MODULE 1 NATURE OF RESEARCH
One of the most
Why do we conduct research?
mainly because he want to know things,
increase our knowledge, etc.
Ways to obtain knowledge
 ask opinion to others/consult an expert
 read books
 search online
 through sensory experience we obtain
information through five senses; sense
of sight, sense of hearing, smell, taste,
and touch. Senses are immediate ways
of knowing things.
We obtain information through other
sources we can check the accuracy of our
senses by asking the opinion of others,
logical thinking/reasoning, scientific
method; provides information that are
accurate and reliable involves testing of
ideas in the public area.
Research
- is the use inquiry or examination
especially investigation or experimentation
aim at the discovery and Interpretation of
facts, provision of accepted theories or law
in the light of the new facts practical
application of such new revised theories or
law.
- A process of inquiry And investigation. it
is a systematic and methodological. It is all
about having a set of questions and
answering these questions through
gathering of information and data, then
analyses the information gathered.
Systematic and methodological.
Emphasized that research is well-organised
and go through series of stages/ process.
- can also be defined as a step by step
process that involves the collecting,
recording, analyzing and interpreting of
information.
What is Business Research?
According to Wilson (2014), it is a
systematic and objective process of
collecting, recording, analyzing and
interpreting, information to aid in solving
managerial problems.
Systematic process of gathering and
acquiring comprehensive and detailed data
on information of all areas of business and
using this information to maximize sales
and profits of the business.
Importance of Business research
Business Research.
- Helps managers and business owners to
come up with a business decision.
- Help businesses gain better insights about
their target customers preferences; their
buying patterns and as well as the
demographic
- provides businesses with a detailed
overview of their target markets can
effectively and efficiently formulate the best
possible plans and strategies for their
business minimize unnecessary costs and
focus on the areas that needs
attention to increase their
profits
Business Research Process
1. statement of the problem
2. formulation of hypothesis
3. review for related literature
4. sample population
5. Instrumentation
6. procedures
7. data analysis
8. results or conclusion
Types Of Research
• Basic research (aka) pure or
fundamental research
- it is conducted to increase
our knowledge driven by
interest and desire to expand
our knowledge enhances our
understanding of the world
around us
• applied research
- related with solving practical
problems rather than focusing
on knowledge expansion
- used to find solution to
problems that occur on daily
basis
- develop new alternative
technologies; the main aim is
to provide better technologies
to enhance the standard of
living
Methods Of Research
Qualitative. uses open-ended
questions to obtain data from
the subject of the research. this
method is not only about what
people think but also why they
think so are designed to help
prevail the behaviour and
perception of a target
population with reference to a
particular topic or subject .
- the goal is to get an in depth
knowledge about the subject
of the research.
Various types of qualitative
method
Interviews. One of the most
common qualitative method.
Advantages:
-Provides opportunity to
gather precise data about
people focus groups. Usually
includes a limited number of
respondents; used to have an
in depth understanding of
subject issues; also used in
launching products of a
particular group of people
case study research. One of
the simplest ways of
conducting research as it
involves deep dive or
thorough understanding of the
data or the subject.
effective ways for business research; used
to understand the customer’s satisfaction; to
aid organization and improving their
product or service
ethnographic research. The most in depth
observational method that studies people as
a whole; requires a researcher to adapt to
the target audience environment; instead of
conducting a mere interview, the
researchers put themselves into their
subjects shoes.
Quantitative research method. Carried out
to deal with numbers done by gathering
quantifiable data and performing statistical,
mathematical and computational techniques,
collects information using sampling
methods or sending out online surveys,
online polls, questionnaires come etc. The
results are in numerical form.
Multiple types of quantitative research
- Survey. Most common method; with the
use of this huge amount of data can be
collected.
- correlational research. Comparison of
two entities; used to examine the impact
they create over each other; used to
understand patterns, relationships, entrance
between variables
- experimental research. Based on proving
a theory, use in natural sciences
MODULE 2: RESEARCH PROBLEM
What is research problem?
defining a research problem is the fuel that
drives in the scientific, and is the foundation
of any research method experimental design.
Research Problem is a situation or
circumstance that requires a solution to be
described,explain.or predict.
components of a research problem
1. there must be an Individual or group
with some difficulty or problem.
2. There must be with some objectives to
be attained at.
3. There must be alternative means for
obtaining the objectives one wishes to attain.
4. there must remain some doubt in the
mango the researcher with regards to the
selection of alternatives.
5.There must be some environments to
which the difficulty pertains.
Selecting the problem
 The research problem undertaken for
the setting must be carefully selected.
 there is a knowledge gap in an area
that need to be investigated, the
research problem identifies this gap.
 most researchers find selecting a
research problem so difficult.
 this difficult arise not because there is
a limited range of reachable problems
and sciences but the inability to locate
the socially relevant topics without
duplicating earlier studies.
 Technique Involved in defining a •significant
problem •Originality
 statement of the problem is general • feasibility
way to understand the nature of the Developing the research
problem · question
 surveying the available literature research question is…
 developing the ideas through • a statement that identifies the
discussion phenomenon to be studied
 "rephrasing the research problem into • a formulation of uncertainly
a working proposition about ... that you wish to
Criteria for selecting a research problem explore a resolve
Details of the aspect of problem selection • it should be a central
criteria is listed below: question of a research
• it is the problem that
• the problem must be significant in the someone would like to
sense that it solution should make a investigate
contribution to the body or organized • it is considered the situation
knowledge In the field represented. the that needs to be changed or
researcher should demonstrate that the addressed
selected data is to add information on Your research question is
existing knowledge by making more the most critical part of your
reliable knowledge research proposal because it:
• the problems should be a researchable one. • Defines the research
the problem to be that will lead to new • guides your inquiry
problems to further research. • provokes the interest of the
• the problem must be suitable for the reviewer
researcher. there are several of these: first general characteristics:
the research must personally important to • implies the possibility of
the researcher and enhance his or her investigation
competence . Second , the problem should • identifies and need for a
be an area about which one has bought research
knowledge and experience • provides focus
• the problem should be sufficiently original. common problems with
• the problem must be feasible. research question
• the problem is you one that investigate and •the question is too broad to be
completed within the allocation time limit. manageable
• subject which then should not be normally • the question is too narrow
chosen • the question cannot be
• too narrow or too Vague problems should answered
be avoided evaluation of the research
• the Importance of subject the qualification problem
and the training of the researcher , the costs • Is the problem researchable?
involve and the time factor. • Is the problem new?
Characteristics Of good Research • Is a problem significant?
Problem • Is a problem feasible?
• the problem Is significant • Can interest be sustained by
• the problem will lead further research it?
• the problem is researchable • Is the problem solvable?
• the problem is suitable • Will it lead to another
• the problem Is ethical research problems?
Researchable and non researchable • Is it manageable in size?
problem • Are you, or will you become,
• researchable problems imply the competent to solve it?
possibility of empirical investigation. Business problems that
• Non-researchable problems - includes market research solves
explanations of how to do something, vague Market research can
propositions, value-based concern. be segmented into two basic
Formulating research question. categories:
• most Important part of the research. 1. Problem identification
• The first step in the research process is a research
selection of a suitable problem field chosen • brand image- how your
by the researcher customer preserve your bran
• The chase and formulation of a suitable • market characteristic-
problem is one of the most difficult task for target is a market
a researcher characteristic
• the future of a good research problem
• Market potential how profitable is your
solution
• market share percentage of the total
product sales compared to your
competitors
2. problem solving research
• Distribution research where to sell your
product
•Market segmentation grouping
customers who purchase the same
behaviour
• Pricing research ships the ideal price of
your products
• Product research test your products.
MODULE 3:
MODULE 4: HYPOTHESIS AND
ASSUMPTION
Hypothesis (hypotheses) is a tentative
solution of a problem.
According to Kabir, S.M.S. (2016) The
word hypothesis consists of two words:
Hypo + thesis = Hypothesis. 'Hypo' means
tentative or subject to the verification and
'Thesis' means statement about solution of a
problem.
Hypothesis is the composition of some
variables which have some specific position
or role of the variables i.e. to be verified
empirically. It is a proposition about the
factual and conceptual elements.
Hypothesis is called a leap into the dark.
A hypothesis is a tentative statement about
the relationship between two or more
variables. A hypothesis is a specific,
testable prediction about what you expect to
happen in your study.
Hypothesis need not to be correct. The
Hypothesis predicts what the researchers
expect to see and the goal of research is to
determine whether this guess is right or
wrong.
In many cases, researchers may find that the
results of an experiment do not support the
original hypothesis. It is suggested in
writing up these results that other options
should be explored in future studies.
"Hypotheses are single tentative guesses,
good hunches - assumed for use in devising
theory or planning experiments intended to
be given a direct experimental test when
possible". (Eric Rogers, 1966)
"A hypothesis is a conjectural statement of
the relation between two or more variables".
(Kerlinger, 1956) There must be a
relationship between the independent and
dependent variables.
"Hypothesis is a formal statement that
presents the expected relationship between
an independent and dependent
variable."(Creswell, 1994)
"A research question is essentially a
hypothesis asked in the form of a question."
