Mathematical Modeling of Control System

Md. Faisal Rahman Badal

Lecturer
Dept. of Mechatronics Engineering, RUET
 Learning Outcome
Learning Outcome
The Learning outcomes of this lectures are,

➢ Describe the importance of mathematical modeling of control system

➢ Describe the different modeling process
➢ Describe the Laplace and inverse Laplace transform
➢ Describe the transfer function modeling approach

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 Mathematical Modeling of Control System
➢ In studying control systems, it is essential to know the modeling of dynamic systems in
mathematical terms and analyze their dynamic characteristics.
➢ A mathematical model of a dynamic system is defined as a set of equations that represents the
dynamics of the system accurately, or at least fairly well.
➢ A mathematical model is not unique to a given system. A system may be represented in many
different ways and, therefore, may have many mathematical models, depending on one’s
perspective.
➢ The dynamics of many systems, whether they are mechanical, electrical, thermal, economic,
biological, and so on, may be described in terms of differential equations.
➢ Such differential equations may be obtained by using physical laws governing a particular
system—for example, Newton’s laws for mechanical systems and Kirchhoff’s laws for
electrical systems.
➢ Depending on the particular system and the particular circumstances, one mathematical model
may be better suited than other models.

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 Mathematical Modeling of Control System
➢ For example, in optimal control problems, it is advantageous to use state-space representations.
On the other hand, for the transient-response or frequency-response analysis of single-input,
single-output, linear, time-invariant systems, the transfer-function representation may be more
convenient than any other.
➢ Once a mathematical model of a system is obtained, various analytical and computer tools can
be used for analysis and synthesis purposes.

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 Simplicity Vs Accuracy
➢ In obtaining a mathematical model, we must make a compromise between the simplicity of the
model and the accuracy of the results of the analysis.
➢ In deriving a reasonably simplified and linear mathematical model, we frequently ignore
certain nonlinearities and distributed parameters that may be present in the physical system.
➢ If the effects of these ignored properties are quite small, good agreement will be obtained
between the results of the analysis of a mathematical model and the results of the experimental
study of the physical system.
➢ If the effects of these ignored properties are large, then the simplified model will not be able to
provide better accuracy of the system.
➢ In general, in solving a new problem, it is desirable to build a simplified model so that we can
get a general feeling for the solution.
➢ A more complete mathematical model may then be built and used for a more accurate analysis.

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 Linear Systems
➢ A system is called linear if the principle of superposition applies.
➢ The principle of superposition states that the response produced by the simultaneous
application of two different forcing functions is the sum of the two individual responses.
➢ Hence, for the linear system, the response to several inputs can be calculated by treating one
input at a time and adding the results.
➢ It is this principle that allows one to build up complicated solutions to the linear differential
equation from simple solutions.
➢ In an experimental investigation of a dynamic system, if cause and effect are proportional, thus
implying that the principle of superposition holds, then the system can be considered linear.

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 Linear Time-Invariant Systems and Linear Time-Varying Systems
➢ A differential equation is linear if the coefficients are constants or functions only of the
independent variable.
➢ Systems that are represented by differential equations whose coefficients are functions of time
are called linear time-varying systems.
➢ The system whose coefficient does not change with time is called time-invariant system.

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 Test Signals
➢ To analysis the time response different test signals are used.
➢ The standard test signals are impulse, step, ramp and parabolic.
➢ These signals are largely used to know the performance of the control systems using time
response of the output.

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 Unit Impulse Signal
➢ Impulse signal is produced when input is suddenly applied to the system for infinitesimal
duration of time.
➢ If the magnitude of such function is unity, then the function is called unit impulse function.
Mathematically,

➢ The first time derivative of step signal is impulse signal. Hence Laplace transform of unit
impulse signal is nothing but Laplace transform of first-time derivative of unit step signal.
Mathematically,

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 Unit Step Signal
➢ Unit step signal is defined as a signal having unit value for all positive value of t i.e. t > 0.
➢ Any negative value of t makes the signal value zero. Mathematically,

➢ The step signal imitates the sudden change characteristics of actual input signal. The Laplace
transform of the unit step signal is,

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 Ramp Signal
➢ The integration of the unit step signal is called unit ramp signal.
➢ It starts from zero and increases or decreases linearly with time. It imitates the constant
velocity characteristics of the actual input signal. Mathematically,

➢ The ramp signal can be represented as,

➢ The Laplace transform of a ramp signal is,

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 Unit Parabolic Signal
➢ The integration of the unit ramp signal is called unit parabolic signal.
➢ The magnitude of the unit parabolic signal increases with the square of time t.
Mathematically,

➢ It can be represented as,

➢ The unit parabolic signal imitates the constant acceleration characteristics of the actual input
signal. The Laplace transform of the unit parabolic signal is,

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 Laplace Transform
➢ The analysis of a system with differential equation is quite difficult.
➢ The separation of the input, system and output is not easy for a differential equation.
➢ Difficulties increases with the increase of the order of the differential equation.
➢ Laplace transform is an alternative technique of the differential equation with complex
variable.
➢ The transformation of the real time variable “t” into complex variable or frequency domain
“s” is called Laplace transform. Mathematically,

Where, s = σ + iω, a complex number with real number σ and ω.

