The beginning of Ethics is traced from Socrate's concept- Art of ques oning i.e.

human should ques on all the surroundings through human reasoning, logic &
ra onal thinking & unexamined life is not worth living . That human should keep
ques oning, accep ng & rejec ng the objects a human faces therefore in his
philosophies Following principles are found inherent : Freedom to speak one's own
mind, Courage, Speaking truth, Objec vity. In a way such ethical principles enhance
quality of human & make him virtuous i.e. how Virtuous Ethics was born which was
further taken by Plato and aristotle.

Plato- According to him the cul va on of these 4 virtues (‘Cardinal

virtues’)- Courage /Jus ce/ Temperance/Wisdom.- cons tutes a morally good
life. The 4 cardinal virtues have both individual & social significance. Morality of the
society is the same as it is for the individual. Morality consists in knowing &
maintaining the harmony between the ra onal and non-ra onal elements of thce
self. The three elements or parts of human beings are:

1. Passionate Element (Passions) - Temperance or self-control is the virtue .

2. Spirited Element (Will)- Courage is the virtue.
3. Philosophical or Ra onal Element (Reason or Intellect)- Wisdom is the virtue.
4. Jus ce is the virtue of the whole self or the complete person.

When he gave the concept of ideal & real world i.e. knowledge comes from ideal
world rather than human logic & reasoning . This concept was rejected by Aristotle
that there is no existence of ideal world and replace ideal world by wisdom.

Aristotle among them the most important philosopher & has relevance to the field
of ethics as he has given detailed descrip on of human behavior. The main aim of
human life is Happiness. He is also a teleological thinker who talks about Ends. He
consider human nature as posi ve when he says human is not only poli cal or
social but also ethical animal. His view that human is ethical being is very
important for field of ethics as he depicts human in posi ve light that human is
capable of being ethical that is how field of ethics has evolved.He has also
emphasized on how to determine human conduct as ethical through his
'Doctrine of Mean' i.e. Extreme of human ac on should be avoided. Ex-no ac on at
all- harsh ac on/ extreme level of aggression. The midpoint b/w them is known as
Doctrine of mean i.e. Courage /Jus ce/Temperance/Wisdom. Therefore he has
given 4 ethical principles for Virtue Ethics i.e. Quality of human conduct . He further
emphasize on that human has 5 senses & human behavior should be on the basis of
applica on of 5 senses & when they grow at highest level they give rise to 6 sense
 i.e. wisdom. For him wisdom was the highest level of human achievement & main
aim of human life is to achieve wisdom. Therefore the essence in his philosophy is
about human character/quality & not talking about analysis of human ac on rather
promo ng the quality of human through the philosophy of doctrine of mean & 4
principles of ethics.
Applica on of Aristotle

1. Individual Level : People should focus on building Character & enhancing their
Quality of Personality by following the 4 principles. It is the quality of individual
which if summarized will become quality of society. Law is not needed for law
abiding people (Plato says -good people do not need law & bad people will always
find them around law). Therefore greek philosophers basically propagate how to
build a society based on ra onal thinking . Indian society is yet to become ra onal
in overwhelming sense s ll social taboos /supers ons/social evils they have not
been rejected by individual in society rather society finds murder of ra onalist.
2. Administra on & Governance - Courage is related with ability to speak against
Corrup on, Reject bribe , Advice Minister on Merit base not on YES Minister
Philosophy, Whistle Blowing. Simply ability to withstand against anything which are
against Civil Values like Jus ce/Temperance i.e. EI is needed for effec ve behavior
especially to deal with Transfer / Poli cal Pressure / Adverse Working Condi on/
Wisdom which is needed for effec ve decision making . Since Aristotle emphasize
on Character of Civil Servant is consider most Important Quality . PM on Civil
Service Day refer Character as the most Important Virtue of Civil Servant.

The relevance of Aristotle Philosophy is that Human Behavior can be Improved by 2

Ways: By Building Good Character & by Laws & Rules(Checks & Balances) .
Cri cism: His Philosophy of Main aim of Human Life as Happiness is cri cized as
Hedonist (Promo on of Philosophy of Pleasure & Principle). Happiness is a
Subjec ve term & for different people it had different Meanings. Doctrine of Mean
may be relevant but in some Situa ons Extreme behavior is also needed & all
Extreme behavior may not be wrong. Even if Human can have good Character there
may not be s ll good Behavior i.e. Good behavior differs in different situa on & it
also depend upon Skills ,Intelligence .
There are some other philosophers Thomas Hobbes/Sigmond Froid/Kau lya
consider that human nature is selfish not selfless.

Virtue Ethics

1. Cri cisms : a major problem with the theory is the difficulty of establishing the nature
of the virtues, especially as different people, cultures and socie es o en have vastly
different opinions on what cons tutes a virtue. Another objec on is that the theory is
not "ac on-guiding", and does not focus on what sorts of ac ons are morally
 permi ed and which ones are not, but rather on what sort of quali es someone
ought to foster in order to become a good person.
2. Strengths : Focuses on cul va ng good people from which good ac ons will follow . It
a empts to link ethical theory with ethical prac ce. It Strives for personal autonomy
but within the context of society.

Deontologist Approach : place special emphasis on the rela onship between duty
& the morality of human ac ons. Acts are inherently good or evil regardless of the
consequences of act. So a person is doing something good if they are doing a morally
right ac on.

1. Strengths : Duty-based ethical systems tend to focus on giving equal respect to all
human beings & This provides a basis for human rights. They are concerned with the
ac on itself - if an ac on is a right ac on, then a person should do it, if it's a wrong
ac on they shouldn't do it. Kan an duty-based ethics says that some things should
never be done, no ma er what good consequences they produce.

Immanuel Kant who was a ra onal thinker & emphasize on means of human ac on
& not ends i.e. Human ac on should be based on Ra onal thinking in given
situa on, Human should follow Moral Command which comes from human
Conscience which issues moral command to act du fully . This moral command is
based on following 2 principles :

1. Human should act in such a fashion that Ac ons become Universal i.e. all people in
that situa on will act in same way . Therefore he is propaga ng moral absolu sm .
2. Ac on should be in fashion that your Ac on should become ends in itself . Means
& ends rela onship should not be brought.It should not be based on the philosophy
of some means to achieve certain ends.