So a hypothesis is a tentative statement
about the relationship between two or more
variables. There must be or in order for us
to say that a hypothesis is complete there
must be include there components: variables,
population, and the relationship of the
variables.
Assumption means taking things
for granted so that the situation is simplified
for logical procedure. Assumptions
facilitate the progress of an agreement a
partial simplification by introducing
restrictive conditions.
Nature of Hypothesis
The hypothesis is a clear statement of what
is intended to be investigated. It should be
specified before research is conducted and
open stated in reporting the results.
This allows to:
 Identify the research objectives
 Identify the key abstract concepts
involved in the research Identify its
relationship to both the problem
statement and the literature review
A problem cannot be scientifically solved
unless it is reduced to hypothesis form.Thus,
when we are making hypothesis, it must be
specified.
It is a powerful tool of advancement of
knowledge, consistent with existing
knowledge and conducive to further enquiry.
Nature of Hypothesis
It can be tested - verifiable or falsifiable
Hypotheses are not moral or ethical
questions
 It is neither too specific nor to general
 It is a prediction of consequences
 It is considered valuable even if
proven false
Types of Hypotheses
NULL HYPOTHESES
Designated by: Ho or HN
Pronounced as "H oh" or "H-null"
ALTERNATIVE HYPOTHESES
Designated by: H₁ or HA
The null hypothesis represents a theory
that has been put forward, either because it
is believed to be true or because it is to be
used as a basis for argument, but has not
been proved.
Has serious outcome if incorrect decision is
made!
The alternative hypothesis is a
statement of what a hypothesis test is set up
to establish.
Opposite of Null Hypothesis. Only reached
if HO is rejected.
Frequently "alternative" is actual desired
conclusion of the researcher!
Research Questions are refined statements
of the specific components of the problem.
It refers to a statement that ascertains the
phenomenon to be studied. The research
questions should be raised in an
unambiguous manner and
hence, would help the
researcher in becoming
resourceful in identifying the
components of the problem.
The formulation of the
questions should be strongly
guided by the problem
definition, theoretical
framework and the analytical
model.
The researcher should exercise
extreme caution while
formulation questions as they
are the forerunner for
developing hypothesis. Any
research questions may lead to
flawed hypothesis. The
following questions may be
asked while developing
research questions:
a) Do know the area of
investigation and its literature?
b) What are the research questions
pertinent to the area of
investigation?
c) What are the areas that are not
explored by the previous
researchers?
d) Would my study lead to greater
understanding on the area of study?
e) Are enough number of
literatures available in this topic
area?
f) Is my study a new one thus
contributing to the society or has
it been done before?
Advantages of stating
research question in the
hypothesis:
1. Efficiency
2. Persuasiveness
Directional Hypothesis: This
may imply that the researcher
is intellectually committed to a
particular outcome. They
specify the expected direction
of the relationship between
variables i.e. the researcher
predicts not only the existence
of a relationship but also its
nature. Scientific journal
articles generally use this form
of hypothesis. The investigator
bases this hypothesis on the
trends apparent from previous
research on this topic.
Such hypotheses provide a
definite direction to the
prediction.
Nondirectional Hypothesis:
This form of hypothesis is
used in studies where there is
no sufficient past research on
which to base a prediction. Do
not stipulate the direction of
the relationship.
MODULE 5: ETHICS AND
RESEARCH
Ethics are broadly the set of rules written
and unwritten that govern our expectations
of our own and others' behavior.
Research is the pillar of knowledge and it
constitutes an integral part of progress.
WHAT IS RESEARCH ETHICS?
Research ethics involves the application of
fundamental ethical principles to research
activities which include the design and
implementation of research, respect towards
society and others, the use of resources and
research outputs, scientific misconduct and
the regulation of research.
WHAT IS ETHICAL CONSIDERATION?
Ethical considerations in research are a set
of principles that guide any research designs
and practices. Scientists and researchers
must always adhere to a certain code of
conduct when collecting data from people,
The goals of human research often
include understanding real life
phenomena, studying effective treatments,
investigating behaviors, and improving lives
in other ways. what you decide to research
and how you conduct the research involves
ethical considerations.
These considerations work to:
 protect the rights of research
participants
 enhance research validity
 maintain scientific integrity
The Importance of Research Ethics
 It promotes the aims of research,
such as expanding knowledge.
 It supports the values required
for collaborative work, such as
mutual respect and fairness.
 It means that researchers can be
held accountable for their actions.
 It ensures that the public can trust
research.
 It supports important social and
moral values, such as the principle
of doing no harm to others.
What is Ethics in Research and Why is it
Important?
Research ethics matters for scientific
integrity, human rights and dignity, and
collaboration between science and society.
This principles make sure that participation
in studies is voluntary, informed, and safe
for research subjects. Defying research
ethics will also lower the credibility of
research because it's hard for others to trust
the data or information if your methods are
merely questionable.
Principles of Ethical Research
 Honesty and Integrity
 Objectivity
 Morality
 Prudence
 Openness
  Respect for Intellectual The researcher must respect or as a condition necessary for publication,
Property the animals when using them are increasingly demanding ethical
 Confidentiality for research studies, and make principles wording.
 Responsible Publication sure that they are properly ETHICAL ISSUES IN RESEARCH
 Legitimacy cared for.
 Anti-discrimination WHAT IS AN 1. STUDY DESIGN AND ETHICS
 Human Subjects Protection INSTITUTIONAL APPROVAL
REVIEW BOARD (IRB)? It is essential to obtain approval from the
 Animal Care
Institutional Review Boards Institutional Review Board, or Ethics
Honesty and Integrity
(IRBS) are composed of Committee, of the respective organisations
The researcher must honestly present
researchers who evaluate for studies involving people and other data
information on the data, results, research
research proposals to make subject
methods and procedures, and publication
sure that they follow ethical 2. DATA ANALYSIS
status.
standards. It is the responsibility of the researcher to
Objectivity
IRBS protect the safety of analyse the data appropriately. Fabrication
It is recommended to try to avoid partiality
research participants. Their and falsification of data do constitute
and self deception. The researcher must
first task is to decide whether misconduct.
disclose any personal or financial interests
a proposed study increases 3. AUTHORSHIP
that might influence the scientific research.
participants' risk of injury Since the author is usually involved in
Morality
since psychological research drafting or revising the manuscript, as well
The researcher must comply with the
can cause physical and/or as approving the submitted manuscript, he
promises and Agreements, be honest and
pyschological discomfort. should take responsibility to certify that the
seek the sustainability of thoughts and
WHAT DO "AT RISK" OR manuscript represents valid work and take
actions.
AT "MINIMAL RISK public responsibility for the work.
Prudence
MEAN? 4. CONFLICTS OF INTEREST
The researcher must avoid careless errors
Studies that put subjects at This happens when researchers have
and omissions. It is important to evaluate
carefully and critically both own and risk increase the chance of interests that are not fully apparent and that
colleagues' work. harm compared with not may influence their judgments on what is
participating in the study. published including personal, commercial,
Openness
Minimal risk studies do not political, academic or financial interest.
The researcher must share the data, ideas,
increase the likelihood of 5. REDUNDANT PUBLICATION AND
tools, and resources, be open to criticism
injury. PLAGIARISM
and new ideas.
Respect for Intellectual Property WHEN SHOULD AN IRB Redundant publication occurs when two or
The researcher must respect patents, APPROVE AN "AT RISK" more papers, without full cross reference,
STUDY? share the same hypothesis, data, discussion
copyright rights, and other forms of
IRBS should approve an "at points, or conclusions.
intellectual property, not to use unpublished
risk" study when a Plagiarism ranges from unreferrenced use
research data, methods, or results without
risk/benefit analysis of others' published and unpublished ideas,
permission. It is strictly forbidden for the
researcher to plagiarize. determines that risks to including research grant applications to
Confidentiality participants are outweighed submission under "new" authorship of a
by gains in knowledge. complete paper, sometimes in different
The researcher must save confidential
WHY IS APPROVAL FOR language
information, such as articles submitted for
ETHICAL RESEARCH
publication, records of employees,
IMPORTANT?
professional or military secrets and the
records of patients' health stories. To protect research MODULE 6: LITERATURE REVIEW
Responsible Publication participants' rights and Literature review is an account of what
welfare, and reduce the risk of has been published on a topic by accredited
The researcher should publicize the results
physical and psychological scholars and researchers. These are existing
of the research for the sake of science and
discomfort, damage, and/or information that has been published by
scientific research and not for the benefit of
threats appearing because of scholars.
his career.
Legitimacy research procedures; Comprehensive Definition
The researcher must have knowledge of To protect the rights of the A Literature Review
researchers to carry out a Surveys scholarly articles, books, and other
relevant laws for his/her work as well as
lawful research and reputation sources.
institutional and government policies and
of the university implementing Its purpose is to demonstrate that
comply with them.
or supporting the research; the writer has critically surveyed relevant
Anti-discrimination
To reduce the probability of literature on the topic in order to convince
The researcher must avoid discrimination
claims for negligence against an intended audience that the topic is worth
against students or colleagues of sex, race,
specific researchers, addressing.
nationality, or other factors unrelated to
universities, and all Purpose:
scientific excellence and honesty.
cooperating persons or  To find out what's already
Human Subject Protection
organizations; known about the topic.
