Diamonds & DiamondGrading

4
How Diamonds Form
 Table of Contents

Subject Page

Diamond Formation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
What Diamonds are Made Of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
Diamond and Graphite . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
The Earth’s Layers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
The Right Temperature and Pressure Conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
Diamond’s Source Rocks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
How Diamonds Reach the Surface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
Diamond Transport and Delivery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
Arrival at the Surface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
Key Concepts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
Key Terms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
©
©2001 The Gemological Institute of America
All rights reserved: Protected under the Berne Convention.
No part of this work may be copied, reproduced, transferred, or
transmitted in any form or by any means whatsoever without the
express written permission of GIA.
Printed in the United States.
Reprinted 2008

Cover Photos: (clockwise from left) Michael Busselle/Corbis, Ashton Mining Limited. Back cover: Glodiam Israel Ltd.

Facing page: A rough diamond in kimberlite.

Denis Finnin/American Museum of Natural History

HOW DIAMONDS FORM

A diamond has to go through a lot before it reaches the jeweler’s display
case. It forms deep in the earth under extreme heat and pressure. It’s
transported violently upward until it arrives at or near the earth’s surface,
where it’s forced from its hiding place by nature or by man. Then it’s cut
and polished until its natural beauty shines through.
Diamond’s splendor has been appreciated for centuries, but there was
not much scientific knowledge about it before the twentieth century. Since
then, research by chemists, physicists, geologists, and mineralogists has
added to the world’s understanding of diamond. In the past 50 years alone,
scientists have learned a lot about how diamonds form and how they’re
transported to the surface. This has made it easier to predict locations for
new diamond discoveries.
This assignment examines some of the latest theories about where and
how diamonds form, and how they reach the surface. In the next two assign-
ments, you’ll learn how exploration geologists use their knowledge of dia-
mond formation to find them, and how miners extract them from the ground.

©2001 GIA. All rights reserved. 1

DIAMONDS AND DIAMOND GRADING 4

Peter Johnson

Knowledge of diamond formation and earth science helps exploration geologists

find potential diamond deposits. They know that certain surface minerals usually
indicate the presence of a diamond deposit below.

Learning about diamond’s formation process should help you begin to

understand why a gem-quality diamond is so special. Without each
specific—and important—component of the process, diamond just
wouldn’t be diamond. Understanding the process is essential to under-
standing diamond’s rarity and value. With this new knowledge, you’ll
appreciate even more the extraordinary nature of the diamonds you see
every day.

DIAMOND FORMATION
■ How do pressure and temperature make diamond the hardest
substance on earth?
■ What is diamond made of?
■ Where in the earth’s structure are the best conditions for
diamond formation?
■ What types of rocks produce diamonds?

Extremes of temperature and pressure can cause dramatic changes in

any substance. Water, for example, freezes into a solid at very cold
temperatures. But ultrahigh pressure will also “freeze” water into a
solid. (The water quickly returns to its liquid state when the pressure is
relieved.)
Temperature and pressure are even more powerful when they work
together. The combination is what causes diamond’s atoms to link together
in the special way they do. As you’ll see, this unique bonding of its atoms
is what makes diamond the hardest substance on earth.

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 HOW DIAMONDS FORM

South Africa’s First Diamond was a Child’s Toy

THE EUREKA
Weight: 21.25 cts. rough, 10.73 cts. cut
Color: yellow
Clarity: unrecorded
Cut: oval brilliant
Source: Cape Province, South Africa

While the Star of South Africa (which you learned

about in Assignment 2) generally gets the credit for
starting the diamond industry in South Africa, the
Eureka was actually the first authenticated diamond
discovered there.
The name “Eureka” had its origins in the Greek
language. It means, “I have found it!” That’s why it
was the perfect name for a diamond that caught the
eye of Erasmus Jacobs, the 15-year-old son of a Cape
Colony farmer, in 1866. Thinking he’d found a pretty
pebble, he took it home and gave it to his little sister
to play with.
A neighboring farmer named Schalk Van The Eureka was South Africa’s first
authenticated diamond. Today, it has a
Niekerk visited the Jacobs farm. When he saw the
place of honor in the Kimberley Open
children playing with some nice stones, he asked Mine Museum.
to look at them. The “pretty pebble” caught his
attention, and he offered to purchase it. The children’s mother gave it to him
instead. After several attempts to determine its true identity, Van Niekerk entrusted
the stone to John O’Reilly, a local hunter and trader.
Like Van Niekerk, O’Reilly suspected it was a diamond, so he took it to the Civil
Commissioner in Colesberg. The Commissioner suggested sending it to a physician
(and amateur mineralogist) in Grahamstown. It was the physician who finally con-
firmed what the others had only suspected: It was a diamond weighing about 21.25
cts., worth £500 in its rough form.
The Eureka finally found its way to London, where experts confirmed its identity
and value. Cape Colony officials proudly displayed a crystal replica of the diamond in
their stand at the Paris Exposition of 1867. (They were afraid that the real diamond
would attract thieves.) Soon after that, the Eureka was cut into a 10.73-ct. oval brilliant.
This raised its estimated value to £800.
In 1947, a diamond that was believed to be the Eureka resurfaced at Christie’s auction
house. It was reportedly the center diamond in a bracelet that sold for £5,700. In 1966,
100 years after its discovery, De Beers purchased it and brought it “home.” It’s now on
display at the Open Mine Museum in Kimberley, South Africa, where it’s also known as
the O’Reilly.