These 2 Principles set high Standards of human conduct. They are among the most
Popular established standards. To promote ethical conduct : Universal ac on will
result into uniform standards of conduct ; Ac on as end in itself will promote
du fulness rather than Jus fica on of ac on on the basis of some means & ends .
Applica on :

1. Individual :They should have ra onal thinking, du fulness. They should act as per
their moral command i.e. human conscience . His Philosophy teaches Moral
autonomy in Individual i.e. Individual should have ability to logic himself what is
right or wrong rather than on basis of what other people say . Individual should
also be du ful as a human & they should speak truth , they should be non harmful
to others , they should be fair . He also teaches some ethical principles for
 Individuals . In many situa ons right ac on is more Important than outcome as it
test the quality of human . Individual should not always see the Consequence
otherwise people will not speak truth & be ra onal. When Means & ends rela ons
are brought by Individual that may result into greediness . To achieve more even at
the cost of compromising means & therefore human ac on may not be ethical. As
senses lose ability to dis nguish when there is desire or greediness prevailing in
decision making. (This is also rejected by Gita as it also promotes Du fulness i.e.
Nishkam Karma.)
2. Administra on & Governance : Kant's 1st Principle (Universalism) is relevant in
Secularism or secular state. Neutral State should eliminate Injus ce from society
w/o siding with any sec on of society . Universal Principle will promote Equity &
Equality. Government should promote good Governance by following some means
like Transparency even if outcome is wrong , Right Prac ces should be Promoted .
Such as Bribe/Corrup on/Black Money has slowed down the demands. RTI/Ci zen
Charter/Ac vism by 5C(CBI/CVC/CAG/COURT/CIC) has affected speed of decision
making in Governance s ll such development should be promoted. Development
w/o values is threat to survival of society. Judiciary gives judgement not on basis of
Consequence especially in popular cases rather it gives judgement based on what is
right. Kant follow the Philosophy that 'People are moral that's why follow law
rather than they follow law that's why they are moral'.

Cri cism :

1. Universal ac on is cri cized simply bcoz standards of human conduct are not
absolute they are rela ve as knowledge is rela ve. Society/Culture/Tradi ons also
influence human behavior therefore universal ac on may not always be appropriate
in given situa on .
2. His Means & Ends concept is cri cized Simply bcoz : Human life cannot be w/o ends
i.e. human life has some Purpose/Aim & there is Means & Ends rela onship . Even
'Mahatma Gandhi' talked about "Right Means & Right Ends" ; Jainism talked about
"Right knowledge/Right Faith/Right Conduct as path for Nirvana" and same for
Hinduism. In some situa ons human ac ons will be guided by Consequence & it is
Jus fied that is why U litarian Philosophy has relevance. Therefore Kant Philosophy
Introduces to some extent rigidity in ethical conduct that is called Absolu sm but
human behavior is dynamic so there cannot be universal principle for human
conduct . Nevertheless Kant philosophy is relevant for : Quality of human conduct ,
Selfless Conduct , Ac ng Right w/o Influencing by Consequence which will create
moral society based on selflessness . He sets some high benchmarks for ethical
conduct .
 Teleological Approach : Teleo means "Ends" & Teleology is Philosophy based on
Ends . It is also known as Consequen alist i.e. Ac on is considered right/ wrong on
the basis of outcome of ac on i.e. If Outcome is right in general, Ac on is right.
U litarian is Teleological approach. It is based on U lity of Human Ac ons i.e.
Maximiza on of Human U lity. The Philosophy envisage that Human ac on should
bring maximum u lity to Human. It should be based on Pleasure-Pain Principle .
Pleasure should be more than Pain. In societal/state context this philosophy
propagate 'The Greatest Good for Greatest number of People'. Broadly there are 2
aspect of Philosophy : An Individual ac on should bring more Pleasure than Pain
then it is ethical i.e. Individual enjoy Freedom/Liberty of his choice, he may take his
decision himself & Indulge in any ac vity. The Philosophy is also linked with- Eat
Drink & Enjoy i.e. the society should not interfere in Individual life as long as
individual do not bring any harm to society. It is Linked with Liberal
Democracy/Economy ; Its outcome is that western society is u litarian based . This
Philosophy has made Individuals more Achievement oriented & Risk Taking
. Thinkers :

1. Jeremy Bentham (Quan ta ve U litarianism) Says "Seeking Pleasure & avoiding

Pain" i.e. Pleasure Pain Principle. He says that main aim of human life is to Maximize
Pleasure & Minimize Pain. According to him main aim of State is to ensure "Greatest
Good to greatest number of People". Inference: Individual Centric ; Liberty/Freedom
of Choice ; What is good for Individual is good for Society.
2. J S Mill (Qualita ve U litarianism)
3. Difference b/w Bentham & Mills view on Pleasure and Pain Principle or U lity of
human ac ons : Bentham advocated Individual u litarian (Ethical egoism i.e.
sa sfac on of ego needs in accordance with what the individual consider right. Ex-if
person drinks & it brings pleasure to him then ac on is ethical) Philosophy i.e. what
is good for Individual is good for society . Mill says an Individual ac on should not
bring harm to society i.e. an individual pleasure should be based on What is good
for society is good for Individual . this is known as Social U litarian (Ethical altruism
i.e sa sfac on of ego needs also on the basis of taking into considera on of societal
needs Ex- if person drinks and goes to office in Intoxicated condi ons which affects
the office environment then ac on is not considered ethical ).

