Biology (Cells)

3.1 What is a Cell?

o A cell is the smallest and basic unit of life.
o All living things are composed of cells.
o Some organisms are unicellular (single-celled), like paramecium.
o Most organisms are multicellular (many-celled), like humans.
o The body of multicellular organisms has many specialized cells
working together.
3.2 Cell Theory
o Robert Hooke
- English Scientists
- First to discover cell(1665)
- first to use the word “Cell”
- Didn’t realize the discovery of cells”
o Mathias Sceheldien and theorder Scehwan
- German Botanist (1838) & Zoologist in 1839 respectively.
- Established the cell theory (plants and animals are made
up of cells)
o Anton Leouwn Hoek (1632-1732)
- Dutch Biologist
- Used lenses (upto 300px)
- Observed Protozoa for the first time and bacteria
- He is the father of Microbiologist
o Rudolf Virchow (1856)
- German Pathologist
 - Stated that “cells are made from existing cells”
- Disproved the spontaneous theory.
o The following are the three basic cell
theories:
1. Living organisms are composed of one or more cells.
2. Cells are the smallest unit of life.
3. Cells arise only by the division of a pre-existing cell.

Note
Matthias Scehldian and Theorider Scewan established Cells us
Natural Unit and Foundation.

3.3 Cell Structure and Function

o Cells have different structures with different functions.
o The main cell structures common to plants and animals include:
o Cell membrane:
- Is the outer covering that separates the cell from the
interior
- Is a very thin like structure semi-permeable because it
chooses what can go and out the cell.
- A thin, selectively permeable outer covering separating the
cell from its environment.
- Controls the movement of materials (organic molecules,
ions, water, and oxygen) into and out of the cell.
 - Selectively permeable: Allows passage of some substances
while restricting others.

Note
Cell wall Cell membrane
Only found in plants Found in animal and plant cell
Made up of cellulose Made up of lipid and protein
It is permeable It is semi permeable
It is rigid It is a very thin not rigid as cell
wall

o Cytoplasm:
- Is a thick fluid-filled region in the cell containing cell
organnel
- The fluid material of cytoplasm consists:
 70-80% water with different proteins and
carbohydrate
 Water with inorganic molecules (Sodium , Potassium ,
Calcium)
- A jelly-like fluid containing various cell organelles.
- Site for several chemical reactions like protein synthesis.
o Nucleus:
- Is the largest organnel sorrownded double- membrane.
 - Inside a nucleus, there are thread like sturctures called
Chromosomes.
 Chromosomes: Contain a very large Molcule of DNA
and is made of chromatin.
Chromatin Consists of DNA and protiens
Constitues one chromosomes
- Nucleolus: Darker area within the nucleus, responsible for
ribosome production.
- Determines cell type (e.g., blood, liver, muscle, nerve).
- Controls cell division.

DNA
DNA is the genetic material that organisms inherit from their
parents. It is a double strangded hlical macromolecule
consisting of nucleotide monomers with deoxyri-bose suger , a
phosphate group and the nirgenous bases Adenine , Cytosine ,
Guanine and Thymine. The nucleus determines what the cell will
be, for example , a blood cells , a liver cell , a muscle cell or
never cell.

