Engineering Experimentation

Lecture Notes

7. Measuring Pressure, Temperature, and Humidity .............................................................................. 1

7.1. Bourdon Gage ............................................................................................................................... 1
7.2. Dead-Weight Tester ..................................................................................................................... 2
7.3. Pressure Transducers ................................................................................................................... 3
7.4. Measuring a Vacuum .................................................................................................................... 6
7.5. MEASURING TEMPERATURE ....................................................................................................... 9
7.5.1. Thermocouples ...................................................................................................................... 9
7.5.2 Resistance-Temperature Detectors...................................................................................... 13
7.5.3 Thermistor and Integrated-Circuit Temperature Sensors .................................................... 14
7.5.4 Mechanical Temperature-Sensing Devices .......................................................................... 15
7.5.5 Radiation Thermometers (Pyrometers) ............................................................................... 17
7.5.6 Common Temperature-Measurement Errors ...................................................................... 17
7.6. MEASURING HUMIDITY .............................................................................................................. 18
7.6.1 Hygrometric Devices............................................................................................................. 18
7.6.2 Dew-Point Devices................................................................................................................ 18
7.6.3 Psychrometric Devices ......................................................................................................... 19
7.7 FIBER-OPTIC DEVICES .................................................................................................................. 19
7.7.1 Optical Fiber ......................................................................................................................... 20

7. Measuring Pressure, Temperature, and Humidity

7.1. Bourdon Gage

A very common pressure-measuring device, the Bourdon gage, is shown in Figure 7.1. It is a
simple device for obtaining rapid readings of fluid pressures. The basic principle of operation
is that a curved, flattened tube (Bourdon tube) will attempt to straighten out when subjected
to internal pressure. The end of the tube is connected with a linkage to a rotary dial indicator.
Relatively inexpensive Bourdon gages can be obtained to measure a wide range of pressures
from low vacuums up to 1500 atmospheres or more. The less expensive devices are not

1
normally highly accurate - uncertainties of up to 5 % of full scale are common. The accuracy
of the more expensive gages can be quite good - on the order of 0.5 % of full scale.
Bourdon tubes are sometimes used as remote pressure-sensing devices. The deflection of the
tube is sensed with an LVDT or potentiometer, which transmits an electrical signal to the data-
acquisition location.

Fig 7.1 Bourdon Gauge

7.2. Dead-Weight Tester

The dead-weight tester, shown schematically in Figure 7.2, is a device that is often used to
calibrate other pressure-measuring devices at moderate to high pressures. The pressure-
measuring device to be calibrated senses the pressure of oil contained in a chamber. A piston-
cylinder arrangement is attached to the top of the chamber, and weights can be placed on the
piston. A separate screw and piston can be used to adjust the volume of the chamber so that
the weighted piston is in the middle of its possible movement range. The fluid pressure is then
the weight of the piston-weight assembly divided by the piston area. The device is very
accurate since the piston area and the value of the weight can be determined very accurately.
There will be a slight clearance between the piston and the cylinder, and in some cases,
corrections should be made for the fluid flowing in this gap. Some dead-weight testers use
gases such as nitrogen as the working fluid; hence, they are cleaner to operate and avoid oil
contamination of the tested device.

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 Fig 7.2 Dead weight tester

7.3. Pressure Transducers

A very common and relatively inexpensive device used to measure fluid pressure is the
diaphragm strain-gage pressure transducer, sketched in Figure 7.3. The test pressure is
applied to one side of the diaphragm, a reference pressure to the other side, and the
deflection of the diaphragm is sensed with strain gages. In the most common design, the
reference pressure is atmospheric, so the transducer measures gage pressure. In some cases,
the reference side of the transducer is sealed and evacuated so that the transducer measures
absolute pressure. Finally, both sides of the transducer can be connected to different test
pressures so that the measurement is of differential pressure. Transducers for these three
applications have slightly different construction details.