Applica on of U litarian :

1. Individual - They should be allowed to live the life of their choice i.e. state should
have very limited role in regula ng the affairs of people. This Individual Liberty &
Freedom promotes risk taking ability & teaches Independent rather than
dependence & defensiveness . Pleasure seeking ac vity has resulted into western
society becoming u litarian type & experiencing innova on , change in society. In
their society people respect each other's right if one is seeking pleasure than one
should respect the other people same behavior . Many Issues can be linked with
Individual behavior in our society such as Issue of Human Right/Prejudices
 /Discrimina on. one aspect of this issue is that lack of respect to other's right . Ex-
one sec on will not be happy with rise of other sec on like dalits etc.
2. Society : It is based on the principle of "Greatest Good to Greatest number of
people" . It applies on both : Individual that his ac on will bring benefit not only to
him but also to society (Social U litarian ) ; When there is group behavior or people
are behaving as Community/Society, then their ac on should ensure good to
greatest no. of people. Although some may get harm i.e. there can be grada on of
human ac on -Greatest/Greater/Great Good . There can be cost-benefit analysis of
human ac on & benefit should be more than cost . Ex- Medicines are manufactures
& such medicines have also side effects but side effect should be less than the
benefits. If people have set of choices they should opt the choice which benefit
most of the people.
3. Government : The state should have the role of ensuring Liberty & freedom to
people so that they can seek pleasure & minimize pain (Liberal Democra c State &
Liberal Economy). The state should take decision , make policy and govern by
following the philosophy of Greatest good to Greatest number of people & most of
the govt. policies are based on this philosophy. Such as Experiment of Odd/Even ;
Loan waiver scheme in which many farmer will benefit but some will not benefit
especially those who are landless farmers ; linking of aadhar with bank accounts .
4. Economy: Liberal economy is based on their philosophy. Business is based on
efficiency principle i.e. Input/Output rela onship which is governed by greatest
good for greatest number of people ; Profit Maximiza on ; Freedom to business are
also based on u litarian basis. A company can fire a employee to maintain efficiency
it will be consider ethical . Profit / Pvt. Business brings Pleasure .
5. Work Culture & Protestant Ethics : U litarian also influence work culture i.e they
gave the concept of Mind Your own Business (Individual should do hard work &
shouldn't waste me bcoz it will not give pleasure) . Since Individuals are Enterprise
oriented & they derive pleasure by earning profit so such individuals do not waste
me at workplace. This Workplace ethics is also linked with protestant ethics which
is religion based ethics influenced by U litarian which also says -Do not waste your
me at workplace otherwise God will not be happy i.e. God becomes happy if u
Achieve more/Perform high/Do your Duty at work . Therefore U litarian also
influence emergence of professional work culture in western society as
Organiza on cannot achieve Profit/Efficiency w/o good work culture which has least
input & the maximum output . It is due to 3 interplay of the factors
U litarian/Protestant Ethics/ Liberal Economy Philosophies made western society
advance in modern mes .

Cri cism :

1. Pleasure seeking behavior is cri cized from following perspec ve: it becomes more
of seeking physical pleasure which is shallow level human ac vity i.e. consider as
lesser good not the chief good ; It makes People Greedy / Desirous which becomes
principle for other unethical prac ces . Materialism / Consumerism /
Commodifica on has resulted into making society money oriented i.e. money
 driven society and therefore loss of values in society . Today rela onships are also
based on Money . That has Converted en re society as a kind of race / compe on
/ rivalry and has affected peace of mind. Basically pleasure results into greediness
which results into compromising means to achieve ends of amassing wealth/
materialism which is also responsible for crony capitalism .
2. Pleasure seeking behavior of Individual & Ethical Egoism concept of bentham is
cri cized that individuals cannot seek any sort of pleasure in society simply bcoz it
does not harm other or Individual is ge ng more pleasure or pain .This behavior
will not result into the chief goal & also not quan ta ve/ qualita ve aspect of
human behavior. Although they rejected pleasure seeking means only Physical
Pleasure .
3. Their concept of Cost benefit analysis of human ac on has been cri cized to
determine u lity of human behavior that there should be more pleasure than pain.
Outcome of ac on should be right but in this philosophy they take Immediate
Benefit/Pleasure/Outcome but what about the future outcome,long term effect of
human ac on . (Kant will advocate that ac on should be based on moral command
i.e. outcome should not be only important rather quality of outcome is also
important . Any human ac on which brings pleasure but it results into loss of values
in long run it will give more pain than pleasure).
4. Kant also cri cized Outcome based philosophy especially in the context of
Economics/Governance that U litarian can go on jus fy Corrup on as it greases
the wheel of the system. Ex-black Money /bribe /Nexus these things promote
demand in the economy . If govt. takes ac on demand will reduce and it will result
into loss to economy.
5. Greater good for greatest number of people Philosophy has been cri cized as it can
bring more Majoritarian concept.It ignores the relevance of minori es i.e. people
who incur losses & do not get benefit . It promotes survival of Fi est i.e. Fi est
people will always get benefit and Vulnerable/weak people will be at work therefore
Jus ce may not be in the society.

Way Forward : Despite lot of cri cism the philosophy is s ll it is relevant in many
situa ons : Individual to prac ce Liberty/Freedom not only for oneself but also to
respect other such rights . Basic needs of human should be fulfilled called ethical
egoism and it becomes basis for ethical altruism. Govt. should follow Greatest Good
for Greatest no. of people in decision making along with other philosophies like
welfare state and jus ce.

Contactarian Theories : Thinkers- Thomas Hobbes , John Locke , Rousseau .

According to them conduct is considered ethical on the basis of agreement,
consensus or contract i.e. if 2/+ individual agree on some points so the agreed point
can be considered one such ethical standard. Ex-In business o en there is contract
& the contractual agreement is considered basis for conduct by the par es such as
Produc on sharing contract in PPP Sector , Commercial contract & one has to honor
 such contract . When such contract happens in the context of state & ci zen then it
is known as Social contract that it is agreement by people that state should governs
on their behalf that's why state came into existence & it is one such moral standard
for state to respect/honor the contract & serve ci zens i.e. state has moral
obliga on to serve people. Due to which Social contract theory is Popular. It is 1
such yard s ck to evaluate the performance of governance. Basically the thinkers
are poli cal philosopher but their philosophy is based on human nature since it is
associated with human conduct that's why they are considered as important
thinkers in the field of norma ve ethics. All the 3 have common characteris cs :
their philosophy focus on rela onship b/w state & ci zen ; Rela onship is based on
explaining human nature & human rights ; it is there philosophies which resulted
into emergence of modern/liberal /democra c state . At the same me they also
have some differences in their views.
Thomas Hobbes: His Philosophy basic Premise is based on the view that Human
nature is Selfish/Bru sh /Short Vision/Murdrous/Self Preserving. This view becomes
basis for social contract that human cannot himself maintain Peace/Stability/order
& therefore people came together through contract & assigned power to state to
govern on their behalf that only state can ensure peace/harmony /stability /order &
that state should be Leviathian (Strong/Big) State i.e. a state which has absolute
power to govern wherein people cannot revolt against the state & people do not
enjoy absolute right.