o Cell Wall
- A rigid outer structure found in plant cells, providing
support and shape.
- External to the cell membrane.
 - Plant cells, fungal cells, some Protista (algae), bacterial
cells.
- Absent in: Animal cells.
o Ribosomes
- Small structures involved in protein synthesis.
- Found freely in the cytoplasm or attached to the rough
endoplasmic reticulum.
o Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER)
- A complex network of interconnected double
membranes.
- Types of ER:
 Rough ER: Studded with ribosomes, responsible for
protein synthesis and storage.
 Smooth ER: Lacks ribosomes, involved in lipid
production.
o Vesicles
- Small, membranous sacs for storage and transport of
materials within the cell.
- Transport proteins from rough ER to Golgi apparatus for
further processing.
o Golgi Apparatus (Golgi Body, Golgi Complex)
- A smooth, membranous structure involved in processing,
packaging, and distributing molecules within or outside
the cell.
 - Receives proteins and lipids from ER and modifies them.
- Packages them into vesicles for transport to specific
locations within or outside the cell.
o Mitochondria
- Relatively large organelles with a double membrane, known
as the powerhouse of the cell.
- Outer membrane controls entry and exit of materials.
- Inner membrane has folds (cristae) for increased surface
area and houses chemical reactions of cellular respiration.
- Produces energy (ATP) through cellular respiration.
o Lysosomes
- Membrane-bound organelles containing digestive
enzymes.
- Digest bacteria or other ingested cells.
- Break down unwanted or damaged organelles within the
cell.
o Vacuoles
- Single-membrane organelles filled with fluid.
- Types:
 Large vacuole: Found in many plant cells, occupying a
significant portion of the cell volume. Functions
include:
Storing water, pigments, and waste products.
  Small vacuole: Found in animal cells. Functions
include:
Food vacuole: Digests food in some animals.
Contractile vacuole: Pumps excess water out of
the cell in some unicellular organisms (e.g.,
amoebas).
o Chloroplasts
- Double-membrane-bound organelles found in plant cells,
primarily in leaves.
- Site of photosynthesis where sunlight energy is trapped
to synthesize carbohydrates.
- Components:
 Chlorophyll: Green pigment essential for capturing
sunlight.
- Relationship with Lysosomes: Lysosomes help break down
the contents of food vacuoles, including harmful bacteria
or food particles, by fusing with the vacuole.
o Centrioles and Microtubules
- Microtubules: Cylindrical fibers found in the cytoplasm
with various functions, including moving chromosomes
during cell division.
- Centrioles: Structures found only in animal cells that
anchor microtubules and play a role in cell division.
o Cilia and Flagella
 - Motile structures found in many unicellular organisms.
- Types:
 Cilia: Short, hair-like structures used for locomotion or
creating currents in fluids. Found in various locations
like the lining of the respiratory tract.
 Flagella: Long, thread-like structures used for
locomotion. Typically, a cell has one or a few flagella
compared too many smaller cilia.
3.3 Types of Cells
o Prokaryotic Cells
- Simpler cells lacking a membrane-bound nucleus and other
organelles.
- Smaller than eukaryotic cells.
- Unicellular (single-celled) organisms.
- Have a cell wall for protection and shape.
- DNA is circular and not associated with proteins.
- Examples: Bacteria
o Eukaryotic Cells
- More complex cells with a membrane-bound nucleus and
other membrane-bound organelles.
- Larger and more complex than prokaryotic cells.
- Can be unicellular or multicellular.
- Have membrane-bound organelles with specific functions.
- DNA is linear and associated with proteins.
 - Examples: Plant cells, animal cells
Terminology:
Note
Eukaryotic: Derived from Greek "eu" (true) and "karyon" (nucleus),
meaning "true nucleus."
Prokaryotic: Derived from Greek "pro" (before) and "karyon"
(nucleus), meaning "before nucleus," reflecting their simpler
structure.
Eukaryotic cells: 10-100 micrometers (µm)
Prokaryotic cells: 1-10 µm

3.5 Animal and Plant Cells

o Similarities:
- Both plant and animal cells share several common
structures:
 Cell membrane: Controls the movement of materials
into and out of the cell.
  Nucleus: Contains the genetic material (DNA) that
directs cell activities.
 Cytoplasm: Jelly-like substance containing various
cell organelles.
 Organelles: Specialized structures with specific
functions, such as:
 Mitochondria: Produce energy (ATP) for the cell.
 Golgi apparatus: Packages and distributes materials
within the cell.
 Ribosomes: Sites of protein synthesis.
o Differences:

Structure Plant Cell Animal Cell

Present, made of cellulose (rigid

Cell wall Absent
outer layer)

Present (contain chlorophyll for

Chloroplasts Absent
photosynthesis)