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 DIAMONDS AND DIAMOND GRADING
Antoine Lavoisier burned charcoal and
a diamond and found that both left only
carbon dioxide gas. He was the first
scientist to suspect that both were
made of the same element: carbon.
Ke y C o n c e p t s
Diamond and graphite are both made
of carbon.
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4
WHAT DIAMONDS ARE MADE OF
From the time of its discovery, diamond posed a challenge to scientists:
What was this hard, beautiful, mysterious substance made of? There was
no answer to this question until the late 1700s.
In 1772, French chemist Antoine-Laurent Lavoisier set a diamond in an
oxygen-filled glass jar and used a magnifying glass to direct a concentrated
beam of sunlight on it. The diamond burned, but instead of leaving a pile
of ash, it vanished completely. Lavoisier noted that the only byproduct of
the process was carbon dioxide gas. When he burned charcoal using the
same method, the same byproduct resulted.
Years later, English chemist Smithson Tennant picked up where Lavoisier
left off. He converted identical weights of diamond and charcoal to exactly
the same volume of carbon dioxide, proving that they were essentially the
same substance in different forms. He published his results in 1797.
It took twenty years for the scientific community to accept Tennant’s
findings, but eventually (and through further experimentation) all had to
admit that the mystery had been solved: Diamond was composed of carbon.
DIAMOND AND GRAPHITE
Graphite is another material that’s made only of carbon. Carbon’s atomic
symbol is the letter C. This makes “C” the chemical composition of both
diamond and graphite. But their properties are very different. Graphite is
soft and slippery—an excellent lubricant. It’s also used in pencils, where
its softness allows it to rub off easily onto paper. Diamond, however, is
the hardest mineral substance on earth.
The difference between diamond and graphite lies in the way their
carbon atoms fit together. This is caused by the different pressure and
temperature conditions that exist when either mineral is forming.
Graphite’s atoms are arranged in strongly bonded layers, but the layers
have only weak bonds between them. In diamond, the atoms are
arranged in tight three-dimensional patterns, bonded more strongly—in
all directions—than graphite’s atoms.
To get a rough idea of the difference, hold your hands out with your
palms parallel to each other. Even with your palms and fingers touching,
you can easily slide your hands in opposite directions while still holding
them parallel. This is a simple imitation of the effect of graphite’s bonding.
Now, clasp your hands together tightly, with your fingers interlaced.
You’ll find that it’s almost impossible to break the bond between your
hands. Diamond’s crystal bonds work roughly the same way. (You’ll learn
more about this in Assignment 7.)
THE EARTH’S LAYERS
Planet Earth formed about 4.6 billion years ago. It solidified from the
clouds of gas and dust that made up the solar system. As the mass spun
slowly, the denser materials were drawn toward the center and the lighter
materials settled into the outer layers.
 HOW DIAMONDS FORM

GRAPHITE

Synthetic diamonds, pencil lead, and

powdered graphite are all different
forms of carbon. Natural diamonds are
also formed from carbon.