1. Moral Implica ons: State has a moral Founda on i.e. social contract ; State has a
moral basis to govern i.e. to make law ; State can enforce law even against the will
of the people ; Some individuals right can be compromised for the sake of larger
good i.e Peace/Stability /Order (Consequen alist) .
2. Applica ons: His philosophy is applicable where there is need for strong state ;
need for enforcement of law ; State interest becomes more important than
individual interest ; wherever issue of public service or state responsibility with
service mo ves -for maintaining law/order/security some individuals right should be
compromised ; In the era of ICT /Cyber Security, right to privacy of some individual
should be compromised for the sake of order & security such as security check up at
airport at railway sta ons & ci zens cannot complain for breach of privacy.
Whenever there is issue of resource u liza on by the state it should be done with
responsibility&resources should be efficiently u lized due to social contract.
3. Cri cism : He consider human nature as nega ve which may be influenced by
prevailing condi ons of 16/17 Century that society was facing violence of
Murder/killing but human can also be selfless not only selfish & even self Interested.
Even Hobbes philosophy contradicts with philosophy of GITA/Aristotle /U litarian
Philosophers as well. { Gita- "Selflessnes" ; Vivekanada -"Human love" ; Mahatma
Gandhi - "Self Control/Self Governance" ; Aristotle- "Human as ethical beings". The
essence of their philosophies is that human nature can be posi ve/Selfless &
Human may not necessarily always work for self Preserva on but also for
preserva on for others}. Basically Hobbes is saying 'the strong Govt. is best govt.'
but Mahatma Gandhi says 'The best govt. is the least Govt.' . His concept of
 Selfishness of human nature is considered very extreme & it contradicts with
U litarian concept of Self Interested Individuals that basically 3 concepts have
emerged Psychological Egoism (Selfish,Short,Nega ve Nature) /Ethical Egoism (Self
Interested & Posi ve human Nature) /Ethical Altruism (Self Interested but based on
society needs also & Posi ve human nature). His leviathian concept is cri cized i.e.
absolute/big state as this state becomes exploita ve & there would be arbitrary
exercise of power & individual rights would be obstructed in the name of
Security/order. for Ex-Ac ons by the state against some people due to their
behavior related to ICT act : Facebook /Social Media/Aadhar. On one hand
quality/security to people on other hand privacy rights . Basically in the name of
order state goes on suppressing the right of people w/o taking into considera on
the threshold where individual right ends and State rights began .
4. Conclusion : Even if considered human nature is selfish & talked about absolute
state which has been cri cized but his philosophies has relevance in many such
situa on in present mes & in general only strong state can survive in today's era
wherein the level of challenges has Increased.

John Locke : He also explain human nature & further advance Hobbes concept of
social contract . But he introduce following differences on basis of human nature &
right's i.e. Main aim of human life is Preserva on of Self. (1) The best Govt. is Least
Govt. i.e. he introduce concept of Liberal democracy i.e. state should play minimal
role in the life of individuals .(2) Every Individual should enjoy liberty & Freedom for
preserva on of self as natural rights. (3) Individuals can rise above the state and
rejected the concept of absolute state.

1. Relevance of Philosophy : It was his philosophy which give rise to american

Cons tu on wherein ci zens enjoy absolute fundamental rights & Cons tu on is
about what state should not do. Liberal Democracy in the west & other part of the
World gives Individual rights as Liberty/Freedom/Equality. People have become
ul mate in governance & sate should ensure their rights.
2. Cri cism : Even if he introduces Liberty/Freedom/Equality for individual but main
basis of human nature is preserva on of self therefore he supports the concept of
Psychological egoism which is nega ve aspect. Today Individual Right
especially Liberty/Freedom are becoming essen al & state should be effec ve not
by becoming strong rather by remaining the least i.e. the minimum . A state which
governs the best should remain the least.

Rousseau: Social contract is more popular due to philosophy of him who gave the
concept of General will i.e. We are the people, Means People are ul mate in any
Democracy & Sovereignty lies in the hands of people. Law is for people & People
are not for law i.e. if law is not serving people should be changed therefore social
contract theory gets posi ve connota on/Concept due to: People being ul mate ,
State is meant to serve people , State is not superior to people . These should be the
moral philosophical founda on of governance (Mentality of Government) .
 John Raul's Theory of Jus ce (1961) - He is contemporary contractarian who
has further improved contractarian philosophies by focusing on What is jus ce in
society & how to achieve jus ce & therefore he is cri que to U litarian &
Hobbes/locke philosophies of social contract based on Psychological egoism . Raul's
theory of jus ce is based on 2 principles : Equality & Differen al principle .

