Dairy Derived Food Ingredients-
Functional and Nutritional Considerations
ABSTRACT
This paper reviews the current process-
ing operations to create a wide variety of
dairy-derived functional food ingredients.
The origin, functionality, and nutritional
value of certain whey based ingredients
are summarized. The role of these ingredi-
ents in meeting today's consumer demand
for variety, convenience, and health and
nutrition is demonstrated.
Papers in the symposium have dealt with
national nutritional needs; the role of dairy
products in meeting those needs; with specific
nutritional attributes of dairy products and
ingredients such as protein value, calcium, etc.;
and with the rather unique contribution of
cultured products in our diet. This article will
attempt to summarize both the variety of dairy
ingredients commercially available today and
their nutritional and functional impact on a
number of consumer products.
There exists within the world of dairy
products a wide number of commercially
available products that deliver important
nutritional benefits. Of course, nutrition is not
the only force behind the incorporation of
dairy ingredients in our food. Functionality at
an affordable price is also a key factor in
utilization of dairy products.
The food processor has been discovering that
dairy ingredients can be used to meet needs of
consumers both at home and away. Some
people have coined the term "fabricated foods"
to describe the phenomena in the market-
place. Food processors can look to dairy
ingredients as a basic raw material in construct-
ing an almost endless variety of products to
meet consumer needs (19). Several major
suppliers of food ingredients provide a strong
force behind the increased utilization of dairy
Received September 25, 1978.
1979 J Dairy Sci 62:1695-1702 1695
T. W. CRAIG
Foremost Foods Company
Dublin, CA 94566
ingredients in today's foods.
Milk is a complex collection of lipids,
proteins, carbohydrates, and minerals (46).
When subjected to a variety of unit operations,
it can lead to tailor-made ingredients that meet
food processor and consumer needs. Figure 1
(25) is worthy of considerable study in that it
summarizes concisely what the product diversity
of milk really is. Most major dairy and dairy
ingredient companies presently have available in
their product line every ingredient shown here.
This diagram, as comprehensive as it is, doesn't
cover newer dairy-derived ingredients that we
now see making solid advances in the market-
items such as dried yogurt, enzyme modified
cheeses, hydrolyzed lactose, enzyme modified
butterfat, and powdered sour cream and
butterfat.
In examining the functionality of milk
derived ingredients, we find that the principal
source of the diversity is attributed to the
protein. The proteins in milk have been reviewed
in the literature both from a fundamental
viewpoint (7, 53) and from more applied
aspects (10).
Food technologists generally classify the
functional properties of proteins in terms that
describe their usefulness in a food system.
Figure 2 (42) summarizes both the general
property of the system and the specific func-
tional terms that would be useful to food
formulators. Some of these terms are associated
readily with dairy-derived ingredients, i.e.,
turbidity, solubility, gelling, whipping, chewi-
ness, elasticity, plus, of course, high nutritional
value. The food technologist can choose from a
wide variety of dairy based ingredients to meet
the functionality required in any particular
food system. For example, the many modified
caseinates and whey protein products can alone
or in combination with other specially active
ingredients provide the right viscosity and
mouthfeel to beverages, the required acid
solubility in fruit systems, the appropriate
degree of lipid binding in processed meats, and
the desired degree of gas retention in baked
1696
Figure 1. Dairy based ingredients from milk.
goods. Suppliers of ingredients devote a consid-
erable portion of their technical effort to
characterizing new and potential ingredients in
terms of this functionality. A considerable
effort in industrial marketing is also aimed at
matching the functionality so described to that
desired by the food processor.
Nutritionally we are all probably aware of
the powerful story milk-derived ingredients can
tell (3). In the protein area alone, Figure 3
shows the important contribution these ingredi-
ents make to good nutrition (11, 15, 34, 35)
through comparison of well known measures of
protein value such as protein efficiency ratio
(PER), net protein utilization (NPU), and
biological value (BV). Previous papers have dealt
with the mineral contributions of dairy products.
The contribution and costs of calcium recom-
mended daily allowance (RDA) as provided by
a variety of dairy ingredients are shown in
Figure 4.
General milk components and the influence
of processing on their nutritional value have
been reviewed in the literature (2, 29). Ingredi-
ents that are covered in more detail in this
paper include those derived from whey. While
this represents a narrowed focus, the processing
Journal of Dairy Science Vol. 62, No. 10, 1979
CRAIG
I i I i i n w m l l l l l l l l l l
operations and product considerations are
representative of those in the broader milk-
derived context.
Whey
Whey utilization is increasing in this country.