Fig 7.3
In the past, the diaphragm was usually made of metal, and foil strain gages were used. More
recently, it has become common to make the diaphragm of a semiconductor material (usually

3
silicon) with semiconductor strain gages formed into the diaphragm. This is a less expensive
construction technique, and since semiconductor gages have high gage factors, the sensitivity
is improved. The silicon is subject to corrosion by some fluids, and as a result it is common to
include an additional corrosion resistant metal diaphragm with the regions between the two
diaphragms filled with a fluid. Normally, the Wheatstone-bridge signal conditioner is built into
the transducer (all branches of the bridge are active gages), and the strain gages are connected
to give temperature compensation, as discussed before. Most strain-gage pressure
transducers produce a DC output in the millivolt range, but some include internal amplifiers
and have outputs in the range 0 to 5 or 0 to 10 V. The higher-voltage output units are less
susceptible to environmental electrical noise.
Pressures can also be sensed with Linear Variable Differential Transformer (LVDT) devices.
Figure 7.4 shows an arrangement with a flexible chamber called a capsule and an LVDT to
sense the displacement.

Fig 7.4
This design is more expensive than those using strain-gage sensors but may be more durable
in an application requiring a long lifetime. Many heavy-duty pressure transducers used in the
process control industry use LVDT sensors. As with LVDTs, the output is a DC voltage with a
range on the order of 0 to 5 or 0 to 10 V. In the process industries, the voltage output will
usually be converted to a 4- to 20-mA current for signal transmission.
Capacitive sensors are sometimes used in pressure transducers and are particularly useful for
very low pressures (as low as 0.1 Pa) since capacitive sensors can detect extremely small
deflections. A sketch of a capacitance pressure transducer is shown in Figure 7.5.

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 Fig. 7.5 Capacitive pressure transducer

Measuring pressures that are varying rapidly in time presents a number of technical problems.
The fluid and the diaphragm (or other displacing element) form a second-order dynamic
system. If the diaphragm (or other displacing element) is very flexible, the natural frequency
will be low and the transducer output will be misleading for high-frequency pressure
variations. Transducers used for high-frequency pressure measurements, such as the
combustion process in an internal combustion engine, usually use a piezoelectric sensing
element, as discussed in previous Chapter.
A schematic of a piezoelectric transducer is shown in Figure 7.6 These transducers generally
use transverse-effect piezoelectric sensing elements. The piezoelectric material is very stiff,
and the transducers have a high natural frequency in many applications.

Fig. 7.6
Piezoelectric pressure transducers can have natural frequencies up to 150 kHz and are usable
up to about 30 kHz. The geometry of piezoelectric transducers is different from the

5
transducers discussed earlier - the diaphragm is of the flush-mounted type, and when the
transducer is installed, it comes into direct contact with the fluid in the pipe or chamber. The
reasons for this are twofold. If a cavity were included as in the other transducers, it might
significantly alter the measurand, due to loading. Furthermore, the natural frequency would
be reduced and the ability to respond to transients would be impaired. Sensing lines affect
natural frequency, making the determination of natural frequency application dependent.
Other types of pressure transducers are also available with flush mounting, but this is often
for use in dirty fluids, in which the cavity might become plugged or difficult to clean.

7.4. Measuring a Vacuum

The need to measure very low absolute pressures (vacuums) exists both in the laboratory and
in manufacturing. The freeze-drying of food is performed in a vacuum environment, and many
operations in the manufacture of computer chips are completed in a vacuum. Vacuum
absolute pressures are measured in units of torr. This unit is defined as 1/760 of the standard
atmosphere. Since the standard atmosphere is 760 mm of mercury, 1 torr is 1 mmHg. Norton
(1982) gives the following definitions for ranges of vacuum pressures:

Low vacuum 760 to 25 torr

Medium vacuum 25 to 10-3 torr
High vacuum 10-3 to 10-6 torr
Very high vacuum 10-6 to 10-9 torr
Ultrahigh vacuum Below 10-9 torr