1. Equality Principle- Every Individual has equal rights in terms of

Liberty/Equality/Freedom Irrespec ve of who the individual is i.e. these are the 3
basic rights enjoyed by human. Since in society there are people with different
standards such as rich/poor therefore people who are in be er off posi on have
moral obliga on to give off some resources to poor people which is also known
Distribu ve/Redistribu ve jus ce.
2. Differen al Principle - People will enjoy in socio-economy context different rights
therefore in poli cal context people will enjoy equal rights. For jus ce it is essen al
that people enjoy equal rights & in socio-economic context different rights then we
can say that there is jus ce. What is Jus ce - He also explained that jus ce is
standard of human conduct related with virtue/quality which has fairness /justness
that can be achieved through the concept of agreement known as Reflec ve
Equilibrium.
3. Reflec ve equilibrium- It is about decision making about any related subject
ma er. How to reach to agreed point acceptable to all. This agreed point should be
on basis for free will & voluntariness i.e. it should not be imposed. The people who
are tasked for decision making should have veil of ignorance i.e. they should not be
biased due to background/religion/caste/personal factor. It is reached on basis of
ra onal & objec ve thinking & decision based on this equilibrium is known as just. It
further explain How to give jus ce in society especially about role of state &
people- A state should ensure equal rights & should promote equal jus ce i.e.
redistribu ve jus ce , In the name of social jus ce the state should not obstruct
equality principle which is related with issue of aadhar , State should take decision
that result into jus ce to people especially to weaker sec on of society. Here he
rejects "Greatest good for greatest number of People".State should make a decision
such that if ac on does not improve life of vulnerable so it should not also make
their life vulnerable .

Applica on :

1. Individual -They should not only prac ce Liberty/Equality/Freedom but they should
also respect other's Liberty/Equality/Freedom. The Individuals who are in be er off
posi on should serve to those people who are poor/des tute but such individual
should not impose their views/values for socio-economic jus ce such as Bonded
Labor prac ce.
2. Govt./Governance/State- Since it is a contractual theory which talks about
rela onship b/w state & ci zens. Theory has wide applica on in contemporary
mes due to following factors: 1-Jus ce has become an essen al social good of
society. It has become a parameter for judging quality of governance &
development. 2- Social Jus ce has become one of the most important policies of
contemporary mes advocated by global Ins tu ons as well as na on state . Ex-
SDG In case of India Social jus ce become a important objec ve in 9th FYP & there
are many ini a ves be it right based or an empowerment based approach since
1990. Even our Cons tu on has provision for social jus ce such as DPSP which aims
for distribu ve/Redistribu ve jus ce . 1990 Onward steps for socio-economic jus ce
has increased. It is simply due to global & na on state concerned for jus ce. Some
recent ini ta ves for social jus ce are MGNREGA , RTI ,RTE , JAM TRINITY ,SKILL
INDIA , DIGITAL INDIA . Today due to social jus ce concerned downtrodden sec on
feels more empowered such as Jan Dhan yojana. This has become basis for
empowering such people with some other benefits incl. Employment/Insurance. As
per Social Jus ce philosophy of Raul's Philosophy is concerned many such ini a ves
by the govt. . A new dimension has been added to this social jus ce due to
Philanthro Capitalism i.e. Corporate sector taking philanthropy with more
dedica on and contribu on such as Bill & Melinda Gates Founda on , Azim Premzi
etc.
3. Society/Organiza on: 1.Jus ce as fairness i.e. any sec on of society/Organiza on
incl. state should remain fair in their behavior . 2- Redistribu ve Jus ce : Resources
should be redistribu ve so that there is even distribu on of resources in society.
Resource concentra on is Injus ce. 3- Procedural Jus ce- whatever the procedure
follow in decision making should be just/fair/unbiased. 4- Organiza onal jus ce -
Any organiza on should ensure that their jus ce in decision of organiza on the way
employees behave/communicate among themselves .

Cri cism : 1- The concept of reflec ve equilibrium has been cri cized as how to
achieve equilibrium will remain very controversial/subjec ve and it may be more
relevant in Homogenous society like western society . According to Amartya sen he
is critque to 2 theory of jus ce as he says Developing countries have high level of
heterogeneity and therefore there should be different parameters for achieving
equilibrium -Raul's Distribu ve jus ce may not be effec ve. He has given example of
Pie if there are 3 person 1/3rd of pie can be distributed among them & can be
considered fair & just. In developing society some sec on are extremely poor &
backward even giving en re pie would not be adequate for jus ce. Basically he is
critque to Raul's Theory of jus ce which propagate distribu ve/redistribu ve jus ce
in context of social jus ce which has resulted into right's based approach . In state
he propagate capability of approach - Amartya Sen philosophy of capability
approach he propagate philosophy of development as freedom i.e. the process of
development should enhance human capability so that human can make decision
himself rather than in his behalf some other else make decision i.e. development
should ensure Freedom/Choice /ability to take decision . He give example of a monk
who is fas ng and poor person who is starving Func onally both are doing the same
 but they have difference that monk has capability but poor person lack capability. It
Indicates that development should first enhance the human capability ; it also
ensure that people enjoy freedom of choice ; People should not face
threat/Suppression & obstruc on of their rights . In a way he is talking about human
development approach wherein state empower people rather than state make's
decision on their behalf. To achieve such objec ve the state should invest in human
i.e. Kerala model of human development . Basically Educa on & health should be
accessible to all . Nevertheless right based approach cannot be completely done
away with .
Consequence : Even if Amartya Sen has cri cized but theory of jus ce is most
popular contemporary theory which has influence/philosophers/leaders
/governance for ensuring jus ce. It has become o en an reference point : Social
Jus ce / Redistribu ve Jus ce /Procedural Jus ce . Even Supreme Court while
deciding rights of Transgender as 3rd gender also gave reference to Theory of
Jus ce. Since this theory talked about jus ce to people especially downtrodden
sec on a new concept has emerged in democracy known as Delibera ve
(Par cipa ve) Democracy i.e. a democracy in which people play ac ve role for
jus ce.

Max Weber : He is known for his legal ra onal Bureaucracy . The main aim was to
achieve efficiency & Stability in Administra on . Ideal Bureaucracy has 2 quality :

1. Structural - Hierarchy /Rule & procedure /Centraliza on /Ac on based on wri en

records & orders . It's structural features give rise to following problems -
Delay/Red-tapism/corrup on/Staus-quo.
2. Behavioural - Merit based Neutrality /Impar ality /Loyalty & commitment .
Behavioural characteris cs which resulted into following behavioural problems -
Indifference /Insensi ve /Irresponsive /Ge ng alienated from outside /elite
orienta on .

