Modern Physics

But mvr is the angular momentum of the electron as a particle. Thus the wave mechanical
pictures leads naturally to Bohr’s postulates that the angular momentum is equal to an integer
multiple of h/2π

Radioactivity
Pauli's exclusion principle: This principle stated as,

“No two electrons in a single atom can have the same set of quantum numbers (n, l, ml, ms ).”

This principle implies that each electron in an atom must have a different set of quantum
numbers n, l, ml, ms. If two electrons have exactly identical set of quantum numbers , then one of
those electrons excluded from entering in to the constitution of this atom. Hence the name
exclusion principle.

Radioactivity:

French scientist Henry Becquerel discovered radioactivity in 1896. The spontaneous emission of
radioactive rays from radioactive element is called radioactivity. Due to radioactivity the nucleus of the
element transformed into the nucleus of a new element so the radioactivity is a nuclear phenomenon. The
SI unit of radioactivity is Becquerel (Bq).

Earlier a unit named Curie (Ci) was used for radioactivity.

Radioactivity is two types of kind.

1) Natural
2) Artificial
Natural radioactivity: The spontaneous emission of radiations from unstable nuclei is known as natural
radioactivity.

Artificial radioactivity: Not all nuclear reactions are spontaneous. These reactions occur when stable
isotopes are bombarded with particles such as neutrons. This method of inducing a nuclear reaction to
proceed is termed artificial radioactivity.

Radioactive decay Law:

“The rate of radioactive decay of radioactive atoms is directly proportional to the number of intact atoms
present at that time”.

Let at the beginning of the counting time when the number of atoms of a radioactive material is
. Now if number of atoms decay during infinitesimal time then the rate of decay of atom is .

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Since with the passage of time the number of atoms of the material is decreasing so the negative sign has
been used. is called the radioactive decay constant of that material.

Radioactive exponential law:

If the decay constant of a radioactive substance is and the number of intact atoms at time

At the beginning at and .

Now
∫ ∫

Half-life: The time required for one half of the radioactive substance to decay is called half-life of that
radioactive substance. The time during which the number number of atoms of a radioactive substance
decays into numbers is the half life.

We know,

When ⁄ then

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[ ]

Problem 01: How long does it take for 60 percent of a sample of Radon to decay, where the half-life of
Radon is 3.82 days?
Solution: given,

We know,

And,

( )

Problem 02: The half-life of a radioactive substance is 30 days. Calculate

1) The radioactive decay constant,

2) The time taken for of the original number of atoms to disintegrate and

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3) The time for of the original number of atoms to remain unchanged.

Solution:
1) Given,
Now,

2) Here, * +

Now,

3) Remains as homework.

Mean life:

“The some of the life of each atom of a radioactive substance divided by the number of atoms at the
beginning is called radioactivity mean life”

We can write
∫

We knew,

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Now from equation we have,

( )
∫

Basic properties of a Nucleus

Some of the basic properties of a nucleus are given below:
(i) The nucleus is made up of protons and neutrons, collectively known as nucleons.
(ii) Nucleons interact with one another with a strong short range force known as nuclear force.
(iii) All nuclei are positively charged (+1.6×10-19 C).
(iv) No electron can exist inside the nucleus.
(v) All nuclei have approximately spherical symmetry structure.
(vi) The atomic binding energy is quite small compared to the nuclear binding energy.
(vii) More than 99% mass of an atom is concentrated in the nucleus.
(viii) The radius of nucleus is of order 10-13 cm is smaller than atom (10-8 cm).

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