaw in Pakistan-Russia relations as both
countries sought to establish diplomatic ties independent of Cold War hostilities.

2. Normalization of Relations:

In the 1990s, Pakistan and Russia worked to normalize their relations, which had been
strained during the Cold War. Diplomatic exchanges increased, and both countries expressed
a desire to move past historical grievances.

3. Strategic Shifts:

The end of the Cold War and the subsequent dissolution of the Soviet Union prompted a
reevaluation of strategic priorities for many countries. Pakistan, facing new security
challenges and seeking diversification of its diplomatic ties, looked to engage with a broader
range of nations, including Russia.

4. Economic Cooperation:

In the late 1990s and early 2000s, there were efforts to enhance economic cooperation
between Pakistan and Russia. Trade and investment discussions took place, and both
countries explored opportunities for collaboration in various sectors, including energy.

5. Regional Stability:

The shared interest in regional stability, particularly in Afghanistan, has been a factor in
fostering a degree of cooperation between Pakistan and Russia. Both countries have
expressed concerns about the security situation in Afghanistan and have engaged in dialogue
on issues related to regional stability.

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6. Military and Defense Cooperation:

There have been instances of military and defense cooperation between Pakistan and Russia.
Arms sales and joint military exercises have taken place, signaling a degree of strategic
collaboration.

7. Multilateral Forums:

Both Pakistan and Russia are members of various international forums, including the
Shanghai Cooperation Organization (SCO). Membership in such organizations has provided
a platform for diplomatic engagement and cooperation on regional and global issues.

It's important to note that while there has been a positive trend in Pakistan-Russia relations,
the geopolitical landscape is complex, and both countries continue to maintain diverse
diplomatic ties. The dynamics of international relations are subject to change, and
developments in global politics can influence the trajectory of bilateral relations between any
two nations. For the most current information on Pakistan-Russia relations, it is advisable to
refer to the latest diplomatic statements, agreements, and news reports.

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Q.5 Make a detailed analysis of Pakistan’s relations with African Muslim countries.

Historical Overview:
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1. Common Historical Context:

Pakistan and several African Muslim countries share historical ties rooted in their struggle
for independence from colonial rule in the mid-20th century.

2. Diplomatic Recognition and Cooperation:

- Pakistan actively supported the decolonization process in Africa and was among the first
countries to recognize newly independent African nations. Diplomatic ties were established
with various African countries in the early years following their independence.

Key Areas of Cooperation:

1. Economic Collaboration:

Economic cooperation has been a key aspect of Pakistan's relations with African Muslim
countries. Trade agreements and economic partnerships have been pursued to enhance
bilateral economic ties.

2. Education and Capacity Building:

Pakistan has historically offered scholarships and training programs to students and
professionals from African countries. This has contributed to human resource development
and strengthened educational ties.

3. Defense Cooperation:

Military cooperation and defense ties have been established between Pakistan and some
African Muslim countries. This often includes defense training, joint exercises, and the
exchange of military expertise.
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4. Islamic Solidarity:

Given that both Pakistan and African Muslim countries share the Islamic faith, there has been
a focus on promoting Islamic solidarity. This involves collaboration in international forums
to address issues concerning the Muslim world.

5. Humanitarian Assistance:

Pakistan has, at times, provided humanitarian assistance to African nations in times of need,
such as during natural disasters or health crises.

Specific Country Relations:

a.Nigeria:

Pakistan and Nigeria have historically maintained diplomatic ties. Both countries being
members of the Organization of Islamic Cooperation (OIC) provides a platform for
collaboration on various issues.

b. Egypt:

Egypt, while geographically in North Africa, has historical ties with Pakistan. Both countries
have collaborated on various fronts, including defense and economic cooperation.

c. Algeria:

Algeria and Pakistan have shared diplomatic relations since the early years of Algeria's
independence. Cooperation has included economic, educational, and diplomatic spheres.

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Challenges and Opportunities:

1. Challenges:

* Economic challenges, political instability, and regional conflicts in some African countries
may impact the depth and scope of relations.

* The evolving geopolitical landscape and changing alliances globally may also present
challenges.

2. Opportunities:

* Shared cultural and religious affinities provide a basis for stronger collaboration.

* Economic opportunities for trade and investment can be explored to mutual benefit.

Conclusion:

Pakistan's relations with African Muslim countries are multifaceted, encompassing

diplomatic, economic, and cultural dimensions. Historical ties and shared values, particularly
the Islamic identity, have formed the basis for cooperation. However, challenges such as
economic disparities and geopolitical complexities underline the need for both sides to
actively seek and explore opportunities for enhanced collaboration in the future.

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