DIAMOND

The differences between diamond and

graphite lie in the way their carbon
atoms are connected. (The blue lines
in the illustrations represent those
invisible electronic connections.) In
graphite (top), the atomic bonds with-
in the layers are fairly strong, but the
bonds between the layers are weak.
The weak bonds allow movement
between the layers and makes the
resulting material “slippery.” This is
why graphite is an excellent lubricant.
In diamond (bottom), there are
strong bonds in all directions. This
makes diamond the hardest substance
on earth.
Peter Johnston/GIA

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DIAMONDS AND DIAMOND GRADING
Crust—The surface and outermost
layer of the earth.
Mantle—Layer between the
earth’s crust and its core.
Core—Earth’s innermost layer.
6
4
detail below
lower mantle
core
crust
upper mantle
Peter Johnston/GIA
The earth consists of three main layers: crust, mantle, and two-layer core. The larger
illustration shows the crust, with its ocean and land areas, resting on top of the
upper mantle. Note how thin the crust is in comparison to the layers underneath.
Although the earth is actually a little flattened at the poles, it’s usually
pictured as a sphere. From where you’re sitting, it’s about 3,900 miles
(6,300 kilometers) to the center. The earth’s three main layers are the
crust, the mantle, and the core.
The first layer is the crust. It’s a layer of hard, strong rock that’s
extremely thin compared to the layers beneath it. Its thickness ranges from
about 3 to 25 miles (5 to 40 kilometers), although it can be much thicker
under mountain ranges. The crust is thinnest under the oceans.
 HOW DIAMONDS FORM

Beneath the crust is the mantle, which has a maximum thickness of

about 1,790 miles (2,880 kilometers). Structurally, the mantle is rocky near
its outer surface, more fluid at its deeper levels. Geologists sometimes
divide the mantle into the upper mantle and the lower mantle, with the
dividing line at about 620 miles (1,000 kilometers) beneath the surface.
Under the mantle, the earth’s core consists of a molten (melted) layer
that’s about 1,410 miles (2,270 kilometers) thick, and a solid center
about 1,490 miles (2,400 kilometers) in diameter. Much of the earth’s
inner heat radiates from the core: At about 11000ºF (6000ºC), it’s as hot
as the surface of the sun! The only thing that keeps the center solid is the
extreme pressure at that depth—more than 1 million times greater than
the earth’s atmosphere at sea level.

THE RIGHT TEMPERATURE AND PRESSURE CONDITIONS

Scientists have been trying for centuries to find just the right combination
of conditions for synthetic diamond production. In the last half of the
twentieth century, this research resulted in scientific advances in the study
of ultrahigh pressures. Today, the technology is used in a wide variety of
applications, including diamond synthesis.
After years of careful research, scientists were able to estimate the
conditions required for natural diamond formation: a temperature range of
1652°F to 2372°F (900°C to 1300°C) and pressure between 45 kilobars
and 60 kilobars.

Research into diamond synthesis helped unlock the secrets of natural diamond
formation. Herbert Strong (right) and James E. Cheney (left) were members of the
diamond synthesis research team at General Electric in the 1940s. One of their
diamond-making tools was this 1000-ton press.

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 DIAMONDS AND DIAMOND GRADING 4

Peter Johnston/GIA

This map shows the distribution of cratons around the world. Some of them contain diamond-bearing deposits, and some don’t.

A kilobar is a unit that scientists use to measure extremely high

pressure. The normal, everyday pressure on earth at sea level is about one
bar, and a kilobar is 1,000 times that. But a diamond really feels the
pressure. Forty-five kilobars is 45,000 times normal pressure: an incredible
figure!
Armed with information about the temperature and pressure conditions
necessary for diamond formation, modern geologists studied the kinds of
rocks that accompanied diamonds to the surface. They also studied the
mineral inclusions trapped within existing diamonds. Then they compared
those findings to what they knew about the conditions and materials at
different levels inside the earth.
They concluded that the right temperature and pressure conditions
exist in very limited areas of the earth’s upper mantle, between 90 miles
and 120 miles (about 140 kilometers and 190 kilometers) beneath the
surface. At that depth, those ideal conditions work together to force
carbon atoms to form the extremely strong bonds found in diamond
crystals.

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 HOW DIAMONDS FORM

continental
crust

craton

Peter Johnston/GIA

A craton is an ancient, deep, and stable portion of a continent. Its heat and pressure provide the right
conditions for diamond formation. Conditions under a craton are also stable enough to preserve diamonds
for hundreds of millions of years after formation.

The best temperature and pressure conditions for diamond formation Cratons—Ancient, large, and
exist under large, geologically stable parts of the crust called cratons. stable parts of the earth’s
Cratons are the oldest sections of the landmasses. They make up the continental crust.
interior portions of the continents, where they’ve existed without change
Igneous—A category of rocks
for millions of years.
formed from a molten state.
Cratons exist only as parts of continents: There are no cratons under the
oceans, where the crust is thinner. As far as scientists know, this makes the
conditions under the earth’s oceans unsuitable for diamond formation.