Yearly figures from the Whey Products Institute
(WPI) report this trend in pounds and percent,
but we also can see the trend in the marketplace.
OENeKOJ. PIqOPERTY:NYIOI~ION
GIEIEIIA/. I='RO~EAI~: ~ P ' n ¢ GIEN~'~4a. PIqOPEI~"Y: I I t , I R F ~
filmtotm l t~ . li~a ~lrde, Q 19a~or~ t~a/~itlt~xl i t
OEI~RAL PAOMEI~': ~ C
~ F ~ m t OENIE~U. I~IOI~I~I"Y:IIIqOLOl~,,AI.
• ~.=~,-~.~--:~ = , ~
OENERAL PROP~'~T'Y:
v i ~ w ~a~J~ ee~,or~~ t . ~ i n o
Figure 2. General classes of functional properties
of proteins important in food applications.
 SYMPOSIUM: NUTRITIONALVALUE OF DAIRY FOODS 1697

PER NPU BV and final drying. Traditionally, the initial water

NFDM 2.7 d
removal is through vacuum evaporation at a
Dry Whey 89 e 93 e whey concentration plant generally located at
Lactalbumin 3 2 c, 2.9 (;I 91 e 94 e or close to a cheese factory. Solids generally
Whey Protein Concentrate 3.2 c 91-94 a 91 e range from 50 to 60% prior to lactose The
Casein 2.5 75-79 a
lactose is crystallized by cooling the concentrate,
Sodium Caseinate 26 d
Coprecipitate 3.0 b 2.8 d
generally in a two-stage process to obtain
Fortified Coprecipitate 3.8 b proper crystal growth for subsequent dry-
ing and required product stability and per-
a Delaney, J Soc Dairy Tech (1976)
formance.
b J Lefaivre, et al, J Inst Can ScI Technol Aliment (t975) Final spray drying is a straightforward
C Commercial literature
operation which results in a stable hydrated
d Lohrey & Humpries, NZ Journ Diary Sci Tech (1976)
e Forsum & Hambraeus, J Diary Sci (1976) lactose crystal and, thus, a stable whey powder
(36). Some equipment manufacturers recently
Figure 3. Protein nutritional value of milk de- have reported that a two-stage drying process
rived ingredients.
has been employed successfully to give a stable,
dry, acid, whey powder (31).
Recent efforts of both equipment manufac-
For 1975 WPI reports that 294.3 million turers and whey processors have focused on
pounds of dry whey alone were used in products reverse osmosis to supplement vacuum evapora-
for human consumption while for 1976, the tion in initial water removal. We have found
figure increased to 373 million and in 1977 to that this offers considerable economic savings,
over 383 million pounds. We believe that at the provides for water reuse, diminishes the pollu-
present, well over 75% of the whey being tion discharge load, and, in some cases, provides
produced in this country is being used to an improved final product.
economic advantage in its various forms in Dried whey has many of the functional
human or feed products. More detailed informa- properties of nonfat dry milk. It also has several
tion in whey and modified whey production properties that make it functionally more
and consumption is available in reports from desirable than milk in some food applications.
WPl (52). The high reducing sugars in whey improve
The technical aspect of whey processing and the surface browning of bakery products. In
product properties have been summarized addition, lactose also binds moisture during
recently by Smith and others (33, 51). The baking, resulting in increased softness in baked
processing is fairly straightforward. The process goods (50). Candy and confections also benefit
consists of water removal, lactose crystallization, from the enhanced protein-reducing sugar
browning obtained from whey. Whey also can
balance and reduce the sweetness of candy. The
lactose gives a softer texture and can increase
the shelf life of confections (24, 45).
Amount (g) to Dried whey is often a prominent ingredient
provide 800 mg in prepared sauces and dry sauce packets. It
Food Ingredient Calcium RelativeCost
mellows the acid flavor notes of vegetables,
Nonfat Dry Milk 61 1.0 such as tomatoes, while enhancing the cheese
Acid Whey 36 0 12
Sweet Whey 100 030
flavors.
Oemineralized Whey (90%) 533 40 The nutritional value of whey in a collective
Whey Protein Concentrate 183 2'.7 sense also is impressive. The aggregate amount
35% protein
2 6 % ash of nutrients represented by the yearly whey
Whey Protein Concentrate 42 3.0
58% protein
production would provide the US RDA yearly
18% ash equivalent of protein for 5.3 million people and
Cheddar Cheese 114 40
sufficient riboflavin for over 24 million people.
Flour, white.enriched 4.97 Kg 17.0
In addition to its economy, functionality,
Figure 4. Contribution and costs of calcium RDA and nutrition, whey is used in food products as
from selected dairy and nondairy foods. a flavor contributor.