The researcher must respect human dignity,
Because research funding  Give reader critical overview of
privacy, and autonomy.
agencies and scientific what you found
Animal Care
journals in their applications  To find what's missing
for getting research funding,
A literature review is NOT… Concluding the LR
1. An annotated bibliography  Summarize ideas,
2. A list of seemingly unrelated sources conflicts, themes, or
3. A literary survey containing author's bio, historical (or
lists of works, summaries of sources chronological) periods.
4. Background information or explanations  Point out gap(s) in
of concepts scholarship and, show
how your research helps
Prewriting Stages fill the gap(s).
* Formulate the problem or primary  Transition to your next
research question which topic or field is chapter. Blend things, to
being examined and what are its component introduce the next part.
issues? Sample LR And Field Specific
1. Choose literature-find materials relevant Information Online
to the subject being explored and determine  Purdue OWL — 1. Probability
which literature makes a significant psychology
contribution to the understanding of the  James Cook University
topic. (Ays.) — social sciences
 Analyze and interpret-note the findings  University of West
and conclusions of pertinent literature, Florida -- family studies
how each contributes to your field.  google Scholar
Organizing/Outlining  Science Direct
Methods of organizing the Literature review
 Chronologically
 By theme, idea, trend, theory, or major MODULDE 7: SAMPLING
research studies /MODULE 8:
 By author INSTRUMENTATION
Basic Concepts in Samples
Writing the LR and Sampling
Ongoing "housekeeping" strategies and tips - The Sampling is a statistical
 Immediately document and cite source process of selecting few
you took the information from representatives from the
 Bookmark online sources. population, called as a sample,
 Bookmark "hard copy." Use it post-it on the basis of which the
notes to mark pages with relevant characteristics of the total
information population can be ascertained.
 note any connections between sources What is sample?
in separate notebooks, electronic file A sample is defined as a
or post-its on pertinent pages. smaller set of data that a
 If information comes from a class researcher chooses or selects
lecture, interview or conference, note from a larger population by
details immediately. using a pre-defined selection
method.
Beginning the Writing These elements are known
Introduce your LR by as sample points, sampling
•Defining or explaining the primary units, or observations.
problem addressed by the lit review, or if Creating a sample is an
the LR is part of a larger work like a thesis efficient method of conducting
or dissertation, explain the problem it research.
addresses. (Explain the topic or problem, The sample usually
introduction which mainly emphasizes the represents a manageable size
topic) from this population.
OR Researchers then collect data
Explaining main conflict(s) in the literature from these samples in the form
(Explaining the time-frames. what are the of surveys, polls, and
things that needs to be improved, questionnaires, and
connection of every research) extrapolates this data analysis
OR to the broader community.
Explaining the time frame you will review Sample unit -smallest unit
OR from which sample can be
Using all or some of the points above. selected
Body of LR Census- an accounting of the
1. Use subheadings if dividing the LR complete population
topically, thematically, according to Sampling error-any error that
argumentative perspective, or occurs in a survey because a
according to time period. sample is used
Sample frame- a master list of the
population (total or partial) from which the
sample will be drawn.
Sample frame error-the degree to which
the sample frame fails to account for all of
the defined units in the population.
Example: a telephone book listing does not
contain unlisted numbers
Population vs sample
The population is the entire group that you
want to draw conclusions about.
The sample is the specific group of
individuals that you will collect data from.
Two types of sampling methods:
sampling involves
random selection, allowing you to
make strong statistical inferences
about the whole group.
Classified into four distinct types of
samples. They are:
 Simple random sampling
 Cluster sampling
 Systematic sampling
 Stratified random sampling
2. Non-probability sampling involves
non-random selection based on
convenience or other criteria, allowing
you to easily collect data.
We can classify non-probability
sampling into four distinct types of samples.
They are:
1. Convenience sampling
2. Judgemental/purposive sampling
3. Snowball sampling
4. Quota sampling
Probability Sampling
Simple random sampling: The most
straightforward way of selecting a sample.
In this method, each member has an equal
chance of being a part of the study. The
objects in this sample population are chosen
purely on a random basis, and each member
has the same probability of being selected.
(The goal of simple random sampling is to
create a manageable balance of sets of
individuals that is a representative of a
larger group that would otherwise be too
challengiyto sample)
How to random sample?
 Make a list of all the employees
working in the organization. (as
mentioned above there are 500
employees in the organization, the
record must contain 500 names).
1. Assign a sequential number to each
employee (1,2,3...n). This is your
sampling frame (the list from which
you draw your simple random sample).
2. Figure out what your sample size is
going to be. (In this case, the sample
size is 100).
3. Use a random number generator to
select the sample, using your sampling
frame (population size) from Step 2
and your sample size from Step 3. For
example, if your sample size is 100
 and your population is 500, generate
100 random numbers between 1 and
500.
The advantages of this simple random
sampling is that this is the list by a sampling
method that every member of the target
population has an equal chance being
chosen. Its purpose is to provide individuals
with an equal chance of being chosen.
However, it is expensive and time-
consuming method. It is difficult to get the
nam of every member especially if it is very
large population.
Sampling errors can occur when sample
does not end up accurately representing the
population as a whole.
2. Cluster sampling: is a type of sampling
method where the respondent population is
divided into equal clusters. Clusters are
identified and included in a sample based on
defining demographic parameters such as
age, location, sex, etc.
Types of cluster sampling
Single-stage cluster sampling: As the
name suggests, sampling is done just once.
Two-stage cluster sampling: Here, instead
of selecting all the elements of a cluster,
only a handful of members are chosen from
each group by implementing systematic or
simple random sampling
Multiple stage cluster sampling: Multiple-
stage cluster sampling takes a step or a few
steps further than two-stage sampling.
4. Systematic sampling: is a sampling
method where the researcher chooses
respondents at equal intervals from a
population. The approach to select the
sample is to pick a starting point and then
pick respondents at a pre-defined sample
interval.
5. Stratified random sampling is a method
of dividing the respondent population into
distinctive but pre defined parameters in the
research design phase. In this method, the
respondents don't overlap but collectively
represent the whole population.
Non-probability sampling
1. Convenience sampling: in easy terms,
stands for the convenience of a researcher
accessing a respondent. There is no
scientific method of deriving this sample.
Researchers have nearly no authority over
selecting the sample elements, and it's
purely done based on proximity and not
representativeness. This non-probability
sampling method is used when there are
time and cost limitations in collecting
feedback.
Advantages:
It is weak and uncomplicated method of
data collection
It is inexpensive and readily available
sample
However, this method can be biased.
Collected samples may not be
representative of the population of interest.
Thus, the results cannot be
generalized to a greater
population
2. Judgemental/purposive
sampling: is a method of
developing a sample purely on
the basis and discretion of the
researcher purely on the basis
of the nature of study along
with his/her understanding of
the target audience. In this
sampling method, people who
only fit the research criteria
and end objectives are selected,
and the remaining are kept out
Advantages of this
method is that it can consume
minimum amount of time for
executions, allows researcher
to approach their target market
directly and almost real time
result. However, statistically
the obtained results through
distinct needs are less reliable.
Impurities of the sample
cannot be judged.
3. Snowball sampling: or
chain-referral sampling is
defined as a non-probability
sampling technique in which
the samples have traits that are
rare to find. This is a sampling
technique, in which existing
subjects provide referrals to
recruit samples required for a
research study
Advantages of this method:
it enables access to hidden
population, avoid risks and
save money and time. It also
has limitations; it's difficult to
determine the sampling error
and bias is possible.
4. Quota sampling: is defined
as a method in which
researchers create a sample
involving individuals that
represent a population.
Researchers choose these
individuals according to
specific traits or qualities.
They decide and create 
quotas so that the market 
research samples can be useful
in collecting data.
Advantages of this method:
it saves time, ideal choice for
gathering primary data within
a limited time; researchers can
conveniently analyze and
interpret the response to the
test or survey. This is because
the right question
representented to the right
sample group.
Disadvantages: it is risky to project the
research result to the whole population
because you cannot collect the sampling
error of the tests from one quota. This is
because quota sampling is a probability
sampling methods.
Total Error is the variation between the
true main value in the population of the
variable of interest and observe the mean
value in obtaining.
Random sampling errors is the
variation between through main value for
the population and the true main value for
the original sample.
Non-sampling error can be attributed
to sources other than sampling and they
maybe random or non-random including
errors in problem definition, approaches,
skills, questionnaires, questionnaires design
interview method, and data preparation
analysis.
Non-response error arises when some
of the respondents included to the sample
that responds.
Response error arises when
respondents give inaccurate answers/their
answers are misrecorded or misanalyzed.
Researchers error arises if there's error
in the measurement of the definition of
population, the sampling frame, and data
analysis.
Interviewer error arises if there's
error in the selection of respondent, giving
questionnaires, error in recording and
cheating.