DIAMOND’S SOURCE ROCKS

The basic requirements for diamond formation are precise temperature Ke y C o n c e p t s
and pressure conditions in the right combination, and an environment Diamonds form under cratons, which
rich in carbon. By studying the inclusions in diamond crystals as well
are located only under continental
as the rocks that accompany diamonds to the surface, scientists found
that diamonds form in two different types of igneous rocks. (Igneous
landmasses.
rocks start out in a molten or partially molten state and become solid

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 DIAMONDS AND DIAMOND GRADING 4
Diamonds and the Geotherm
graphite: not enough
pressure for diamond
formation
increasing depth and pressure
ideal conditions for
diamond formation
increasing temperature
The light blue, lower left corner of the
graph shows where the combination of
conditions is just right for diamond for-
mation. The ideal depths are between 90
and 120 miles (140 and 190 kilometers),
with temperatures around 718ºF
(1325ºC).
Peter Johnston/GIA
10
The graph illustrates a simple fact: the deeper you go into the
earth’s layers, the hotter it gets. “Geothermal gradient” is the sci-
entific name for this. It’s the rate at which temperature increases
with depth.
In the graph, the lower curved
line—the continental geotherm—
shows how temperature rises
with pressure and depth under
ocean geotherm
landmasses. The ocean geo-
therm line shows the same for
oceanic areas. Note that the
temperature rises more rapidly
with depth under the oceans
continental
geotherm
than it does under the continen-
tal crust. This is because the
crust is thinner under the oceans,
so there’s less “insulation”
between the hot mantle and the
surface.
The lower left corner of the
graph shows where conditions
are ideal for diamond formation.
In the dark blue area, the pres-
sure and temperature conditions
would be more likely to result in
too hot for the formation of graphite.
diamond
formation Note that the continental and
oceanic lines pass through the
colored areas at different places. The continental line passes through
the graphite and diamond areas, and crosses the border between
them. The oceanic line—showing a faster temperature rise—doesn’t
cross the diamond-formation zone of the graph. This shows that
conditions in the layers under the ocean aren’t suitable for diamond
formation.
The geothermal gradient is determined by several factors. One
factor is the amount of heat that flows from deep in the earth.
Another is the amount of heat that different types of rocks can hold
and transport. The earth’s geothermal gradient varies from place to
place, but it averages approximately 77°F (25°C) for each 0.62 mile
(1.00 kilometer) increase in depth.
 HOW DIAMONDS FORM

Peridotite is an ancient rock type that’s Eclogite contains the remnants of

one source of the carbon for diamond ancient plants and animals that provide
formation. This peridotite contains miner- carbon for diamond formation. This
als that indicate the possible presence chunk of eclogite contains diamonds
of diamond. on its surface.

when they cool.) The two types are called peridotite (pe-RID-o-tite) and
eclogite (EC-lo-gite).
Peridotite and eclogite have different mineral compositions. Each one
exists under precise temperature and pressure conditions at specific
depths within the earth. Each one also provides its own supply of carbon
and releases it under different conditions. There’s evidence that each one
produces diamonds with characteristic—and different—crystal forms and
inclusions.
Peridotite, where most diamonds form, probably existed from the Subduction—Process in which two
time the earth first formed. Peridotite’s carbon was trapped in the most crustal plates collide, forcing one
ancient of the earth’s rocks. The rocks release their carbon as they melt under the other.
in the earth’s inner heat. Because there’s plenty of available material,
the carbon-releasing process is fairly constant. To scientists, this means
that the carbon needed for diamond formation is always present. It also
means that diamond formation might be happening, miles beneath you,
as you read this.
Eclogite’s carbon is contained in ancient rocks that are closer to the Ke y C o n c e p t s
earth’s surface. Eclogite is a younger rock than peridotite, and occurs at
The carbon needed for diamond
much shallower levels. Its carbon comes partly from organic matter like
ancient plants and animals, which didn’t exist when the earth first formed. formation is always present.
This organic matter becomes part of the eclogite, and its carbon is
released when the crustal rocks that contain it are dragged deep into the
earth in a process called subduction.