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 Laplace Transform
➢ Advantages of Laplace Transform
i. Provides complete solution
ii. Initial conditions are automatically considered in the transformed equations
iii. Reduces system order
iv. Easy to solve and requires less time to solve as compared to differential equation
v. Input, system and output can be represented separately
vi. Makes the frequency analysis easy.

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Laplace Transform Table

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Laplace Transform Table

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Laplace Transform Table

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Laplace Transform Theorems

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 Example of Laplace Transform
➢ Find the Laplace transform for the following function,

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 Example of Laplace Transform
➢ Find the Laplace transform for the following function,

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 Inverse Laplace Transform
➢ The transformation of frequency domain into time domain is also essential in many application.
➢ This transformation is the opposite of Laplace transform that is called inverse Laplace
transform.
➢ Inverse Laplace transform is the transformation of a Laplace transform into a function of time.
Mathematically,

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Example of Inverse Laplace Transform

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 Mathematical Models for Control System
➢ The control systems can be represented with a set of mathematical equations known as
mathematical model.
➢ These models are useful for analysis and design of control systems.
➢ Analysis of control system means finding the output when we know the input and
mathematical model.
➢ Design of control system means finding the mathematical model when we know the input and
the output.
➢ The following mathematical models are mostly used,
i. Differential equation model,
ii. Transfer function model,
iii. State-space model.

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 Differential Equation Model
➢ Differential equation model is a time domain mathematical model of control systems. Follow
these steps for differential equation model,
i. Apply basic laws to the given control system,
ii. Get the differential equation in terms of input and output by eliminating the intermediate
variable(s).

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 Example of Differential Equation Model
➢ Find the differential equation for the given RC circuit.

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 Example of Differential Equation Model
➢ This circuit consists of resistor and capacitor. All these electrical elements are connected in
series. The input voltage applied to this circuit is vi(t) and the voltage across the capacitor is the
output voltage vC(t).

Mesh equation for this circuit is

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 Transfer Function Model
➢ Transfer function and block diagram are two most important elements in the control theory that
are commonly used to characterize the input-output relationships of components or systems.
➢ These relationships represents the behaviors of the system that can be described by linear, time-
invariant, differential equations.
➢ The functions of multiple components of a system are basically represented by using block
diagram in control system.

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 Transfer Function Model
➢ For a linear, time-invariant, differential equation system, the ratio of the Laplace transform of
the output to the Laplace transform of the input is called transfer function.
➢ The transfer function separates the input, system and output into three distinct parts.
➢ The mathematical representation of the subsystems of a system can be easily combined with
the help of transfer function.

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 Transfer Function Model
➢ Let us begin by writing a general nth-order, linear, time-invariant differential equation,

where c(t) is the output, r(t) is the input, and the ai’s, bi’s, and the form of the differential equation
represent the system. Taking the Laplace transform of both sides,

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 Transfer Function Model
➢ By taking all initial conditions as zero,

➢ Now form the ratio of the output transform, C(s), divided by the input transform, R(s):

Figure: Block diagram of a transfer function

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Example of Transfer Function

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 Example of Transfer Function
Use the result of previous Example to find the response, c(t) to an input, r(t)=u(t), a unit step,
assuming zero initial conditions.

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 Example of Transfer Function
A robot arm having the following transfer function is subject to a unit ramp input. What will be
the output?

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 Poles of the Transfer Function
➢ The poles of a transfer function T(s) are defined as the values of the Laplace transform
variable, s, which makes the transfer function T(s) to become infinite.
➢ Consider a transfer function,

➢ The values of the Laplace transform variable for which the transfer function T(s) becomes
infinite are s = −p1, −p2. Then s = −p1, −p2 are the poles of this transfer function

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 Zeros of the Transfer Function
➢ The zeros of a transfer function T(s) are defined as the values of the Laplace transform
variable, s, which makes the transfer function T(s) to become zero.
➢ Consider a transfer function,

➢ The values of the Laplace transform variable for which the transfer function T(s) becomes
zero are s = −z1, −z2. Then s = −z1, −z2 are the zeros of this transfer function.