Respondent error arises if there's an
inability or unwillingness of the respondents
to respond.
Whenever a scientific study is planned, it
may not always be feasible to study the
entire population. In such situation, we need
to apply some sampling technique to select
our samples and it's better to select
probability sampling techniques. Selecting a
sampling method depends on population to
be studied, resources available and
importance of having a precise estimate of
the sampling error.
MODULE 9: VALIDITY AND
RELIABILITY
VALIDITY
- (as used in research), refers to the
appropriateness, meaningfulness,of any
inferences as a researcher draws based on
data obtained through the use of an
instrument.
Validity is the most important idea to
consider when preparing or selecting an
instrument for use.
One interpretation of this conceptualize
of validity has been the test publishers no
longer have a responsibility to provide
evidence of validity. It is one thing to
collect information from people. We do this
all the time (names, addresses, birth dates,
shoe sizes, car license numbers and so on).
But unless we can make inferences that
mean something from the information we
obtain, it is of little use.
THREE TYPES OF EVIDENCE OF
VALIDITY
1. CONTENT-RELATED EVIDENCE
OF VALIDITY
Refers to the content and format of the
instrument. The content and format must be
consistent with the definition of the variable
and the sample of the subjects to measured.
2. CRITERION-RELATED EVIDENCE
OF VALIDITY
Refers to the relationship between scores
obtain using the instrument and scores
obtain using or more other instruments or
measures (often called a criterion).
3. CONSTRUCT-RELATED
EVIDENCE OF VALIDITY
Refers to the nature of the psychological
construct or characteristic being measured
by the instrument.
The broadest of the three categories of
evidence for validity that we are
considering.
RELIABILITY
Refers to the consistency of the scores
obtained; how consistent they are for each
individual from one administration of an
instrument to another and from one set of
items to another.
Defined as the probability that a product,
system,or service will perform its intended
function adequately for a specified period of
time, or will operate in a defined
environment without failure.
TYPES OF RELIABILITY
1. TEST-RETEST RELIABILITY
Involves giving a group of people the
same test more than once over a set period
of time. In this assessment, the research
method and sample group stay the same, but
when you administer the method to the
groups changes. If the results of the tests are
similar each time you give it to the sample
group, That shows you research method is
likely reliable and not influenced by
external factors, like the sample group’s
mood or the day of the week
2. PARALLEL FORMS OF
RELIABILITY
When using parallel forms reliability to
assess the research, you may give the same
group of people multiple different types of
test to determine if the results stay the same
when using different research methods. the
theory behind this assessment is that
consistent results across research methods
ensured each method is looking for the
same information from the group and the
group is behaving similarly for each test.
3. INTER-RATER RELIABILITY
With inter-rater reliability testing, you
may have multiple people performing
assessments on a sample group and
comparing their results to
avoid influencing factors, like
an assessor’s personal bias,
mood or human error.If most
of the results from different
assessors are similar, it's likely
the research method is reliable
and can produce usable
research because the assessors
gathered the same data from
the group.
4.INTERNAL
CONSISTENCY
RELIABILITY
There are two typical ways
to cheque for internal
consistency reliability. One of
those techniques is split-half
reliability, a test by splitting a
research method, delivering
both halves separately to a
sample group and comparing
the results to ensure the
method can produce consistent
results. If the results are
consistent, then the results of
the research method are likely
reliable.
The other internal
consistency test checks for
average inter-item reliability.
With this assessment, you may
administer sample groups
multiple testing items, like
with parallel forms reliability
testing, and calculate the
correlation between the results
of each of the methods results.
With this information, you
calculate the average and use
the number to determine if the
results are reliable
DISFUNCTION BETWEEN
RELIABILITY AND
VALIDITY
Reliability and validity
always depends on the context
in which an instrument is used.
Depending on the context,
an instrument may or may not
yield reliable (consistent)
Scores.
If the data are unreliable,
they cannot lead to the valid or
legitimate inferences.
RELIABILITY COEFFICIENT
Reliability estimates provides
researchers with an idea of
how much variation to expect.
Express us a relationship
between scores of the same
individuals on the same
instrument at two different
times or on two parts of the
same instrument.
VALIDITY AND RELIABILITY IN
RESEARCH
Reliability and validity are concepts used to
evaluate the quality of research. They
indicate how well a method, technique or
test measures something. Reliability is
about consistency of a measure, and validity
is about the accuracy of a measure.
It’s important to consider reliability and
validity when you are creating your
research design, planning your methods,
and writing up your results, especially in
quantitative research.
RELIABILITY VS VALIDITY
What does it tell you?
Reliability. The extent to which the
results can be reproduced when the research
is repeated under the same conditions.
Validity. the extent to which the results
really measure what they are supposed to
measure
How is it assessed?
Reliability. By checking the consistency
of results across time, across different
observers, and across parts of the test itself.
Validity. By checking how well the
results correspond to establish theories and
other measures of the same concept.
How do they relate?
Reliability. A reliable measurement is
not always valid: the results might be, but
they are not necessarily correct.
Validity. A valid measurement is
generally reliable: if a test reproduces
accurate results, they should be
reproducible.
ENSURING VALIDITY
If you use scores or ratings to measure
variations in something (Such a
psychological traits, levels of ability or
physical properties), it’s important that you
results reflect the real variations as
accurately as possible. Validity should be
considered in the very earliest stages of
your research, when you decide how you
will collect your data.
Reliability should be considered
throughout the data collection process.
When you use a tool or technique to collect
data, it’s important that the results are
precise, Stable and reproducible.
RELIABILITY AND VALIDITY IN A
THESIS
Section. Literature review
Discuss. What have other researchers done
to devise and improve methods that are
reliable and valid?
Section. Methodology
Discuss. How did you plan your research to
ensure reliability and validity of the
measures used? This includes the chosen
sample set an size, sample preparation,
external conditions and measuring
techniques.
Section. Results
 Discuss. If you calculate reliability and 
validity, state these values alongside your
main results.
Section. Discussion
Discuss. This is the moment to talk about
how reliable and valid results actually were.
were they consistent, and did they reflect
through values? If not, why not?
Section. Conclusion
Discuss. Its reliability and validity were a
big problem for your findings, it may be
helpful to mention this here.
MODULE 10: INTERNAL VALIDITY
IN RESEARCH
A researcher conducting a study or experiment
Generally wants 2 things to happen. He wants the
study and the findings to be valid and reliable.
Reliability Versus Validity
Reliability.
- consistency of the test results
- measures whether the test gives consistent
results at its outcome..It means that the
results obtained from a study, test, or
research experiment Are consistent and the
same every time.
 Validity
Extent to which a test measures, and what
it claims to measure measures whether the
extent to which the test claims to measure is
achieved ... refers to how accurately a
method measures what it is intended to
measure.
There are two types as internal validity
and external validity
EXTERNAL VALIDITY
Refers to the extent to which results from
a study can be applied or generalised to
other situations, groups or events. Helps to
answer the question, can the research be
applied the real world? If your research is
applicable to other situations, external
validity is high..
INTERNAL VALIDITY
refers to the degree of confidence that the
casual relationship being tested is
trustworthy and not influenced by other
factors or variables...
It is the extent to which you can be
confident that A cause and effect
relationship established in a study cannot be
explained by other factors... When a study
has internal validity, it means that any
relationship observed between two or more
variables could be an ambiguous as to what
it means rather than being due to something
else. The something else maybe one or
more factors such as age, gender, attitude,
religious belief, or political beliefs or the
condition under which the study Is
conducted or the type of materials used.
 In other words, internal validity means
that observed differences on the dependent
variable are directly related on the
independent variable and Not due to some
other unintended variable.
Internal validity is related
to how many compounding
variables you have in your 
experiment. If you run an
experiment and avoid
compounding variables, your
internal validity is high. the
more compounding variables
you have, the lower your
internal validity.
How can we check If our
study has internal validity?
 The following are necessary
conditions :
* the independent variables
and the dependent variables
change together.
* The independent variable
precedes changes in the
dependant variable
* No confounding or
extraneous Factors can explain
the results of the study
 Importance Of Internal
Validity
1. Makes the researchers
findings credible. Having
internal validity would be free
from flaws traps and loopholes
that would otherwise made
the results obtained invalid
resulting in complete failure of
the research undertaken.
2. Proves the trustworthiness
of your research findings.
helps verify let the results
permits the researchers to trust 
and believe. Helps verify that
the results drawn by the
researchers are indeed correct.
 3. The trust and believe the
conclusions of a studies causal
relationship. The internal 
validity helps A state with a
high degree of confidence that
the independent variable is an
actually real reason for
changes observed in the 
dependant variable.
 Threats To Internal Validity
 1.Subject characteristics.
 This occurs when the
selection of subjects results in
differences between groups
that are related to the different
variables being studied.
 2.Mortality.
 It refers to the loss of
subjects.
 3. Location.
 Means that a particular
locations in which data are
collected, or in which an
intervention is carried out, may create
alternative explanations for results.
4.Instrumentation.