Pressure-measuring devices described previously can be used for low and medium vacuum
measurement. Manometers, Bourdon gages, and similar gages that use a bellows instead of a
bourdon tube and capacitive diaphragm transducers can measure vacuums to 10-3 torr.
Specialized capacitive diaphragm transducers can measure vacuums as low as 10-5 torr
[Norton (1982)]. In this section, three specialized vacuum-measuring devices are discussed:
the McLeod gage, thermal-conductivity gages, and ionization gages. The first is a mechanical
gage useful for calibration, and the last two provide electrical outputs.
McLeod Gage: The principle of operation is to compress a large volume of lowpressure gas
into a much smaller volume and then measure that pressure. A sketch of one variation of
McLeod gage is shown in Figure 7.7. Initially, the gage is connected to the vacuum source with
the mercury below point A, as shown in Figure 7.7 (a). The large chamber with volume V is
filled entirely with low-pressure gas. Next, the plunger is pushed downward until the mercury
rises to level h2 in capillary tube 2 Figure 7.7 (b)]. In the mode of operation shown here, the
level of h2 is the same as the top of capillary tube 1. The gas originally contained in volume V
has been compressed into the capillary tube 1 and has a volume and pressure given by

6
where a is the cross-sectional area of the capillary tubes. Since we will determine the pressure
in torr, the units of the h's are mmHg. In the range that McLeod gages are used, the vacuum
pressure, Pvac, is usually negligible compared with (h2 – h1).

Fig 7.7
The ideal gas law relates the conditions before and after compression:

(7.6)
If the system comes into thermal equilibrium after compression, the initial and final
temperatures will be the same. Combining Eqs. (7.4) through (7.6), we obtain

(7.7)
That is, the sensed pressure is equal to the height difference squared times a constant k. The
scale can be marked to read directly in units of torr. McLeod gages are available to measure
vacuums in the range 10-3 to 10-6 torr.
They must only be used with dry gases that will not condense when compressed into the
capillary tube. McLeod gages are somewhat inconvenient to use and are useful primarily for
calibrating other vacuum-measuring devices.

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Thermal-Conductivity Vacuum Sensors These devices are based on the fact that the thermal
conductivity of gases at low pressures is a function of the pressure.
Although these devices do not normally sense vacuums as low as the McLeod gage, they
provide an electrical output and are simple to use. A thermal-conductivity sensor called a
Pirani gage is sketched in Figure 7.8(a). A heated filament is located at the center of a chamber
connected to the vacuum source. The heat transfer from the filament to the wall is given by

(7.8)
where Tf is the filament temperature, Tw is the chamber wall temperature, and C is a
coefficient that depends on the gas in the chamber, the wall temperature, the geometry of
the chamber, and the filament surface area. The vacuum pressure must be low enough for the
mean free path of the gas to be large compared to the dimensions of the chamber. Details on
the theoretical basis for Eq. (7.8) are given in Van Atta (1965).

Fig 7.8. Pirani thermal-conductivity vacuum gage: (a) sensing chamber; (b) bridge circuit.
One method of using a Pirani gage is shown in Figure 7.8(b), where it is placed into a
Wheatstone bridge. As the pressure decreases, the temperature difference between the
filament and the wall will increase, increasing the resistance of the filament. The output of the
bridge, which is a function of the sensor resistance, is thus a measure of the gas pressure.
Since the heat transfer is also a function of the ambient temperature, a sealed reference
chamber is included in the bridge for compensation. There are several designs of thermal-
conductivity gages that are usable to pressures as low as 10-3 torr.
Ionization Vacuum Gages This sensor is based on the principle that as energetic electrons pass
through a gas, they will ionize some of the gas molecules. The number of ions generated
depends on the density of the gas and hence its pressure. An ionization gage is shown
schematically in Figure 7.9. The sensor physically resembles the vacuum tube known as a
triode, although the mode of operation is different. The cathode is a heated filament, and the
circuit creates an electron current between the cathode and the grid. The electrons will ionize
some of the gas molecules, creating positive ions and more electrons. The electrons will be
attracted to the grid but the ions will be attracted to the plate, which is maintained at a
negative voltage (unlike the triode, where the plate is maintained at a positive Voltage). The

8
ion current and the plate current are measured separately. The pressure can then be obtained
from

(7.9)
where i+ is the plate (ion) current, I- is the grid (electron) current, and s is a constant for a given
circuit. Ionization gages cannot be used at pressures greater than 10 -3 torr since the filament
will deteriorate. However, they can measure pressures as low as 10-7 torr. A variation of the
gage described here, the Bayard-Alpert gage, can measure pressures as low as 10-12 torr.