Journal of Dairy Science Vol. 62, No. 10, 1979

1698
vAca~uEVAPOaATtON
~VERSEOS~OS,S CaM,NE~*t,ZA~O.,
mAmVOaT~0tETIO~
t~cTos~ I ............:: ...... p
_
1
I ............... I
POt~OS~ATEeo~Ex
I ................. I [
Figure 5. Process flowchart for preparing whey
protein concentrates.
Modified Whey
Modified wheys include partially delactosed,
partially demineralized, partially delactosed/
demineralized wheys, and whey protein concen-
trate. These products are finding a growing
number of uses in a variety of convenience food
products. Figure 5 explains in a graphic fashion
the general processing steps in producing a
variety of modified wheys (40). Through a
variety of processing schemes, whey can be
made into a wide variety of modified products
with various protein, mineral and lactose levels.
There are two methods of mineral removal
that accomplish a similar result: 1) the removal
of ions from the whey by electrodialysis, and 2)
ion-exchange. By either means, the components
of the whey which are in the form of ions
are removed partially or essentially completely
from the whey.
Electrodialysis has been used for several
years for demineralization of whey (49). The
whey is first concentrated into an intermediate
solids, then demineralized and further concen-
trated to 45 to 50% solids before spray drying.
The ion exchange process removes the same
components as electrodialysis and was first
commercialized in 1949. The equipment
required for the ion exchange process is less
expensive than the equipment for the electro-
dialysis process. However, operating costs are
higher because of chemicals required and labor
COSt.
The major ions removed by electrodialysis
are sodium, potassium, arid chloride. Calcium,
magnesium, phosphates, and citrates are not
Journal of Dairy Science Vol. 62, No. 10, 1979
CRAIG
transported appreciably, probably because they
are present as soluble complexes and do not mi-
grate easily (6).
Nutritionally, demineralized whey is perhaps
a more valuable product than dry whey itself in
1 mACT,ONm~
t~ra~,Lra~T~
cMcI°~x
that the balance of divalent to monovalent ions
is improved and protein is increased modestly.
Commercially, demineralized whey has found
its greatest application in infant formulas and
baby food products. It is of value in this
CONC~NraArE context because of the desire that infant
........ I
formulas approach as closely as possible the
compositional profile of mother's milk, particu-
larly in the ratio of whey and casein protein.
Additional uses now are being found in special
medical diets where high protein quality and
low sodium or minerals are required, such as in
diets of patients with hypertension or with a
degenerate liver or kidney failure.
Whey Protein Concentrates
Rather sophisticated techniques of membrane
separation are being used commercially to
manufacture a variety of whey protein concen-
trates. Excellent reviews have highlighted recent
advances in this area (12, 17, 37, 41). Briefly,
ultrafiltration, a new technique, employs
semipermeable membranes through which mole-
cules are forced as a result of a pressure gradient.
Depending upon the porosity of the membrane,
some molecules are rejected. Uhrafihration
membranes for whey processing are designed to
pass lactose and salts and retain proteins. Both
plate and frame, and tubular, hollow fiber
systems are in commercial use.
Gel filtration is another whey separation
process that has achieved commercial status
(46). In this process the whey is treated to
remove insoluble protein and lipids through a
procedure involving neutralization and addition
of divalent cations. About half of the lactose
then is removed through concentration and
evaporation. The partially delactosed whey
concentrate then is processed through large
columns of molecular fractioning resin to give
several products with various protein and
minerals which then are spray dried.
A third process also in commercial use
involves complexing and precipitation of the
whey protein with potassium polymetaphos-
phate and sodium metaphosphate (20, 54). In
general, this process consists of acidifying the
whey to a pH below the isoelectric point,
 SYMPOSIUM: NUTRITIONAL VALUE OF DAIRY FOODS 1699

Protein Lactose Ash Fat While WPC have found commercial accept-
Process (%) ance as functional food ingredients, their
Ultrafiltration 50-62 15-40 0.5-6 15-15 important nutritional contribution to a variety
Centrifugal gel filtration 50-54 25-37 11-13 0.8--2 of food systems has been a principal promo-
Metaphosphate complex 54-58 13 10-15 33-73 tional point in both the commercial and aca-
CMC complex 50 20 8 1.2 demic literature~ Because consumers are now
Etectrodiatysis 27-37 40-60 14-20 2 4-4.3 showing an increased awareness of nutrition
Figure 6. Composition of partially delactosed/de- value (5) of food consumed, the nutritional role
mineralized whey (whey protein concentrates). Data of WPC will continue to be stressed.