Refers to how instruments are used in
the study.Ways for instrumentation effect
may occur: first, what is refer to as
instrument Decay. The procedure for
administering the instrument changes over a
period of time. Another way is data
collectors characteristic. If this
characteristics are related to the variable
being investigated, they may offer an
alternative explanations for whatever
findings appear. The third is data
collector bias. there is also the possibility
that the data collector or
the scorers may unconsciously distort the
data in such a way to make certain
outcomes for the hypothesis to be more
likely.
5. Testing.
Testing participants with the same
measurements on a regular basis has an
impact on the results. Participants are more
likely to do better as they learn the test or
become more familiar with the testing
process. therefore repeated testing Could
significantly impact the outcomes.
6. History.
One or more unanticipated, And
unplanned for, events may occur during the
course of a study that can affect the
responses of subjects.
Events may directly or indirectly
influence the result of research through the
participants. A natural disaster or politics
could have an impact under participants if
they have experience natural disasters or
their political beliefs.
7. Maturation.
It means that time should be considered
an important variable in research. Your
participants become older and went through
a biological time change in the cause of
your research.
8. subject attitude.
It is how subjects view a study and
participate in it. This happens when
participants interact and observe one
another.
9. Regression.
There is a statistical tendency for people
who score extremely low or high on a test to
score closer to the middle the next time.
10. Implementation.
The experimental group may be treated
in unintended ways that give them an undue
advantage affecting results. It could happen
in either two ways. First is when different
individuals assigned to implement a
different methods and this individuals differ
in ways related to the outcome. The second
is when some individuals have personal bias
in favour of one method over the other.
How To Minimise Threats?
1. Standardise the conditions under
which the study occurs. such as the ways in
which the treatment is implemented and the
ways which the data are collected and so on.
This helps control a location,
instrumentation, subject attitude, and
implementation threats.
2. Obtain more information on the
subjects of the study. And use that
information in analysing and interpreting
results. This helps control for a better
subject characteristic threats and possibly
mortality threat as well as maturation and
regression threats.
3. obtain more information on the
details of the study. Where and when it
takes place Extraneous events that occur
and so on. this helps control for location,
instrumentation, history subject attitude,
and implementation threat.
4. choose an appropriate design. The
proper design can do much to control these
threads two internal validity.
MODULE 12: QUANTITATIVE
RESEARCH DESIGN
Quantitative research is a systematic
investigation of phenomena by gathering
quantifiable data and performing statistical,
mathematical, Or computational techniques.
Quantitative research collects information
from existing and potential customers using
sampling methods and sending out online
surveys online polls and questionnaires.
Types Of Quantitative Research Designs
Experimental. Experimental research
is one of the most powerful research
methodology that researchers can use of the
many types of research that might be used
the experiment is the best way to establish
costs an effect relationships among
variables yet experiments are not always
easy to conduct in this chapter we will show
you both the power off and the problems
involved in conducting experiments.
Purpose Of Experimental Research.
Experimental research, also called
experimentation, is research conducted
using a scientific approach using two or
more variables. The first variable is a
constant that you can manipulate to see the
differences caused in the second
variable.Most studies under quantitative
research methods are experimental in nature.
Experimental research helps you in
gathering the necessary data for you to
make better decisions about your proposed
hypothesis. the success of experimental
research usually confirms that the changes
observed in the variable understudy is
solely based on the manipulation of the
independent variable. in experimental
research we will be
encountering words random
assignment and random
selection.
What is the difference
between the two?
Random selection, or
random sampling, is a way of
selecting members of a
population for your study's
sample.
Random assignment is a
way of sorting the sample into
control and experimental
groups.
In short, from the
population we select samples
afterwards we assign the
selected samples into control
and treatment groups.
MANIPULATION OF
INDEPENDENT
VARIABLES
One of the essential
characteristics of all
experiments is that the
researcher can manipulate the
independent variables in his or
her study.It means that the
researcher deliberately and
directly determines what
forms the independent variable
will take and then which group
will get which form. To
understand, for example, if the
independent variable in study
is the amount of enthusiasm
and instruction and instructor
display, A researcher might
train 2 teachers To display
different amounts Of
enthusiasm as they teach their
classes. The independent
variable in an experimental
study may be established in
several ways.
1.One form of the variable
versus another. Example:A
study comparing the inquiry
method with the lecture
methods of instruction in
teaching chemistry.
2.Presence versus absence of
a particular form. Example:
a study comparing the use of
PowerPoint slides versus no
PowerPoint slides in teaching
statistics.
3. varying degrees of the
same form. Example: study
comparing the effects of
different specified amounts of
feature enthusiasm on student
attitudes toward mathematics.
GROUP DESIGNS IN
EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH:
Great designs control many of these
threats while poor designs control only a
few. the quality of an experiment depends
on how well the various threats internal
validity are controlled.
Poor Designs: Poor designs are weak and
have built in controls for threats to internal
validity. In addition to the independent
variable, there are a number of other
possible explanations for any outcomes that
occur. As a result, any researcher who uses
one of these design as difficult of the
effectiveness Of the independent variable.
The One-Shot Case Study Design.
a single group Is exposed to a treatment or
event and independent variable is
subsequently observed or measured in order
to assess the effect of the treatment.
2. The One-Group Pretest-Posttest.
a single group is measured or observed
not only after being exposed to a treatment
of some sort, but also before. This design is
better than the one shot case study in a way
that it is still weak. 9 uncontrolled or
threats to internal validity exist that might
also explain the results on the post tests.
They are history,maturation, instrument
Decay data collector, characteristics data
collector, bias testing, statistical regression,
attitude of subjects and lastly
implementation. Any or all of this may
influence the outcome of the study. The
researcher would not know if any
differences between the pretest and posttests
are due to the treatment or to one or more of
these threats.To remedy this, a comparison
group which does not receive the treatment
could be added. Then, the change in the
attitude occurs between the pre tests and the
posttests, the researcher has reason to
believe that it was caused by the treatment
X.
3. The Static-Group Comparison Design.
Two already existing, or intact, groups
are used. These are sometimes referred to us
static groups, hence the name for the design.
This design is sometimes called a
nonequivalent control group design. In
which the dash line indicates that the two
groups being compared are already formed.
That is the subjects are not randomly
assigned to the two groups
4. The Static-Group Pretest-Posttest.
It differs from the static group
comparison design only in that a pre test is
given to both groups. while this provides
better control of the subject Characteristic
threats, the amount of gain often depends on
initial performance.
True Experimental Designs:
The essential ingredient of a true
experimental design is that subjects are
randomly assigned to treatment groups. as
discussed earlier, random assignment is a
powerful techniques for controlling the
subject characteristics threat to internal
validity in which it is a major consideration
in Business Research.
1. The Randomised Posttest-Only
Control Group Design.
involves two groups, both of which are
formed by random assignment. One group
receives the experimental treatment while
the other does not, and then both groups are
post tested on the dependent variable.
2. The Randomised Pretest-Posttest
Control Group.
The randomised pretest posters control
group design differs from the randomised
post as only control group design solely in
the use of a pre test. Two groups of subjects
are use with both groups being measured or
observed twice. The first measurement
serves as the pre test .the second as posttest.
random assignment is used to form the
groups. The measurements or observations
are then collected at the same time for both
groups. The use of the pretest raises the
possibility of a pretest treatment interaction
threat since it may alert the members of the
experimental group. Thereby, causing them
to do better or more poorly on the posttest
than the members of the control group. A
trade off is that it provides a researcher with
a means of checking whether the two
groups are really similar That is whether
random assignment actually succeeded in
making the group’s equivalent. This is
ridiculously desirable if the number in each
group is small. If the Pretest shows that the
groups are not equivalent, the researcher
can seek to make them so by using one of
the matching designs.
3. The Randomised Solomon Four-
Group Design.
Is an attempt to eliminate the possible effect
of a pre test. It involves random assignment
of subjects to four groups, with two of the
groups being pretested and 2 not.
4. Random Assignment With Matching.
In an attempt to increase the likelihood that
the groups of subjects in an experiment will
be equivalent pairs of individuals maybe
match on Certain variables. the choice of
variables on which they match is based on
previous research, theory, or the experience
of the researcher.
Correlational.
A correlational Research is an
example of what is sometimes called as
associational research. In associational
research the relationships among two or
more variables are studied without any
attempt to influence them. A comparison
between two Entities is in variable.
Correlation research is conducted to
establish a relationship between two closely
neat entities and how one impacts the other
and what are the changes that are eventually
observed. This research method is carried
out to give value to naturally occurring
relationships and a minimum
of two different groups are
required to conduct this
quantitative research methods
successfully. Without
assuming various aspects a
relationship between two
groups or entities must be
established. Researchers used
this quantitative research
design to correlate two or
more variables using
mathematical analysis
methods, patterns
relationships and trends
between the variables are
completed as they exist in
their original setup. Impact of
one of these variables on the
other is observed along with
how it changes the
relationship between the two
variables. These researchers
tend to manipulate one at the
variables to attain the desired
results. There are two major
purposes of correlational
research.
Correlational research.