Fig 7.9

7.5. MEASURING TEMPERATURE

Two traditional electric output devices for measuring temperature – thermocouples and
resistance temperature detectors (RIDs) - are still widely used, but a number of semiconductor
devices are finding applications at moderate temperatures. Traditional mechanical
measurement devices still have some applications. Noncontact devices called radiation
thermometers have traditionally been used for high temperatures but are now widely used
for lower temperatures also.

7.5.1. Thermocouples
If any two metals are connected together, as shown in Figure 7.10, a voltage is developed that
is a function of the temperature of the junction. This junction of two metals used as a
temperature sensor is called a thermocouple. The voltage is generated by a thermoelectric
phenomenon called the Seebeck effect (named after Thomas Seebeck who discovered it in
1821). It was later found that the Seebeck voltage is the sum of two voltage effects: the Peltier

9
effect, generated at the junction, and the Thompson effect, which results from the
temperature gradient in the wires. The general simplicity of thermocouples has led to their
very wide use as temperature-measuring sensors.

Fig 7.10
There are, however, a number of complications in their use:
1. The voltage measurement must be made with no current flow.
2. Connections to voltage-measuring devices result in additional junctions.
3. Voltage depends on the composition of metals used in the wires.
To be used for temperature measurement, there must be no current flow through the wires
and the junction. This is because current flow will not only result in resistive losses but will
also affect the thermoelectric voltages. Meeting this requirement is not a problem today since
electronic voltmeters and data-acquisition systems with very high input impedance are readily
available. Input impedance is usually greater than 1 MΩ, and the current draw is negligible. In
the very recent past, it was necessary to use delicate and expensive devices called balancing
potentiometers for the thermocouple voltage measuring function.
The second complication concerns the fact that there are actually three junctions shown in
Figure 7.10. Besides the sensing junction, there are two more junctions where the
thermocouple wires connect to the DVM. The voltage reading is thus a function of three
temperatures (the sensing junction and the junctions at the DVM terminals), two of which are
of no interest at all. The solution to this problem is shown in Figure 7.11(a) .
Two thermocouple junctions are used, the second being called a reference junction. The
reference junction is held at a fixed, known temperature, most commonly the temperature of
a mixture of pure water and pure water ice at 1 atm (0°C). Electronic devices are available that
electrically simulate an ice reference junction without the actual need for ice. There are still
two junctions at the DVM terminals, but each of these junctions consists of the same two
materials, and if the two terminals can be held at the same temperature, the terminal voltages
will cancel out. The two terminals can be held at the same temperature by placing them both
in the same thermally insulated box or by mechanically connecting them with a thermally
conducting but electrically insulating structure.
With the known reference junction temperature, the measured voltage is a unique function
of the materials of the thermocouple wires and the temperature of the sensing junction.
The circuit shown in Figure 7.11(b) is electrically equivalent to Figure 7.11(a) and will produce
the same voltage at the DVM.

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 Fig 7.11
Finally, the voltage generated depends strongly on the composition of the wires used to form
the thermocouple. This problem has been solved by restricting the materials used to construct
thermocouples. When wires and wire pairs are manufactured according to standards
established by the National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) (formerly called the
National Bureau of Standards), standard calibration curves can be used to determine the
temperature based on the measured voltage. Since the voltage output is generally a nonlinear
function of temperature, tables, graphs, or polynomial curve fits are required to interpret
voltage data. Table 7.1 lists common thermocouple pairs. Chromel is an alloy of nickel and
chromium, alumel is an alloy of nickel and aluminum, and constantan is an alloy of nickel and
copper. Each pair has been assigned a letter, used by all manufacturers, designating the type.
There is also a standard color for the lead-wire outer insulation and all the connectors for each
type. For example, the color for type K thermocouples is yellow. The final column lists the
approximate sensitivity of the pair in millivolts of output per Celsius degree of sensed
temperature.
Table 7.1