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 Multiple Pole and Zero
➢ The repetitive factor of the pole or zero is called multiple pole or zero.
➢ The repetitive factor in the denominator is the cause of multiple pole.
➢ The repetitive factor in the numerator is the cause of multiple zero.
➢ For example, consider a transfer function,

➢ The above transfer function T(s) have simple zeros at s = −1; −2 and simple pole at s = 0; −5,
but a multiple pole at s = −6.

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 Block Diagram
➢ The pictorial representation of the functions performed by the components of a system and
signal flow from one component to the others is called block diagram.
➢ It is more important to understand the interrelationship between the components of a system.
➢ In a block diagram all system variables are linked to each other through functional blocks.
➢ Each block contains the corresponding transfer function and connected by arrows to indicate
the direction of the signal flow.
➢ The basic elements of a block diagram are a block, the summing point and the branch/take-off
point.

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 Block
➢ The transfer function of a component is represented by a block. Block has single input and
single output.
➢ The following Figure represents the block diagram of a system.

➢ Output of the block is obtained by multiplying transfer function of the block with input.

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 Summing Point
➢ Summing point is defined as the point that represents the algebraic sum of two or more signal.
➢ It is represented by a circle having cross (X) inside it with plus or minus sign.
➢ It has two or more inputs and output signal.

➢ For the first portion, for inputs A and B, the output C can be represented as, C = A − B.
➢ For the second portion, the inputs A and B have a positive sign. So, the summing point
produces the output, C as the sum of A and B. i.e. C = A + B.

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 Branch Point
➢ Branch point is defined as the point from which the signal of a block goes to another block or
the summing point.
➢ It is a point from which the same input signal can be passed through more than one branch.

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 Transfer Function of Open-Loop System
➢ Consider a block diagram
Where,
R(s)= Reference Input,
E(s)= Error Signal,
G(s)= System or Plant,
C(s)= Controlled variable or output signal,
H(s)= Feedback transfer function,
B(s)= Feedback signal.

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 Transfer Function of Open-Loop System
➢ The mathematical relationship between
the input, error and output can be
represented as

➢ The ratio of the feedback signal B(s) to

the error signal E(s) is defined as open-
loop transfer function.

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 Transfer Function of Closed-Loop Feedback Control System
➢ The feedback control loop is a powerful tool for designing control system.
➢ It takes the output into consideration and enable the system to adjust its performance to meet
the desired output.
➢ It is largely used to track the set point and to suppressed unmeasured disturbance that are
always present in the real process.
➢ It adjusts the output to take account of how it affects the load and how the load itself may vary
unpredictably. This control technique is design based on error.

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 Negative Feedback Control System
➢ Negative feedback system is an useful tool type of feedback system.
➢ In negative feedback system, the output signal is subtracted from the reference signal to show
how far the desired output from the desired input.
➢ This control system is always desirable due to continuous reduction of the error signal.

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 Negative Feedback Control System
➢ Here, the output can be represented as,

➢ Putting the value of B(s)

➢ Then, the closed-loop transfer function for negative feedback system is,

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 Positive Feedback Control System
➢ Positive feedback system has the opposite characteristics of the negative feedback system.
➢ In positive feedback system, the signals tend to reinforce themselves and becomes larger.
➢ The error from the system is added to the input through the feedback path and increase the
error signals.
➢ Since the error signal is increased, this system is less reliable as compared to negative feedback
system.

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 Positive Feedback Control System
➢ The error signal can be represented as,

➢ Now the output can be given as,

➢ Then, the closed-loop transfer function for positive feedback system is,

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 Transfer Function of Closed-Loop Feed-forward Control System
➢ Feed-forward control system is fully opposite to the feedback control system by measuring the
disturbance before it affects the process output.
➢ In the most ideal situation, feed-forward control can entirely eliminate the effect of measured
disturbance on the process output.
➢ Even when there are modelling error, it can reduce the effect of the error better than feedback
control.
➢ The economic benefits of this control approach can come from lower operating cost and
increased salability of the product due to its more consistent quality.
➢ A control system having feed-forward behavior responds to its signal in a predefined way
without responding to how the load reacts.
➢ The control variable adjustment of this control system is not error-based like feedback control.
➢ It is designed based on the knowledge about the process in the form of a mathematical model
of the process and the measurement of the process disturbance.

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 Negative Feed-forward Control System
➢ Consider a negative feed-forward control system.

➢ The mathematical relationship between the input, error and output can be represented as

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 Negative Feed-forward Control System
➢ Thus the output can be represented as,

➢ Then, the transfer function for negative feed-forward control system can be represented as,

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 Negative Feed-forward Control System
➢ Consider a positive feed-forward control system.

➢ The mathematical representation for the error is

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 Positive Feed-forward Control System
➢ Thus the output can be represented as,

➢ Then, the transfer function for negative feed-forward control system can be represented as,

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