Correlational studies
investigate the possibility of
relationships between only
two variables, although
investigations of more than
two variables are common. A
correlational study describes
the degree to which two or
more quantitative variables are
related, and it does so by using
correlation coefficient.
Two Major Purposes Of
Correlational Research
Explanatory Studies. A collected within a fairly short time. Often,
major purpose of correlational
research is to clarify our
understanding of important
phenomena by identifying
relationships among variables.
Particularly in
developmental psychology
where experimental studies are
especially difficult to design
much has been learned by
analysing relationships among
second several variables.
Prediction Studies. A method used for collecting data from a
second purpose of
correlational research is
prediction: if a relationship of
sufficient magnitude exists
between two variables, it
becomes possible to predict a
score on one variable if a
score on the other variable is
known.
Predictor variable. Variable that is used
to make prediction.
Criterion variable. The variable about
which the prediction is made.
Basic Steps And Correlational Research.
1. Problem selection. The variables to be
included in a correlational study should be
based on a sound rationale growing out of
experience or very. The researchers should
have some reason for thinking certain
variables may be related as always, clarity
in defining variables will avoid many
problems later on. In general three major
types of problems are the focus of
correlational studies.
2. Sample. The sample for correlational
study as in any type of study should be
selected carefully and if possible randomly.
First step in selecting a sample of course is
to identify an appropriate population one
that is meaningful and from which data on
each of the variables of interest can be
collected. The minimum acceptable sample
size for correlational study is considered by
most researchers to be no less than 30. The
obtained from a sample smaller than 30
May give an inaccurate estimate of degree
of relationship. Samples larger than 30 are
much more likely to provide meaningful
results.
3. Instruments. The basic design is in a
correlational study is quite straight
forward.As you can see two or more scores
are obtained from each individual. In a
sample. One score for each variable of
interest. The pair of scores are then
correlated and the resulting correlation
coefficient indicates the degree of
relationship between the Variables.
4. Design and procedures
5.data collection. In an explanatory study,
all the data on both variables are usually be
the instruments used are administered in a
single session, or in two sessions one
immediately after the other. And remember
when we collect already the data, we should
always protect the privacy of our
respondents.
6. data analysis and interpretation. As
we have mentioned previously, when
variables are correlated, a correlation
coefficient is produced. This coefficient
Survey
Survey research. A survey is a research
predefined group of respondents to gain
information and insights into various topics
of interest. We can have multiple purposes,
and researchers can conduct it in many
ways depending on the methodology chosen
and the study's goal.
The major purpose of surveys is to
describe the characteristics of a population.
Survey research is often used to assess
thoughts, opinions and feelings. In essence
what researchers want to find out is how the
members of a population distribute
themselves on one or more Variables. as in
other types of research, the population as a
whole is rarely studied. instead of carefully
selected sample of respondents surveyed
and a description of the population is in
inferred from what is found about the
sample.
Types Of Surveys:
Cross-sectional surveys: collects
information from a sample that has been
drawn from a predetermined population.
Are observational surveys conducted in
situations where a researcher intends to
collect data from a sample of the target
population at a given point in time.
Researchers can evaluate various
variables that particular time. Data gathered
using this type of survey is from people
who depict similarity in all variables except
the variables which are considered for
research. Throughout the survey this one
variable will stay constant. When an entire
population is surveyed it is Called as census.
Longitudinal surveys: are also
observational surveys but unlike cross-
sectional surveys this type of surveys are
conducted across various time durations
observe a change in respondent behaviour
and thought processes. this time can be
days months years or even decades.
Information is collected at different points
in time in order to study changes overtime
period 3 longitudinal designs are commonly
employed in survey research:
Trend study. Different samples from a
population whose members may change are
surveyed at different points in time.
Cohort study. Samples a particular
population whose members do not change
over the course of the survey.
Panel study. On the other hand, the
researcher surveys the same sample of
individuals at different times during the
course of the survey.
MODE OF DATA COLLECTIO
1. DIRECT ADMINISTRATION TO A
GROUP. This method is used whenever I
researcher has access to all or most of the
respondents of a particular group in one
place. The instrument is administered to all
members of the group at the same time and
usually in the same place.
2. WEB-BASED SURVEYS. Or we call
as online surveys have technological
advances. Technological advances have
made this service on the Internet quite
common.
3. MAIL SURVEYS. when the data in a
survey are collected by mail, The
questionnaire is sent to each individual in
the sample with a request that it could be
completed and then returned by a given date.
4. TELEPHONE SURVEYS. The
researcher or his or her assistant on asks
questions of the respondents
over the telephone.
5.PERSONAL INTERVIEW.
personal interviews in
which the researcher or
training assistant conducts a
face to face interview with that
responded. as they sought this
method has many advantages.
It is probably the most
effective Survey method for
enlisting the cooperation of
the Respondents.
SURVEY QUESTIONS:
There are actually two types
of questions: close-ended and
open-ended.
Close-ended questions
are easy to use score and code
for analysis in a computer
because all subjects responds
the same options standardised
data are provided. They are
somewhat more difficult to
write then open and the
questions however they also
pose the possibility that an
individual's true response is
not present among the options
given. For this reason, the
researcher usually should
provide an “other” choice for
each item Where the subject in
right in a response that the
researcher may not have
anticipated.
Open-ended questions
allow for more individualised
responses but they are
sometimes difficult to interpret.
They are also often hard to
scores in so many different
kinds of responses are
received. Respondents may
not like them.
Open-ended question.
1. allows free form answers.
2. Questions include words
like what, how, where, when,
etc.
3. Can be used to collect
qualitative data
4. It takes longer to gather
information from respondents
because they need to elaborate
and give their reasons why.
5. Observations, jobs to be
done interviews, focus groups
Are common data collection
methods.
Close ended question.
1.Limited answer options
2. Common types of close
ended questions are
dichotomous Question that are
answered with yes or no and multiple
choice questions.
3. Can be used to collect quantitative data.
4. Completed in a shorter time frame
because the answers are straight and direct
to the point.
5. Surveys, polls, questionnaires are
common data collection methods.
NONRESPONSE
Those who do not respond well very
likely differ from the respondents on
answers to the survey questions period
should this be the case, any conclusions
drawn on the basis of the respondents reply
will be misleading and not a true indication
of the views of the population from which
the sample was drawn. Non response may
be due to lack of interest, forgetfulness,
unwillingness to be surveyed and so on.
Why is Nonresponse a problem?
The chief reason is that those who do not
respond will very likely differ from the
respondents and answers to the surveyed
questions. Should be this a case?
Conclusions drawn the basis of the
respondents replies will be misleading and
not a true indication of the views of the
population from which the sample was
drawn.
Advantages Of Quantitative Research
1.Collect reliable and accurate data. Data
is collected analysed and presented in
numbers the results of pain will be
extremely reliable Because numbers do not
lie.
2. Quick data collection. Quantitative
research is carried out with a group of
respondents who represent a population.
Survey or any other quantitative research
method is applied to this respondent and
involvement of statistics conducting and
analysing results is quite straight forward
and less time consuming.
3. Wider scope of data analysis. Due to
the statistics of this research method
provides a wide scope of data collection.
4. Eliminate Bias. This research methods
are first no scope for personal comments or
bias in a results. the results achieved Are
numerical and are thus fair in most cases.
DATA COLLECTION
METHODOLOGIES
PROBABILITY SAMPLING
1. Simple random sampling. As the name
indicates simple random sampling is
nothing but a random selection of elements
in a sample. This sampling technique is
implemented for the target population is
considerably large.
2. Stratified random sampling. In the
stratified random sampling method a large
population is divided into groups or which
we call as they strata and members of
Sample are chosen randomly from this
strata. The various segregated strata should
ideally not overlap one another.
3. Cluster sampling. a cluster sampling is
a probability sampling methods using which
the main segment is divided into clusters
usually using geographic and demographic
segmentation parameters.
4. Systematic sampling. technique were the
starting point of the sample is chosen
randomly and all the other elements are
chosen using a fixed interval. This interval
is calculated by dividing the population size
but by the target sample size.
NON-PROBABILITY SAMPLING
1.Convenience sampling. Here elements of
a sample or chosen only due to one prime
reason, their proximity to the researcher.
The samples are quick and easy to
implement as there is no other parameter of
selection involved.
2.Consecutive sampling. quite similar to
convenience Sampling, except for the fact
that researchers can choose a single element
or a group of samples and conduct research
consecutively over a significant. And then
perform the same process with other
samples.
3. Quota Sampling. These Researchers can
select elements using their knowledge of
target trades and personalities to form a
strata. Members Of various strata and then
be chosen to be a part of the sample as per
the research understanding.
4. Snowball sampling . It is conducted
with target audience in which are difficult to
contact and Get information it is popular in
cases where the target audience for research
is rare to put together.
MODULE 13: QUALITATIVE
RESEARCH
Qualitative research is a multi method
in focus, involving an interpretive,
naturalistic approach to its subject matter.
This means that qualitative researchers
study things in their natural settings,
attempting to make sense of, or interpret,
phenomena in terms of the meanings people
bring to them. -Denzin and Lincol (1994)
The researchers role is to gain a holistic or
integrated overview of the study including
the perceptions of the participants.