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DIAMONDS AND DIAMOND GRADING 4

Plate Tectonics
The study of the formation,
structure, and movement of the
earth’s landmasses is called plate
tectonics. The landmasses, or
plates, ride on a layer of partially
melted rock in the mantle.
Heated currents circulating with-
in the mantle keep the continents
moving. The movement is
known as continental drift.
About 230 million years ago,
the earth’s major landmass was
a single continent—later named
Pangaea. Pangaea slowly sepa-
rated into sections that eventu-
ally became the continents that
exist today. (You’ll learn more
about this in Assignment 6.)
Forces are still pushing con-
tinents apart. The Mid-Atlantic
Ridge lies in the middle of the
Fossil evidence—like this fish tail in
a rock from Antarctica—shows that Atlantic Ocean, and hot magma
Antarctica once had a more tropical rises constantly along its inner
climate. Scientists use continental seam. The rising magma forms
drift to explain how the boundaries
new ocean floor and widens the
and climates of the earth’s continents
changed over hundreds of millions space between the Eastern and
of years. Western hemispheres by about
an inch per year.
The concept of continental drift was proposed in 1912, but it
was not widely accepted by scientists until the late 1960s. It’s
now considered scientific fact, and it explains many geological,
botanical, and zoological riddles. Why, for example, were fossil
remains of tropical plants found in frigid Greenland? How could
evidence of ancient glaciers be present in the hot, humid jungles
of Brazil? And, most important to this course, what’s the connec-
tion between the diamond deposits of the African continent and
those of South America?
These questions and others are the subjects of ongoing
research. In the process, knowledge of diamond formation is
increasing and making diamond locations easier to predict.

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 HOW DIAMONDS FORM

Peter Johnston/GIA

This is what scientists think the earth looked like about 230 million years ago.
There was one supercontinent, called Pangaea, that eventually broke up into
the continents we know today.

Peter Johnston/GIA

Mid-ocean ridges are places where hot magma rises to form new ocean floor.
This increases the space between continents, pushing them slowly apart.

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DIAMONDS AND DIAMOND GRADING 4

melting rocks

continental crust
oceanic crust

convection current

Peter Johnston/GIA

Subduction occurs when two plates of the earth’s crust collide, and one is forced under the other. The
rocks of the lower plate melt. When this occurs, it releases carbon from eclogites and makes diamond
formation possible.

Subduction occurs when two of the earth’s crustal plates collide and
one is forced under the other. The lowered plate heats up, causing its
component minerals to melt and release their trapped carbon. Because
it’s dependent on this process, the release of carbon from eclogite isn’t
constant. Eclogite’s diamonds tend to be younger than peridotite’s
diamonds.
In both peridotite and eclogite, if temperature and other factors like
pressure and chemistry are favorable, the carbon atoms released by the
melting rock bond to build diamond crystals.

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 HOW DIAMONDS FORM

HOW DIAMONDS REACH THE SURFACE

■ Which rocks deliver diamonds to the surface?
■ How do diamonds reach the surface?
■ When were diamonds delivered to the surface?
■ What happens to diamonds once they reach the surface?

So far, you’ve learned some basic information about how and where dia-
monds form. But unless those diamonds are also delivered to the surface,
there’s no way to access them. Indeed, there might be vast deposits of dia-
monds that will remain in the mantle forever.
After formation, if conditions remain constant, diamonds might remain
underground for hundreds of millions of years before they’re carried to
the surface. But the delivery itself is rapid. It has to be: Under the inner
earth’s extreme heat conditions, any diamonds that spend too long under
decreased pressure won’t survive.

DIAMOND TRANSPORT AND DELIVERY

Diamond deposits are found in two types of rock: kimberlite and lamproite. Ke y C o n c e p t s
Their mineral and chemical compositions are fairly similar. The main Diamonds might wait hundreds of
difference between them is that, while kimberlite tends to occur in the mid-
dle of cratons, lamproite is commonly found at the edges of cratons, or millions of years before they’re
even in the zones immediately around them. The Argyle mine in Australia, carried to the surface.
which you’ll learn about later in the course, is an important lamproite
diamond source. Diamonds that exist today were
Kimberlites and lamproites have been pushed up to the earth’s surface delivered to the surface between 2.5
for billions of years. Sometimes, they carried diamonds with them. The billion and 20 million years ago.
process, whether the materials contain diamonds or not, is called
emplacement. The first diamond-bearing emplacement probably occurred
more than 2.5 billion years ago, and the most recent was probably around Kimberlites and lamproites transport
20 million years ago. diamonds to the surface, but dia-
It’s important to remember that kimberlites and lamproites aren’t the monds don’t form in them.
rocks that diamonds form in—they merely carry already-formed diamonds
to the surface. This distinction wasn’t always common knowledge. It wasn’t
until scientists developed the technology to measure a rock’s age that they
determined diamonds were millions or billions of years older than the Kimberlite—An igneous rock
rocks that transported them. that transports diamonds to the
Heat trapped deep within the earth keeps portions of the mantle in a surface.
melted, or molten, state. The molten rock material, called magma,
Lamproite—An igneous rock, rarer
expands as it heats up. The heated magma rises, just like the warm air in than kimberlite, that transports
a room rises toward the ceiling. As the magma rises, it begins to cool. diamonds to the surface.
Cooling causes it to contract and get heavier, so it begins to sink. As it
descends, it heats up again, starting a new upward cycle. These constantly Emplacement—A geologic
repeating cycles of heating and cooling, rising and falling, are called process that delivers materials
convection currents. They keep the partially molten layer of the mantle in (sometimes diamonds) to the
constant motion. surface.