Even if Max weber legal ra onal bureaucracy & many reforms efforts have been
brought to transform bureaucracy more Importantly bringing Professionalism &
business management approach Including Incen viza on /Reward & punishment
/lateral entry but s ll his bureaucracy is considered relevant in the era of crony
capitalism /social unrest in society & loss of moral values due to following factors -
Public spirit/loyalty /Commitment/Self-lessness /con nuity & stability /Integrity
.These values have become more important in present mes when there is
endeavour to give more role to market as a reform strategy but market is even more
corrupt .Simply managers cannot be suitable replacement for bureaucrats .
 Machivelli : He was an Italian Poli cal philosopher whose most important work
was 'The Prince' which is about Statecra i.e. how a state should be run . On the
basis of his descrip on in the prince following Principles can be derived - 'The king is
the organiza on - The organiza on is the king' . The king utmost duty is to protect
territorial Integrity of state even at cost of Killing some people . When there is
choice b/w Fear & love the king should be more feared than love .The king should
have following characteris cs - Compassion/sincerity/courage . The King should be
an efficient leader & his main aim should not be to become popular bcoz of his
passion rather he should remain discipline & he should create fear among people .
Relevance : He was advoca ng the philosophy of End Jus fying Means ; Pragma c
Philosophy as against ideal philosophy advocated by greek philosopher . Although
his philosophy may not be relevant in literal sense in present mes - Preference to
Human values / Establish ethical standards /Concept of jus ce /awareness about
human rights but his philosophy can be relevant from Perspec ve of effec ve
leadership which should have decisiveness /harshness & non-compromising
a tude to give a a strong message to society especially a situa on faced by India
today where he is characterized as so state & even small state are not fearful .
There can be no effec ve governance only based on compassion . He is not known
for laying down any new founda on for new philosophy & also not as popular as
Social-contract theorist but he is basically known for separa ng Poli c from ethics &
talking about Pragma c philosophy of running state .

Sigmond Froid - He emphasize on Id Driven Philosophy . Id is a psychic energy

based on Irra onal Thinking that human is Selfish & human has tendency for
Pleasure driven behaviour . It can be ea ng /walking therefore he can also be
considered as hedonist Philosopher who has nega ve view of Human nature .
Relevance - His view cannot be completely ruled out/Rejected as human has
tendency of ID driven behaviour For ex- Too much Indulgence /Materialism
/Commodifiac on . He also talked about ego (Ra onal)-super ego (Irra onal) .

Kautaliya : He is considered as most Important ancient Philosopher especially for

his Ethics in Administra on described under Arthasastra (Science of Governance) .
The main ethical Principles -

1. Quality of People determine quality of Administra on therefore he emphasized on

building good character of CS .
2. The King should be compassionate & du ful & ensure that there is Rule of Law .
There should not be 'Matsya Nayaya' i.e. Powerful should not exploit Powerless .
3. "The Happiness of king lies in Happiness of subject" .
4. Morality & Ethics in Administra on that Administra on should be based on
Merit/Discipline/Probity & there should be System of vigilance to create a
deterrence against corrup on .
5. An Efficient Financial system can ensure Efficient administra on. Kautaliya
consider human nature as selfish & doesn't remain stable . Human has horse
temperament & therefore it is difficult to stop corrup on. He state- Expec ng
Public officials not to be corrupt is like Expec ng pu ng honey on tongue & not
tas ng it. It is also difficult to no ce when public officials do corrup on as it is
difficult to no ce when fish drink water. Basically he was aware about difficulty
faced in tackling corrup on & that's why he emphasized on- System of Vigilance
/Forced discipline /Code of conduct /Good remunera on to fulfill ego-needs /Local
Intelligence as Whistle-blowers . He was pessimist rather op mist in containing
corrup on by taking 2 prong steps - Promo ng ethics conduct & fulfilling ego-
needs & that's why he emphasized on efficient financial system .

Applica on in Contemporary mes : State is promo ng social jus ce &

compassionate administra on . Integrity in CS has become an Important value
promoted by the present govt. .Good governance which Incorporates Rule of
Law/Responsiblity/Compassion/Duty towards people & ci zen friendly
administra on . There is greater emphasis on Increasing the remunera on of Public
Servants by 6th & 7th pay commission as they establish link b/w Low salary-High
corrup on . More Importantly in contemporary mes Governance is facing
challenges from corrup on & philosophy advocated by kautaliya can s ll benefit in
bringing administra ve reforms such as adop on of Public service code /
opera onalising Whistle blower law /Crea ng a system of effec ve Vigilance Infact
Kautaliya Philosophy can be applied to Head of govt. or machinery of Governance .
The role of govt. is very essen al for ensuring jus ce & effec ve govt. .

Jainism : It is known for 3 fold Paths - Right Faith/Knowledge/Conduct .

Gautam Buddha :

1. Principle of ethics (Social Ethics)- Humanism /Truth /Wisdom/compassion or love

/Restraint or control or sacrifice /Middle path .
2. Life should be based on 4 Nobel truths : The Truth of Suffering ; The cause of
Suffering ; The end of Suffering ; The truth of Freedom .The Fourth noble truth in
Buddhism is about the path to reach a state free from misery i.e Nirvana. This noble
path is eigh old.
3. 8 fold paths: Right View/Right Resolve/ Right Speech/Right Conduct/Right
Livelihood/Right Mindfulness /Right concentra on /Right effort.