There are a number of factors that must be considered in selecting thermocouples for a given
application:
• Sensitivity (voltage change per degree temperature change)

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 • Linearity of output
• Stability and corrosion resistance
• Temperature range
• Cost
temperature sensors. In some cases several thermocouples are connected in series in a device
called a thermopile, as shown in Figure 7.12. When arranged in this manner, the Voltage
output to the display device is n times the Voltage of a single junction, where n is the number
of thermocouples in series. This increases the sensitivity of the system. In addition, it provides
a method to average several thermocouples, Which ace distributed in a spatial region.
Thermopiles are also used in some applications as a Power source. An example exists in some
gas furnaces where a thermopile is Used as the power source to control a Solenoid-operated
gas-shutoff valve.
When a single thermocouple is used, one of the circuits shown in Figure 7.10 is generally used.
However, for data-acquisition systems, a simpler arrangement is normally used as shown in
Figure 7.13. Each of the thermocouples is connected to a channel of the DAS in an insulated,
constant-temperature connection box. The thermocouples then effectively measure the
difference between the measurand and the box. In Figure 7.14 one channel is reserved for the
reference junction. Software is then used to evaluate the correct temperature by subtracting
the reference voltage from the voltage read from the individual channels. (Note: the reference
voltage will normally be negative)
Another alternative is to use a different kind of temperature sensor, such as semiconductor
device to measure the temperature of the connection box. A voltage for the same
thermocouple material corresponding to the temperature of the junction box relative to 0°C
is computed and added to the readings for each channel.

Fig 7.13

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 Fig 7.14

7.5.2 Resistance-Temperature Detectors

A normal characteristic of metals is that the electrical resistance is a function of the metal
temperature. Thus, a length of metal wire combined with a resistance-measuring device is a
temperature-measuring system. Temperature sensors based on the temperature effect on
metal resistance are known as resistance-temperature detectors (RTDs). RTDs are used by the
International Temperature Scale for interpolation purposes.
Compared to thermocouples, platinum RTDs are more accurate (to ±0.00l °C in some
laboratory measurements) and have an output response that is more linear. They can be used
to measure temperature directly, not relatively, as with thermocouples. They also tend to be
more stable; that is, the characteristics are less likely to change over time due to chemical or
other effects. On the other hand, RTD probes are generally physically larger than
thermocouples, resulting in poorer spatial resolution and slower transient response.
The most common RTD sensors are constructed from platinum, although other metals,
including nickel or nickel alloys, can be used.
There are a large number of configurations of RTD sensing elements. Figure 7.15 shows a
coiled platinum wire sensor and a thin-film sensor. In the coiled wire sensor, the platinum is
wound around a bobbin and the entire assembly is then coated in a ceramic or sealed in a
glass envelope. The outer coating prevents damage or contamination.
In the thin-film design, platinum is plated on a ceramic substrate and then coated with ceramic
or glass. The thin-film design is a newer technology and is gaining favor due to its lower cost.
It is important in the design of RTD probes to minimize strain on the platinum due to thermal
expansion since strain also causes changes in resistance. Design details minimize strain.