Comparison On The Conceptual And
Methodological Aspect Of Qualitative And
Quantitative Research
Qualitative:
Conceptual: concerned with
understanding human behaviour from the
informants perspective. Assumes a dynamic
and negotiated reality.
Methodological: data are collected
through participant observation and
interviews. Data are analysed by themes
from descriptions by informants. Data are
reported in the language of the informant.
Quantitative:
Conceptual: concerned
with discovering facts about
social phenomena. Assumes a
fixed and measurable reality.
Methodological: Data are
collected through measuring
things. Data are analysed
through numerical
comparisons and statistical
inferences. Data are reported
through statistical analysis.
Qualitative research is
used to understand how people
experience the world. while
there are many approaches to
qualitative research, they tend
to be flexible and focused on
retaining which meaning when
interpreting data.
Qualitative Research
Approaches
* case study: Studies a
specific bounded system
example a person or institution
* Ethnography: explores the
nature of a specific social
phenomenon often using a
small number of cases.
*Ethnomethodology:
investigates people’s everyday
procedures for creating, and
managing a sense of objective
reality.
* Phenomenology: explores
how peoples taken for granted
world is experienced and how
structures of consciousness
apprehend the world.
* grounded theory: uses the
interplay between analysis and
data collection to produce
theory.
* Participatory action
research: implies an effort on
the part of people to
understand the role of
knowledge as a significant
instrument of power and
control.
* Narrative analysis: the
analysis of a chronological
little story, exploring how
various elements are
sequenced.
* Cultural studies: the study
of a complex web of social
customs, values and
expectations that affects our
ways of working.
* Gender studies: explores
the process of construction
and differentiation of gender
and particularly gender
Inequalities.
The Results of qualitative strategies
provide a deep understanding of how people
perceive their social realities and in
consequence how they act within the social
world. A researcher has several methods
for collecting data ranging from interview
to direct observation to the analysis of
artifacts documents and cultural records to
the use of visual materials or personal
experience very good
5 Methods In Qualitative Data Collection
1. Interview. These are different from
questionnaires as they involve social
interaction. It may be structured,
unstructured or focus group interviews.
Useful for follow up, probing questions.
Researchers can ask different types of
questions which in turn generate different
types of data. So interviews differ from
questionnaires innocence that researchers
need need training in how to interview
which is costly.
2. Observation. Data collected in natural
field settings. Can be overt or covert. Overt
means the participants know that they are
studied. While convert or undisclosed
observation so the researcher keeps their
keeps his real identity, a secret from the
research subjects acting as a genuine
member of the group. Can involve
participation by the researcher in the setting
or event or non participation.
So observation or watching what people do
would seem to be an obvious method of
carrying out research.
3. Survey. Distributing open-ended
questions to produce long form written or
typed answers. Surveys provide a high level
of general capability and representing a
large population. Ab road range of data can
be collected example attitude, opinions,
believe, values, behaviour.
4. using visual sources. It can include
photographs, film, audio or video
recordings, et cetera. Good for documenting
peoples lifestyles, living and working
conditions. Subjects behaviour may change
in front of the camera.
5. unobtrusive measures. Includes
documents such as reports, article’s,
business plans, contract, websites, and other
non reactive data.
Steps in Qualitative Data Analysis
1. Prepare and organise your data. So this
may mean transcribing interviews or typing
up field notes.
2. Review and explore your data. It means
that you should examine the data for
patterns are repeated ideas that emerged.
3. Develop a data coding system.
4. Assign codes to the data. Based on your
initial ideas you should establish a set of
codes that you can apply to categorise your
data.So the first step is to assign codes to
the data so for example in qualitative survey
analysis this may mean going to each
participants responses and tagging them
with codes in a spreadsheet so as you go
through your data you can create new codes
to add their system if necessary.
5. Identify recurring themes. So this means
it should link codes together into a cohesive
Over arcing themes.
Approaches to qualitative data analysis
1. Content analysis: Describe and
categorised common words, phrases come
and ideas in qualitative data. For an
example a market research shirt could
perform content analysis to find out what
kind of language is used in descriptions of a
therapeutic application.
2. thematic analysis: to identify and
interpret patterns and themes in a qualitative
data.Example of it of this is that a
psychologist could apply thematic analysis
to travel bloods to explore how tourism
shapes self identity.
3. Textual analysis: Examine the content,
structure common design of texts. So our
keyword here is the text. so an example of
this is that a media researcher could use
textual analysis to understand how news
coverage of celebrities has changed in the
past decade.
4. Discourse Analysis: Buddy
communication at how language is used to
achieve effects in specific contexts.
Example is that a political scientist could
use discourse analysis to study help
politicians generally trust in election
campaigns.
Sampling Strategies For Qualitative
Research 3 broad approaches:
1. theoretical sampling. The process of
data collection for generating theory. The
researcher jointly collects, codes come and
analyses data and decides what data to
collect next and where to find them, in order
to develop his or her theory as it emerges. It
is an ongoing process rather than a distinct
and single stage.
2. convenience sampling. Simply includes
the individuals who happen to be most
accessible to the researcher. This is an easy
And inexpensive way to gather initial data.
May result in poor quality data and lacks
intellectual credibility.
3. purposive sampling. Also known as
judgement sampling. It involves the
researcher using their expertise to select a
sample that is most useful to the purposes of
the research period research questions
provide guidelines as to what categories of
people or whatever the unit of analysis,
needed to be the focus of attention and
therefore sampled.
Advantages Of Qualitative Research
1. Flexibility. So the data collection and
analysis process can be adapted as new
ideas or patterns emerged. They are not
rigidly decided beforehand.
2. Natural settings. Data the collection of
course in real world contexts
or in naturalistic ways.
3. meaningful insights. So
detailed descriptions of
peoples experiences feelings
and perceptions can be used in
designing testing or improving
systems or products.
4. generation of new ideas.
So open ended responses
mean that researchers can
uncover novel problems or
opportunities that they
wouldn’t have thought of
Disadvantages Of
Qualitative Research
1. Unreliability. Which means
that the real world setting
often makes qualitative researc
unreliable because of
uncontrolled factors that affect
the data.
2. Subjectivity. Due to the
researchers primary role in
analysing and interpreting data,
qualitative research cannot be
replicated. The researcher
decides what is important and
what is irrelevant in data
analysis so interpretations of
the same Data can vary greatly.
3. Limited Generalisability.
So small samples are often
used to gather detailed data
about specific contexts despite
rigorous analysis procedures it
is difficult to draw
generalizable conclusions
because the data may be
biased and unrepresentative of
the wider population.
4. Labour intensive. The
software can be used to
manage and records large
amounts of tax data analysis
often has to be checked or
performed manually.
MODULE 14: MIXED
METHOD RESEARCH
DESIGN
► Qualitative research is a
method of inquiry that
develops understanding on
human and social sciences, to
find the way people think and
feel.
► Quantitative research is a
research method that is used to
generate numerical data and
hard facts, by employing
statistical, logical and
mathematical technique.
When we say qualitative,
we are focusing on the data
that cannot be explained or cannot be
encoded in numbers. Meanwhile, this
focuses on numerical data or statistical data
that the researchers need to get.
Definition of Mixed Methods Research
It is a research approach whereby
researchers collect and analyse both
quantitative and qualitative data within the
same study. In other words, this is the
combination of the two research methods.
Collecting both quantitative and
qualitative data
Quantitative Data:
 Instruments
 Checklists
 Records
Qualitative Data:
1. Interviews
2. Observations
3. Documents
4. Audio-visual materials
Quantitative and Qualitative Data
Analysis
Quantitative Analysis:
 Uses statistical analysis
 For description
 For comparing groups
 For relating variables
Qualitative Analysis:
 Uses text and images
 For coding
 For theme development
 For relating themes
Why do we used mixed method in a
Research?
1. To compare results from quantitative and
qualitative research
2. To use qualitative research to help
explain quantitative findings
3. To explore using qualitative research and
then to generalize findings to a large
population using quantitative research
4. To develop an instrument because none
are available or useful
5. To augment an experiment with
qualitative data
Other reasons for using mixed method:
 The insufficient argument - either
quantitative or qualitative may
insufficient by itself
 Multiple angles argument -
quantitative and qualitative approache
provide different "pictures" (The
quantitative is lacking for proving the
data that we need, therefore, we need
some qualitative data to have these
concrete information that we need or
data that we need for our research.