Basically his philosophy is about - Knowing the truth of Object in society which
should be known by applica on of ra onal thinking ; One should know about self ;
One should find out causes of suffering i.e. Problems of society & the causes behind
them ; To address these problem & knows truth one should follow right means such
as Scien fic temper /Right Inten on /EI i.e. restrain on oneself /one should follow
the middle path; He also emphasize on concentra on of mind which is linked to
wisdom as a path for understanding society/Understanding self & judicious
applica on of human mind . In a way he also emphasize on character building/
Personality development ; Character should be based on social ethics i.e.
compassion for society ; Truth should remain the most Important Value Applica on .
Buddha emphasize the main source of suffering is desire which can also be
considered as greediness . It is the desire which has resulted into all sorts of Issues
in society be it Individual/Society/business/crony capitalism . Corrup on is also
manifesta on of desire therefore Buddhist philosophy offer lesson for how they can
build their personality which is cul va on of building character & People do adhere
to 8 fold path of buddha such as self-restraint /Medita on /Compassion /Imbibing
right knowledge & right effort. For Example-Vipasana/Yoga prac ced in society . In
fact all those people who are Individually strong byself It is largely due to their
Spiritual Development & wisdom . Also there is trend in society - Dissociate oneself
from too many Indulgence in worldly life .
Governance & Administra on : It also envisage ci zen friendly administra on
/Compassion . Therefore govt. should itself Imbibe the principles of 8 fold path & it
should ensure there is Peace/harmony / compassion in society . Administra on also
teach to people the middle path Philosophy & how to overcome desire /Greediness
i.e. People desire can be regulated by administra on so that a self restraint is
maintained i.e. regula ng the prac ces of crony-capitalism ; regula ng all those
prac ces where people want to make money w/o effort . Be it a person who grows
vegetable to a person who sells vegetable made products .

Swami Vivekananda : He also teaches Humanist Philosophy like

ra onalist/humanist . Ethical Principles -
Selflessness/Love/Compassion/Humanity/Freedom/Equality/Service to
downtrodden values . He is considered the most popular contemporary philosopher
for not only his Humanist philosophy but also for Talking about vedas in people's
language . The language which people can understand known as Vedan c
Philosophy . He was ra onalist at same me Humanist who propagated the
philosophy of Service to people i.e. Selflessness . He define ethics as 'Selfless
behaviour of human' . A good human is one who doesn't live life for oneself rather
 for other's . He says that difference b/w humans & Animal is due to human values
that human can have emo ons/feelings/senses to judge right & wrong values .
Human compassion should become basis for ethics i.e. main aim for ethics should
be spreading love/ compassion. Here he differs from Kant as he advocated Duty
based ethics & vivekananda advocates Compassion based ethics. Freedom &
Equality - He also dealt with democracy & Poli cal rights of people. He also
professed for Freedom/Equality of people . He said that Educa on should impart
freedom in People i.e. Freedom of mind /ra onal thinking/Intellectualism . He says -
People should have freedom to follow their religion; All Human should be treated
equal- be it Men/Women Hindu/ chris an/Muslim & he was against religious
conversion & at same me he respected all religion . Rather he talked one should
be Good Hindu/Chris an & there is no scope for religious conversion. 'Service to
men' is 'service to god'- therefore he was against Supers on in religion /Rituals in
religion. He Promoted ra onality in religion & that's why his philosophy also
inspired Socio-religious reform movement. He says 'Shiva is in every Jiva , God
resides in every Human' Therefore Narayana is not in temples rather we can
experience Narayana by service to Daridra-narayana (Poor People) . For him Main
aim for Human Life should be Serving to other's especially poor people & one
should not take rest as long as Poverty is eradicated from this land . Good Character
- Like Buddha he also emphasise on Character Building /Personality development -
How to curb Human mind i.e. how to master controlling senses . One was
cul va on of character through ethics & Cul va on of character through
medita on & cul va on of Personality by what we eat . He says - 'A country is not
strong bcoz it has strong legislature which can make strong laws ; A country is not
strong bcoz it has atomic Weapons rather A country is strong bcoz it has People
whith good Character's & good character is build through ethics' . ('The barometer
of progress of na on is the treatment of its women')
Applica on :

1. Individual: Today Young genera on should learn from Vivekanada Philosophy of

Cul va on of Personality through Ethics /Compassion /Respec ng other's freedom
when Individual's are Increasingly becoming Self-Centred /materialis c /One own
freedom is important than others /Concept of 'I' & 'Me' is domina ng over others.
2. Administra on & Governance - He taught for administra on : Power + Humanity
Philosophy . Since Administra on exercise power therefore Power should be
exercise to promote humanity in society . Administrator have the moral
responsibility to ensure that People enjoyed freedom ; There is Peace & harmony .
He says since every Administrator is also human so as a human the administrator
has responsibility to serve to people .
3. Society : Today in Society there are supers on /Social & religious conflict . There
also seems to be a perceptual threat against ra onalist , Society should learn from
the philosopher Ra onality in Religion .
4. Educa on : It should promote Freedom/Scien fic temper/ra onal thinking
/Intellectualism . Today Educa on Ins tu on especially in India face Issue of
Curtailment of Freedom & tradi onally Educa on Ins tu on do not promote
 scien fic temper in general . Rather they are responsible for promo ng
Supers ons/rituals .

Conclusion : His Philosophy of Ra onalist Humanism can work as Philosophical

Founda on from Governance .

Mahatma Gandhi : Ethical Principles - Adherence to truth (Satyagraha) ; Self

control (self) ; Liberty /Equality/Fraternity ; Secularism /Compassion ; Leadership ;
Ethics of development -Trusteeship (Gram swaraj & Self Governance) ; Principles of
7 sins . He is considered the most Popular leader of 20th century .If Vivekanada was
most popular philosopher in contemporary India Mk Gandhi was most popular
Leader of contemporary India. Even he has been compared with
Buddha/Vivekanada . His philosophy is also about Humanity which teaches
compassion/self sacrifice that when it was asked what message would you give to
society he said 'My life is my message' ( he didn't want to impose his Philosophy on
People that's why he didn't quote a set of principles as message ) i.e. he respected
People choice & freedom . At the same me he was determinant to cul vate right
values . He Himself was most spirited Individual & he was Idealist by Prac ce
whatever he preached he first prac ce . But they become ideal for other people as
they are difficult to prac ce . He also gave philosophy of Simple Living -High
Thinking .