13
 Fig 7.15

7.5.3 Thermistor and Integrated-Circuit Temperature Sensors

As with the RTD, the thermistor is a device that has a temperature-dependent resistance.
However, the thermistor, a semiconductor device, shows a much larger change in resistance
with respect to temperature than the RTD. The change in resistance with temperature of the
thermistor is very large, on the order of 4 % per degree Celsius. It is possible to construct
thermistors that have a resistance-versus-temperature characteristic with either a positive or
a negative slope. However, the most common thermistor devices have a negative slope; that
is, increasing temperature causes a decrease in resistance, the opposite of RTDs. They are
highly nonlinear, showing a logarithmic relationship between resistance and temperature:

(7.15)
As semiconductor devices, thermistors are restricted to relatively low temperatures many are
restricted to 100°C and are generally not available to measure temperatures over 300°C.
While probes can be as small as 0.10 in. in diameter, they are still large compared to the
smallest thermocouples and have inferior spatial resolution and transient response.
Thermistor sensors can be quite accurate, on the order of ±0.1°C, but many are much less
accurate.
Thermistors are often used in commercial moderate temperature-measuring devices.
Thermistor-based temperature-measuring systems can be very simple, as in Figure 7.16,
which shows a circuit frequently used in automobiles to measure enginewater temperature.
The current flow through the thermistor is measured with a simple analog mechanical meter.
Nonlinearity can be handled by having a nonlinear scale on the meter dial. Thermistors are
used in electronic circuits, where they are used to compensate for circuit temperature
dependency. Another thermistor application is in simple temperature controllers. For
example, thermistor-based circuits can be used to activate relays to prevent overheating in
many common devices, such as VCRs. Thermistors are not widely used by either the process

14
industry or in normal engineering experiments since RTDs and thermocouples usually have
significant advantages.

Fig 7.16
Integrated-circuit temperature transducers, which combine several components on a single
chip, have a variety of special characteristics that make them useful for some applications.
Some circuits provide a high-level (range 0 to 5V) voltage output that is a linear function of
temperature. Others create a current that is a linear function of temperature.
These chips generally have the same temperature-range limitations as thermistors and are
larger, giving them poor transient response and poor spatial resolution. One common
application is measuring temperature in the connection boxes used when thermocouples are
connected to a data-acquisition system.

7.5.4 Mechanical Temperature-Sensing Devices

Liquid-in-Glass Thermometer: Probably the best known of temperature measuring devices is
the liquid-in-glass thermometer as shown in Figure 7.17. The most common liquid is mercury,
but alcohol and other organic liquids are also used, depending on the temperature range.
Liquid-in-glass thermometers are useful when a ready indication of temperature is required.
They are also rather simple devices and are likely to maintain accuracy over long periods of
time (many years). Consequently, they are useful for calibrating other temperature-measuring
devices. The user should be cautious that the liquid column is continuous (no gaps in the
column) and that the glass envelope is free of cracks. The accuracy of liquid-in-glass
thermometers can be quite good. Measurement uncertainty depends on the range, but
uncertainties in the ±0.2C are quite possible. High-accuracy thermometers are of the total-
immersion type. This means that the thermometer is immersed into the fluid from the bulb
to the upper end of the liquid column in the stem.

15
 Fig 7.17

Bimetallic-Strip Temperature Sensors These devices are based on the differential thermal
expansion of two different metals that have been bonded together as shown in Figure 7.18(a).
As the device is heated or cooled, it will bend, producing a deflection of the end. Figure 7.18(b)
and (c) show alternative geometries of these devices. Bimetal devices have been widely used
as the sensing element in simple temperature-control systems. They have the advantage that
they can do sufficient work to perform mechanical functions, such as operating a switch or
controlling a valve. Household furnaces are frequently controlled with bimetallic sensors. They
are sometimes used for temperature measurement; for example, domestic oven
thermometers are often of this type. They are not normally used for accurate temperature
measurement.

Fig 7.18

Pressure Thermometers A pressure thermometer, such as the one shown in Figure 7.19,
consists of a bulb, a capillary tube, and a pressure-sensing device such as a bourdon gage. The
capillary is of variable length and serves to locate the pressure indicator in a suitable location.
16
The system may be filled with a liquid, a gas, or a combination of vapor and liquid. When filled
with a gas, the gage is measuring the pressure of an effectively constant-volume gas, so
pressure is proportional to bulb temperature. With a liquid, sensing is due to the differential
thermal expansion between the liquid and the bulb. In both cases the temperature of the
capillary might have a slight effect on the reading. In a vapor-liquid system, the gage is reading
the vapor pressure of the liquid. These liquid-vapor devices are nonlinear since vapor pressure
is usually a very nonlinear function of temperature, but they are insensitive to the
temperature of the capillary. Pressure thermometers are used in simple temperature control
systems in such devices as ovens. At one time they were widely used as engine water
temperature-measuring systems in automobiles, but this function has been taken over by
thermistor systems.