is from Morr et al., 1973. Several examples have been published
of the synergistic effect achieved from WPC
fortification of cereal or other vegetable pro-
tein products. The amount of balanced pro-
heating the whey, and adding the phosphate tein (meeting FAO profile for essential amino
and collecting the precipitated lactalbumin acids) in vegetable protein products can
phosphate. This separated product can be be boosted dramatically through supplemen-
neutralized with alkali and spray dried. tation of the commercial grains with WPC
Various whey protein concentrates (WPC) (8). Figure 7 summarizes studies showing
prepared by these processes are compared in how both PER and NPU of diets are improved
Figure 6. Also shown in this figure are WPC when wheat, corn, or rice is supplemented
from two other processes--the carboxy methyl with WPC (1, 13, 14, 16, 55). The figures
cellulose (CMC) precipitation process (18, 21, for nonfat dry milk supplementation are
22), not commercialized yet, and the electrodi- shown also. A similar enhancement of protein
alysis/lactose removal process, the first WPC nutritional value occurs when soy isolate is
introduced into the market (9). In this latter blended with whey protein concentrate (34).
process the raw liquid whey is concentrated by Such nutritional supplementation of vegetable
preheating to 70 C for about 15 s and then and legume proteins with whey has been used
passed through a vacuum evaporator to give a by the US Government in the Food For Peace
concmtrate of 20 to 30% solids. The pH is Program in both the corn soya milk (CSM)
adjusted to approximately neutrality, and product and the whey/soy beverage for the
centrifugation is used to remove the small Agency for International Development (AID).
amount of insoluble protein. The concentrate Commercially WPC has been used to fortify
then is subjected to electrodialysis by a cation/ beverages, nutritional bars, and powdered
anion cell. During this operation, the ash drink mixes.
content may be reduced from 20 to 90%.
Electrodialized liquid material then is further
concentrated to 40 to 60% solids at a tempera-
ture under 70 C. These restrictions of tempera- PER NPU
ture provide a relatively undenatured, highly wheat 08 a
85% wheat 15% NFDM 18 a
soluble protein. Operation at higher tem- 92% wheat and 8% WPC 25 a
peratures gives a correspondingly less soluble
79% corn and 21% NFDM 2.7 c 71 c
product. Crystallization then uses conventional 87% corn and 13% WPC 3.0 c 76 c
equipment involving seeding and gradual
cooling of the concentrate. Removal of the rice" 1.3 b
lactose leaves a liquid which is concentrated 82% r)ce and 18% NFDM 36 c 65 c
88% rice and 12% NFDM ° 3.5 b
further at low heat followed by spray drying. 89% rice and 11% WPC 3,6 c 71 a
62% rice and 38% whey* 3.4 b
The functionality of these WPC's has again
been summarized in several papers, indicating
uncorrected
that they appear to be versatile dairy-derived a Forsum and Harnbraeus, Cont Chem FoodSupply {1974)
ingredients and are of particular value in food b Womack and Vaughan, J E)airy Sci. (1972)
systems where solubility, low flavor contribu- c Forsum.J. Nut. (1975)

tion, emulsification, and fat binding ability is Figure 7. Whey protein/vegetable protein nutri-
desired. tional value studies.

Journal of Dairy Science Vol. 62, No. 10, 1979

1700
Mg Absorption
A LACTOSE FORMULA
B LAC
C LAC
A B C A
Group
Kobayashp et aI,Am J CI NLJI 11975}
Figure 8. Mean value of percent absorption of
calcium and magnesium in groups A, B, and C.
The WPC just discussed generally provide
highly soluble, functional protein at 70% or less.
Protein has been further concentrated to 90%
on a limited scale by these various tech-
niques. Economically, however, this further
concentration can be justified only when the
product can be incorporated in an end product
of high market value such as special diet formu-
lation, pharmaceutical products or specialty
cosmetic applications.
Higher whey proteins have been available
commercially for some time in the form com-
monly called denatured lactalbumin. Protein
levels can range as high as 90% on a dry basis.
This technique for whey protein recovery
involves precipitation through pH adjustment,
severe heat treatment, and divalent cation
addition (47).
Nutritionally, the denatured product seems
little impaired in protein value with PER values
reported at 3.2. Functionally the lactalbumin is
practically inert. It thus has the advantage of
serving as an unobtrusive source of high quality
protein while not disrupting desired properties
of the finished consumer product. Examples of
use include breakfast cereal fortification, pasta
enrichment, baking uses and use in special
dietary formulations. Recently reports of
enzymatic hydrolysis of the denatured lactal-
bumin described its potential as a more func-
tional food ingredient (39).