Large Usually present (stores water May be present,

vacuole and other materials) but smaller
 Present (involved in
Centrioles Absent
cell division)

3.6 Observing Cells under a Microscope

o Microscopes: Instruments used to magnify small objects,
including cells.
o Light microscope: Uses light to magnify objects.
3.7 The Cell and Its Environment
o Passive Transport
- Movement of substances down a concentration gradient
(from high concentration to low concentration) without
the use of energy.
- Analogy: Imagine the school guard controlling who enters
and leaves the school (similar to the cell membrane
controlling what enters and leaves the cell).
- Importance: Essential for various cellular activities, like
oxygen entering cells for respiration.
- Types of Passive Transport:
 Diffusion: Movement of molecules or ions from high
concentration to low concentration.
 Factors affecting diffusion rate:
Concentration gradient: Steeper gradient leads
to faster diffusion.
 Temperature: Higher temperature increases
molecule movement, leading to faster diffusion.
Mass of molecule: Smaller molecules diffuse
faster.
Distance traveled: Longer distances slow down
diffusion.
Example: Smell of perfume diffusing through a
room.
 Osmosis: Diffusion of water molecules from high
water concentration (dilute solution) to low water
concentration (concentrated solution) across a semi-
permeable membrane.
 Impact on cells:
Hypertonic solution: High solute concentration
outside the cell, causing water to move out,
shrinking the cell (plasmolysis) (not applicable to
plant cells due to cell wall).
Hypotonic solution: Low solute concentration
outside the cell, causing water to move in, swelling
the cell (turgidity) in plant cells, and potentially
bursting in animal cells.
Isotonic solution: Equal solute concentration inside
and outside the cell, resulting in no net water
movement.
 Examples:
 Feeling thirsty after salty food due to
water moving out of cells.
 Swollen raisins soaking in water due to
water moving in.
o Active Transport
- Movement of molecules or ions against a concentration
gradient (from low concentration to high concentration)
using energy (ATP).
- Analogy: Rolling a ball uphill requires energy, similar to
actively transporting substances against their
concentration gradient.
- Importance: Enables cells to maintain necessary
concentrations of substances for various functions.
- Examples:
 Ion uptake by root hairs in plants.
 Glucose uptake by epithelial cells in the small
intestine.

3.8 Levels of Biological Organization (continued)

o The Cellular Level:

- The cellular level is the fundamental unit of life.
 - Individual cells are composed of atoms, the basic building
blocks of matter, which are organized into complex
molecules.
- These molecules further assemble into structures called
organelles, which carry out specific functions within the
cell.
- Examples of organelles include the mitochondria (energy
production), ribosomes (protein synthesis), and the
nucleus (housing genetic material).
o The Tissue Level:
- Tissues are groups of similar cells that work together to
perform a specific function.
- Muscle tissue, for instance, is composed of muscle cells
specialized for contraction, enabling movement.
- Different types of tissues can be combined to form even
more complex structures.
o The Organ Level:
- Organs are structures composed of different tissues
working together to perform a specific function.
- The human heart, for example, is an organ made up of
muscle, nerve, and connective tissues, enabling it to pump
blood throughout the body.
- Each organ has a unique structure and function essential
for the organism's survival.
o The Organ System Level:
- Organ systems are groups of organs that collaborate to
perform a broader function.
- The human digestive system, for instance, comprises
various organs like the stomach and intestines, working
together to break down food and absorb nutrients.
- Each organ system plays a crucial role in maintaining the
organism's overall health and well-being.
o The Organism Level:
- An organism is a living individual, either a single-celled
organism like an amoeba or a multicellular organism like a
human.
- All the different organ systems within an organism work
together in a coordinated manner to sustain life.
o Beyond the Organism:
- The hierarchical organization extends beyond individual
organisms:
 Populations: Groups of organisms of the same species
living in a particular area.
 Communities: All the populations living and
interacting in a specific area.
 Ecosystems: Communities of living organisms
interacting with their non-living environment.
 Biosphere: The sum of all ecosystems on Earth.
Note
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