Fig 7.19

7.5.5 Radiation Thermometers (Pyrometers)

Contact temperature measurements are very difficult at high temperatures since the
measurement device will either melt or oxidize. As a result, noncontact devices were
developed. These devices, called radiation thermometers, measure temperature by sensing
the thermally generated electromagnetic radiation emitted from a body. The term pyrometer
is used to name high temperature thermometers (including some contact devices) but is
usually applied to noncontact devices. Radiation thermometers can also be used at lower
temperatures as a nonintrusive alternative to contact methods.
Any body emits electromagnetic radiation continuously, and the power and wavelength
distribution of this radiation are functions of the temperature of the body. An ideal radiating
body is called a blackbody, and no body at a given temperature can thermally radiate more.

7.5.6 Common Temperature-Measurement Errors

There are three important systematic temperature-measurement errors that are generic and
deserve special mention: conduction errors, radiation errors, and recovery errors. It is
important to note that a temperature sensor responds to the temperature of the sensor itself,
which is not necessarily the temperature of interest. In the cases of the errors discussed
earlier, the sensor itself can show excellent accuracy when calibrated but will show major
errors when used to make a measurement.
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7.6. MEASURING HUMIDITY
Humidity is a measure of the amount of water vapor in air. Water vapor in air affects the
density, and humidity measurement is necessary to determine the performance of many
systems. The characteristics of air-water vapor mixtures are discussed in most
thermodynamics texts, such as that of Van Wylen, et al. (1994) . Humidity can be specified by
a number of parameters, the two most common being the humidity ratio and the relative
humidity. The humidity ratio is defined as the ratio of the water vapor mass to the mass of dry
air in the mixture:

(7.28)
The relative humidity is defined as the ratio of the mass of water vapor in a volume at a
given temperature and pressure to the mass of water vapor in the same volume at the
same temperature and total pressure if the water vapor is saturated (i.e. , the maximum
possible water vapor is present):

(7.29)
The vapor content of the air-water vapor mixture is completely defined by determining either
the humidity ratio or the relative humidity. There are a number of devices that can be used to
determine humidity.

7.6.1 Hygrometric Devices

Certain hygroscopic materials change properties depending on the moisture content, which
in tum depends on the humidity. Human hair, some animal membranes, and certain plastics
show a dimensional change in response to humidity. The humidity can be determined by
sensing this dimensional change. This principle is used for the humidity gage in inexpensive
mechanical home weather stations, although these devices are rarely very accurate.
Nevertheless, hygrometric devices suitable for laboratory use can be constructed. Some sense
the displacement with strain gages or other electrical output devices and can be used for
remote sensing. Certain materials show a change in resistance in response to changes in
humidity and also can be used for remote-sensing applications. A common probe that is
sensitive to a wide range of humidities is based on a moisture-sensitive polymer film, which
forms the dielectric of a capacitor. The capacitance is a function of humidity. At present,
capacitance humidity sensors are probably the most widely used hygrometric devices.

7.6.2 Dew-Point Devices

If a sample of air is cooled at constant pressure to a temperature called the dew-point
temperature, the moisture in the air will start to condense. This temperature, plus the initial
temperature, can be used to determine the amount of vapor in the air.

18
7.6.3 Psychrometric Devices
If the bulb of a thermometer measuring an air temperature is surrounded with a wick wetted
with water, it will measure a temperature lower than the true air temperature.
Evaporation of the water in the wick will cool the bulb. This is the basis of the sling
psychrometer, shown in Figure 7.20. One thermometer measures the true air temperature
called the dry-bulb temperature, and the thermometer with the wet wick measures the wet-
bulb temperature. If the device is used properly, these two temperatures can be used to
determine the air humidity.