Lactose
All of the processes discussed for concen-
Journal of Dairy Science Vol. 62, No. 10, 1979
C RAIG
trated whey protein give as a companion
80.9%
product a lactose rich process stream (30). In
addition to this newer source of lactose, com-
mercial processes specifically aimed at lactose
recovery from whey have been operational for
some time.
There are two major processes for commer-
cial production of lactose. In the first, whey
protein is solubilized chemically with phos-
phates, permitting concentration to higher than
normal. The concentrate is cooled, and the
lactose is crystallized. The crystals then are
B C separated by centrifugation and air dried. The
Group process produces a high yield with a single
crystallization.
In a second, more widely used process, whey
is concentrated less without chemical solubiliza-
tion of the protein. After cooling, the lactose
crystals are removed by centrifugation and air
dried as crude lactose. The crude lactose is
refined by decolorizing, washing, and filtering.
Products of high purity are provided by this
method, but the yield is less than the first
process. A recent review by Brinkman (4)
describes in detail the commercial processing of
lactose (4).
Development of processes giving depro-
teinized whey or permeate have allowed for
improved lactose recovery but also have called
for changes in the refining process. Generally
those companies committed to lactose produc-
tion and marketing have found that permeate is
a viable source of raw material for operation.
Lactose is commercially available in a wide
variety of forms ranging from food grade
material to highly refined USP grade pharma-
ceutical product.
Nutritionally, lactose has been controversial
in that the significance of clinically induced
lactose intolerance has been debated in the
literature for sometime.
When consumed as part of a normal diet,
lactose does offer important nutritional benefits.
Figure 8 shows results of just one investigation
on human infants. The intestinal absorption of
calcium and magnesium was reduced in in-
fants fed on a lactose-free milk and enhanced in
infants who were on a lactose containing
formula and also in those who were given a
lactase preparation (32). We also heard, in
earlier papers in this program, about the benefits
of a lactose in cultured products and their
impact on our nutritional well being. We
 SYMPOSIUM: NUTRITIONAL VALUE OF DAIRY FOODS
r e c e n t l y have c o n d u c t e d some e x p l o r a t o r y
w o r k investigating the influence o f calcium,
lactose, and cholesterol on b o n e and tissue
d e v e l o p m e n t in an animal system. Preliminary
conclusions indicate that dietary lactose plays
an i m p o r t a n t role in bone d e v e l o p m e n t through
increased calcium absorption and m e t a b o l i s m
and that lactose is also i m p o r t a n t in maintaining
balanced b l o o d cholesterol. In our diets, we
f o u n d that b l o o d cholesterol moves f r o m a gain
o f 30 m g / m l to a loss o f 45 m g / m l as lactose is
increased from 0 to 10% in the diet. We, and
others, actively are engaged in research in this
area to elucidate further the i m p o r t a n t dietary
factors in dairy products t h a t influence blood
cholesterol and lipoprotein.
The functional value of lactose in f o o d
p r o d u c t s has been summarized well by Nickerson
(43, 44). Use of lactose in foods is based on
relative sweetness, p r o m o t i o n of the b r o w n i n g
reaction, protein stabilizing properties, altera-
tion of crystallization patterns in a q u e o u s and
fat systems, sensory discrimination or flavor
a c c e n t u a t i o n , and selective f e r m e n t a t i o n abili-
ties. We recently have shown that addition of
lactose to bread and cake formulas can improve
p r o d u c t appearance, volume, and tenderness if
sugar and shortening also are reduced (23). For
all these reasons, lactose is finding increased use
in a wide variety of f o o d and related products.
While this paper has addressed o n l y a small
n u m b e r o f products, similar c o m m e n t s could be
m a d e about all o f the products listed. Several
b o o k l e t s published by Dairy Research Incor-
p o r a t e d ( D R I N C ) do a fine job o f summariz-
ing the total role o f dairy-derived ingredients in
the fabrication of today's foods (26, 27, 28).
Advances in processing and p r o d u c t knowledge,
as well as expanding c o n s u m e r d e m a n d for
p r o d u c t diversity, sound nutrition as related to
f o o d c o n s u m p t i o n , and a general preference for
naturally derived f o o d ingredients have all
c o n t r i b u t e d to the exciting p r o d u c t diversity
we see in today's marketplace. Dairy-derived
ingredients have and will c o n t i n u e to play an
i m p o r t a n t role in this marketplace.
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1702 CRAIG
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