1. Satyagraha is Adherence to Truth not by being Violent but by being Non-violent . So

he also teaches Philosophy of Non-violence which is very Popular . His satyagraha
philosophy connotes - Courage, determina on ; Control on anger & a non-
compromising a tude against Injus ce ; Not having fear of death . He says the
satyagraha is not for everyone it is only for those people who can withstand truth
w/o being violent . Satyagraha become one such philosophy of his experiment of
Truth i.e. he was also in search of truth what buddha says Knowing the truth of life .
Satyagraha/Non-violence became the most powerful weapon against bri sh rule .
This philosophy has followed by other leaders like Nelson mandela / Anna hazare .
2. Self-Control : It is about cul va on of self known as controlling the senses
/desire/greediness & it is also related to EI/Spiritual Development . He says -The
world has enough for everyone needs but not for greeds . It was also his one such
philosophy that if people are able to exercise self-control there would be least need
for govt. unlike Thomas hobbes, MK Gandhi believe that human has + Nature & he
is capable of governing himself .
3. Liberty/Equality/Fraternity : like Vivekanada he emphasis People
Liberty/Equality/Fraternity for men & women . He was also against discrimina on
on ground of caste/religion & also against untouchability . One cannot withstand
truth w/o freedom . In champaran he was charged for sedi on for Indulging against
the state but he accepted what he did & also appeal to magistrate to give him
 highest punishment if he has violated bri sh law . This was act of adherence to
Equality/Jus ce/Truth & also respec ng the law . What Socrates did for freedom &
did not run out of the kingdom to save his life .
4. Secularism/Compassion/peace & Harmony : they were close to his heart that a
strong na on cannot be built w/o Inter-religious harmony ; Inter-caste harmony &
Inter-regional harmony that was the lesson given to MK gandhi from Gopal krishna
gandhi. Therefore he stood by secularism /Plurality /Cultural diversity by chan ng
also - 'Ishwar allah tere naam Raghupa Raghav raja ram' . He believed in ‘enlarged
Pluralism’ that every culture should learn from others.
5. Leadership : He was declared as greatest leader of 20th century . the leadership
quali es he has -Being Exemplary /Doing what one says /Decisiveness
/Responsibility /Courage /self-sacrifice /Leading from front .
6. Ethics of Development (Trusteeship) : Trustee will be a body which will be
responsible for service to all . For Ex- Coopera ves . Trusteeship is a communitarian
type of society wherein everyone is owner rather than subject . In every locality
there should be community which should ensure that all people have their basic
needs & there is no discrimina on & people have love/affec on/compassion &
community will be responsible for delivery of goods/services to people such as
water/health/educa on . This trustee ship is also known as self-governance on
which concept of gram swaraj (Ideal village) or adarsh gram that people should
govern themselves .
7. Principles of 7 sins : Commerce w/o morality ; Pleasure w/o conscience ; Knowledge
w/o Character ; Religion w/o Sacrifice ; Poli cs w/o Principles ; Science w/o
Humanity ; Wealth w/o work .

Applica ons

1. Individual : 'My life is my Message' . Taught - Simple Living /Self-control i.e. control
on desire /High Thinking / Life should be based on needs not greed ; Character -
Truth/Courage/Compassion /Empathy.
2. Society : Trusteeship or communitarian life /Social bond /Community led checks &
balances / Business should run like trust/ Gram swaraj or self governed village or
community trust /Social cohesiveness in society that people should respect others
/Collec ve efforts in society to solve problems . Like farmer coopera ve successful
in Punjab ; SHG successful in southern staes like AMUL model .
3. Governance : Although he was against the big role of state's i.e. State led
governance , In state he favoured People i.e. least government Prac ce bcoz People
should govern themselves & government should empower people so that they can
govern themselves ; Decentralised governance . He was of the view that If people
are able to govern themselves there will be least level of necessity for the
governance . According to him there should be bo om-up approach i.e. Power
should flow from bo om to top . (Village that should 1st unit of exercise of power ->
District -> State -> Centre) . The main idea behind it was that people should be
empowered & state should enjoy limited power . This reflec on can also be found in
'Minimum Governance Maximum Government' .
 MK Gandhi Idea about Development : He wanted Development should happen on
basis of needs of society ; Taking into considera on socio-economic & culture
factors of country ; It should be in harmony with nature; There should be collec ve
efforts & empowerment therefore he was against Capitalist pa ern of Economy &
big Industries as they would not suit to India & they will cause huge damage to
Environment. Basically he advocated about small scale Industry model where
people should be self-reliant .
His main Philosophy behind Favouring small scale Industries based development is
social cohesion in society ; Peace in society & Empowerment of people . His
philosophies become relevant when we analyze the consequence of Capitalist
society /Big Industries /Crony capitalism /Loss to environment & now Ar ficial
Intelligence which can be considered best or worst according to stephen hawking
depending on it's future Threat to Humanity . Although Gandhi was cri cized for
Self-styled Anarchist as he talked about limited role of Govt. & Governance by self-
control but many of his ideals are even more relevant in present mes simply due to
Increasing Emphasis on Materialis c Life .
Gandhi's Global Footprint : Khan Abdul Ghaffar Khan ("Fron er Gandhi")- Muslim
Proponent of Non-Violence. Mar n Luther Jr. King - Campaigning for racial
Integra on & Vo ng rights. Nelson Mandela- crippled the racist apartheid regime.

Advantages Disadvantages

Wealth Genera on /Efficiency Concentra on of wealth /Industry-

Big Industries / Innova on /Transforma on / labour rela on/ Social-
Mechanisa on Environment disrup on

Lack of Innova on/Not be able to

Self Reliant/Social-
Small fulill needs of society /Against
Environment harmony
Industries Human ethical egoism -that all
/Fulfillment of needs
people may not control ego needs .

B.R. Ambedkar : His main values were Equity/Equality /Compassion /Rule of law
/Non-discrimina on . He has more leaning towards social jus ce that there should
be absence of discrimina on against people in name of caste/religion/background
etc that dignity of human should be respected . That's he kept Human values
superior to other values .

Tagore : He also emphasis on Human values /Humanity above all values i.e. Dignity
& freedom of people are very essen al . He also encourage Scien fic temper in
human & Educa on which brings development to Personality of human rather than
merely degree based or job based . He was also against Na onalism which imbibe
superiority feeling . Instead he advocated Humanity based on love/respect .