Fig 7.20 Sling Psychrometer

The temperature of the wet bulb is dependent on several heat-transfer processes. The sought-
after effect is convective heat and mass transfer between the wet wick and the surrounding
air. Unfortunately, there is also conduction heat transfer along the stem and radiation heat
transfer to the surroundings. If the air velocity relative to the wick is on the order of 5 m/s, it
has been observed that the wet-bulb temperature will be very close to a temperature called
the adiabatic saturation temperature. This air velocity is achieved with the sling psychrometer
by causing the housing to swing around the handle in a circular motion. It should be noted
that the adiabatic saturation temperature is not the same as the dew-point temperature. The
dry-bulb temperature can be used, together with the adiabatic saturation temperature, to
determine the air humidity.

7.7 FIBER-OPTIC DEVICES

Fiber-optics systems are more a method of signal transmission than a sensing technology, but
two of the more important sensing applications are temperature and pressure measurement.
Fundamentals of operating fiber optics and fiber-optic sensors are introduced briefly in this
section.

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7.7.1 Optical Fiber
An optical fiber is basically a guidance system for light and is usually cylindrical in shape. If a
light beam enters from one end face of the cylinder, a significant portion of energy of the
beam is trapped within the cylinder and is guided through it and emerges from the other end.
Guidance is achieved through multiple reflections at the cylinder walls. Internal reflection of
a light ray is based on Snell's law in optics. If a light beam in a transparent medium strikes the
surface of another transparent medium, a portion of the light will be reflected and the
remainder may be transmitted (refracted) into the second medium.

Fig 7.21. Refraction and reflection of light rays at a dielectric interface defined by refractive
indices n1 and n2 (n1 > n2).
Referring to Figure 7.21, the direction of the refracted wave is governed by Snell's law,

(7.30)
where n is the refractive index of the medium, the ratio of the speed of light in a vacuum to
the speed of light in a transparent material, and (j is the angle of the light beam with the
normal to the deflection surface. For the case that light is passed from a higher n medium into
a medium with a lower n (such as the water-air interface), beyond a certain angle of incidence
the light ray will not penetrate the medium with lower n and will be entirely reflected into the
higher n medium. The minimum angle resulting in this total reflection is called the critical
angle of reflection and is derived from Eq. (7.30) by setting Θ2 equal to 90°:

(7.31)
A light ray will be completely reflected from the interface at all angles of incidence greater
than Θc.
Basically, the optical fiber is a cylinder of transparent dielectric material surrounded by
another dielectric material, called cladding, with a lower refractive index.

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In practice, a third protective layer is also required. (See Figure 7.22.) Figure 9.23, which shows
the ray diagram of an optical fiber, indicates that the rays that enter the fiber beyond the
acceptance angle may not be fully transmitted through the fiber and will eventually be lost.

Fig. 7.22

Fig 7.23
Optical fibers have extensive application in telecommunication and computer networking, but
their application as sensing devices is not that widespread yet. Applying fiber-optic-based
sensors is an emerging technology and is expected to grow in the near future. Optical sensing
and signal transmission have several potential advantages over conventional electric output
transducers and electric signal transmission. Major advantages are as follows:
1. Nonelectric (optical fibers are immune to electromagnetic and radio-frequency
interference) .
2. Explosion proof.
3. High accuracy.
4. Small size (both fibers and the attached sensors can be very small in size, applicable to
small spaces with minimum loading and interference effect).
5. High capacity and signal purity.
6. Can be easily interfaced with data-communication systems.

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 7. Multiplexing capability (numerous signals can be carried simultaneously, allowing a
single fiber to monitor multiple points along its length or to monitor several different
parameters).
According to Krohn (2000), most physical properties can be sensed with fiberoptic sensors.
Light intensity, displacement (position), pressure, temperature, strain, flow, magnetic and
electrical fields, chemical composition, and vibration are among the measurands for which
fiber-optic sensors have been developed.

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