 The more-evidence-the-better
argument - combined quantitative an
qualitative provides more evidence
 Community of practice argument -
mixed methods may be the preferred
approach within a scholarly
community
 Fager-to-learn argument - it is the
latest methodology
 itive" argument - it mirrors "real life"
Sequential Designs
Explanatory Design
Exploratory Design
Sequential bedded Design
Concurrent Triangulation Design Visual
Model
Methodological issues
Concurrent Designs
 Use strategies to explore contradictory
findings
 Use parallel questions
 Select sub-sample of quantitative for
qualitative
 Be sensitive to bias from one data
collection to the other
Sequential designs
 In Explanatory Design, select qual
sub-sample from quan sample
 In Explanatory Design, consider
alternatives for followup qual
sampling
 In Exploratory Design, samples can
differ
 In Exploratory Instrument Design,
consider qual data analysis approaches
for developing instrument
Qualitative research questions
Qualitative central question
 Always begin with "what" or "how"
 Focus on single phenomenon
 Use exploratory verbs (discover,
understand, explore)
 Non-directional language
 A general question (allowing
participants' perspectives to emerge)
Quantitative research questions
 can be hypotheses or questions
 state variables - independent,
dependent, mediating, covariates
 develop from theory
 use distinct measures for independent
and dependent variables
 order variables from independent to
dependent
MODULE 15: ACTION RESEARCH
What is action research?
Action research is a philosophy and
methodology of research generally applied
in the social sciences. It seeks
transformative change through the
simultaneous process of taking action and
doing research, which are linked together by
critical reflection.
Four Stages Of Conducting Alternative
Action Research
1. Planning stage. An improvement of
practise.
a. Identifying the topic
b. gathering information
c. Reviewing related literature
d. developing a research instruments or techniques for collecting data.
plan 4. Developing a research plan.
2. Action stage. Act to in a traditional educational research study,
implement the plan. development of a research design and plan
a.collecting data for collecting data is known as the research
b. analysing data methodology. inherent in designing an
3. Developing stage period to action research study are several specific
monitor and evaluate the decisions that must be made during this step
action effects. in the action research process.
a. developing an 5. Implanting the plan and collecting data.
action plan The next step in the process of
4. Reflecting stage. Outcomes conducting action research is the
of the action. determination of the specific data to be
a. sharing and collected on how to play them actually
communicating results collect them. In other words, decisions must
b. Reflecting on the be made about instruments or other data
process collection techniques that will be used in the
Nine Steps In Conducting study.
An Action Research Study 6. Analysing the data.
1. identifying and limiting Analysis of data occurs primarily at two
the topic. points during the process of a research study.
the first step in any In traditional quantitative research studies,
research study is deciding data analysis occurs following the following
exactly what to study period complexion of all data collection. In
since personal and traditional qualitative research studies, data
professional experiences are analysis typically begins during data
so central to teacher initiated collection, continues throughout the
action research, possible remainder of the process of collecting data
topics for investigation might and is completed.
be anything about which you 7. Developing an action plan.
are curious, that piques your Once the data has been analysed and the
interest or that intrigues you in results of the analysis interpreted, the next
anyway. These Goals must be step in the action research processes the
kept In mind when initially development of an action plan. This is
identifying and later really the ultimate goal of any research
narrowing the focus of the action study. The action plan is essentially a
topic. propose strategy for implementing the
2. Gathering information. results of your action research project.
After identifying and 8. Sharing and communicating the results.
limiting the topic come on the Unimportant of any research study is the
step is preliminary information reporting or sharing of results with others in
gathering, a process that meals the educational community at large. Action
refers to reconnaissance. research should be named differently.
Information gathering can be Simply because you have undertaken this
as simple taking with other project in order to help you solve a problem
teachers, counsellors, or that is more local and perhaps more
administrators in your school personal in nature does not mean that no
or district in order to gauge one else will be interested in the results that
Their perceptions of your you have obtained.
proposed research problem 9. Reflecting on the process.
and perhaps to query them for Action research about critical
ideas. examination of owns own practise. in order
3. Reviewing the related for someone to critically examine her or his
literature. practise, that person must engage in
Related literature can be systematic reflection for practise. Reflection,
loosely defined as any existing is something that must be done at the end of
source of information that can a particular action cycle. It is a crucial step
shed light on the topic in the process, since this is where the
selected for investigation. This teacher researcher reviews what has been
related information can done and determines its effectiveness and
provide guidance for defining decisions about the possible revisions for
or limiting the problem, for future implementations of the project.
developing appropriate
research design, or for
selecting legitimate
 MODULE 16: THEORETICAL AND
CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK
Theoretical framework
Theory
A concept formulated to explain, predict
and understand a phenomena.
Framework
Skeleton, basic structure or frame of
reference design to support something.
In research, theories that serve as the
building blocks or skeleton for the
foundation and basis of the study. It also
strengthens the study.
What is theoretical framework?
It is the blueprint or guide for a
research(Grant&Osanloo, 2014). It is
borrowed by the researcher to build his or
her own house.
It serves us the foundation upon which
our research is constructed.
The researcher sites and discusses related
theories that serve as the foundation of the
variables and their relationship, to make the
study more scientific and understandable to
readers.
Examples Of Theoretical Framework;
1. Transformation of theory
2.Culture theory
3. cognitive theory
4.gender theory
5.behavioural theory
6/developmental theory
7.human environment relations theory
8.Culture ecology theory
9. culture determinism theory
Examples Of Theoretical Framework
That Can Be Anchored In Business
Research:
1.systems theory
2.principles of administrative management
3. bureaucratic management
4. scientific management
5. Theories X and Y
6.Human relations theory
7. classical management
8. contingency management
How To Construct A Theoretical
Framework?
The Theory must reflect the
understanding of the researcher regarding
the study and must direct the study (simon
& Goes, 2011).
The selection of the theoretical
framework requires a thorough
understanding of the problem, purpose,
significance and research questions of the
study (Grant & Osanloo, 2014).
Consider the guiding principles of the
study and situate the problem in relation to
a theoretical context.
The research questions of the study
must entail noticeable aspects of the
theoretical framework and must agree with
the assertions promulgated by the theorists
of the selected theory (Maxwell, 2004).
Prompts
The study is anchored on...
The study is supported by
the theory of...
the study is founded on the theory of...
the theoretical underpinning
of this study is...
How to construct a
theoretical framework?
Using Grant and Osanloo
(2014) Cheque list to identify
the suitable theoretical
framework for a study:
1.What discipline will the theory
be applied to?
2.Does the theory agree with the
methodology plan for the study?
3.Is the theory to be selected well
developed with many theoretical
constructs?
4. Have specific concepts or
theoretical principles been
selected to meet the objectives of
the study?
5. Is the problem of the study, the
purpose and importance of the
study correlates with the
theoretical framework?
6.Can the theory be used hand in
hand with the research questions
for the study?
7. Does the theoretical framework
informed the literature review?
8.Does the data analysis plan
agrees with the selected
theoretical framework?
9. This is the theoretical
framework undergirds the
conclusions and recommendations
based on the data analysis?
What Is Conceptual
Framework?
The conceptual
framework is a structure
which the researcher believes
could best explain the natural
progression of the
phenomenon to be studied
(Camp, 2001).
It offers a logical structure
of connected concepts that
help provide a picture or
visual display of how ideas in
a study relate to one another
(Grant & Osanloo, 2014).
It assists the researcher to
specify and define the
concepts within the problem
of the study.
 It represents an
integrated way of looking
at a problem under study
(Liehr & Smith, 1999).
 It is seen as an outline of
courses of action or
preferred approach to a
thought to be carried out
in a research study
(Dixon, Gulliver & (Liehr & Smith, 1999).
Gibbon, 2001).
 Miles and Huberman
(1994, p.18) opine that
conceptual frameworks
can be 'graphical or in a
narrative form showing the key
variables or constructs to be studied
and the presumed relationships
between them'.
Importance of Conceptual Framework in
Research
► It aids the researcher to identify and
construct his/her worldview and approach to
the topic of study (Grant & Osanloo, 2014).
► It brings together related concepts to
explain or predict a given event or give a
detailed understanding of the research
problem and its asserted solution (Liehr &
Smith, 1999).
► It accentuates the reasons why a research
topic is worth studying, the assumptions of
a researcher, the scholars s/he agrees with
and disagrees with and how s/he
conceptually grounds his/her approach
(Evans, 2007)
How To Construct a Conceptual
Framework
► Mostly, diagrams are created to clearly
define the constructs or variables of the
research topic and their relationships are
shown by the use of arrows.
► Researchers are at liberty to adopt
existing frameworks, but have to modify it
to suit the nature of the context of their
research as well as the nature of their
research questions (Fisher, 2007).There are
many frameworks we can use or we can get
an idea to. But, let us be clear enough if
what are those or what are the purpose of
the study. Is it inine with our research
studies
► Fisher adds that a good conceptual
framework must also be expressed in
writing for it to be understood clearly.
The arrow tells us the relationship between
the independent and dependent variables.
Differences Between Theoretical Framewor
and Conceptual Framework
▸ Theoretical framework is curled from
an existing theory or theories in the
literature that has already been tested and
validated by others and is considered as an
acceptable theory in the scholarly literature
(Grant & Osanloo, 2014).
► Conceptual framework is the
researcher's understanding of how the
research problem will be explored, the
specific direction the research will have to
take, and the relationship between the
different variables in the study.
► While a whole theory may serve as one's
theoretical framework, a conceptual
framework is carefully put together in the
form of a conceptual model and
immediately applied to a particular study
►Theoretical framework is derived from a
theory while conceptual framework is
derived from concepts.