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DIAMONDS AND DIAMOND GRADING 4

From the air, the grayish kimberlite in this open-pit mine (Jwaneng, in Botswana)
stands out against the surrounding orange-colored soil. The kimberlite extends for
thousands of feet underground.

Most of the world’s diamond deposits are found in kimberlites, but a few are found
in lamproites. This is the Argyle mine in Australia, a well-known lamproite diamond
deposit.

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 HOW DIAMONDS FORM

How Old is a Rock?

Scientists estimate that the
earth is about 4.6 billion years
old. The oldest rocks found so
far on its surface (in Canada’s
Northwest Territories) are about
3.6 billion years old.
Scientists measure the age of
a rock with a process called
radiometric dating. The miner-
als in a rock might contain
radioactive elements. If they do,
those elements give off atomic
particles as they decay. As a
radioactive element emits its
atomic particles, it gradually
changes to another form of the
same element or to a different
element: Scientists call it a The age of a diamond would be
“daughter” or end product. impossible to determine if it didn’t
have inclusions. Many inclusions
There are several naturally found in diamond contain radioactive
occurring radioactive elements. elements that decay at set rates. This
makes it possible to determine their
Each decays at a set rate and age and the age of the diamond that
forms a specific end product. encloses them.
Scientists measure the end
product by exposing the rock to a device that detects radiation. As
long as a piece of rock contains a radioactive element, scientists
can figure out how old it is.
Diamonds themselves can’t be dated: Their radioactive elements
decay too fast to be measured. Fortunately, some diamonds contain
inclusions with elements that can be dated. The youngest known
diamond, discovered in Zaire in 1995, is just 628 million years
old. The oldest known diamonds, on the other hand, are as much
as 3.3 billion years old.
Using radiometric dating of diamond inclusions, scientists
determined that diamonds are often much older than their host
rock. Diamonds that formed 3.3 billion years ago have been found
in kimberlite deposits only 100 million years old. This proves that
diamonds can be stored deep in the earth for a long time before
being transported to the surface, and also that kimberlites and
lamproites are carriers, not formation sources, of diamond.

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DIAMONDS AND DIAMOND GRADING 4

Julien Grondin/iStockphoto

Molten conditions within the earth sometimes lead to violent eruptions. Volcanic
formations like this—with hot lava flowing out of the earth—do not contain diamonds.
The materials that delivered diamonds to the surface were more solid and the deliv-
ery itself was much more explosive.

If the mixture of chemical elements is right, the magma will form

kimberlite or lamproite. If, as it rises, it meets an already-existing deep
fracture in the crust, it will continue to move upward. If the rising kim-
berlite or lamproite passes through a diamond deposit, it will pick up
and carry already-formed diamonds. The diamonds might remain
embedded in boulder-sized pieces of the peridotites or eclogites in

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 HOW DIAMONDS FORM

Michael Busselle/Corbis

Like a champagne cork popping out of its bottle, diamonds are delivered to the
surface by a rapid expansion of gases.

which they formed. But often the magma is so hot that it dissolves the
surrounding rocks, releasing the diamonds into the rising mixture.
As the upward-moving rock mixture rises toward the surface, the
pressure above it decreases. With less pressure holding it down, the
magma gradually picks up speed. By the end of the journey, it’s moving
very fast. Within the last 1.5 miles (2.5 kilometers), scientists estimate

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 DIAMONDS AND DIAMOND GRADING 4

Peter Johnston/GIA

Diamonds might wait for millions of years (1) before a violent eruption brings them to the surface (2). The eruption results in a
diamond-bearing crater over an extremely deep pipe (3). Once a diamond deposit reaches the surface, it might wait millions of
years more before someone discovers it and begins building a mine (4).

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 HOW DIAMONDS FORM

that its speed is about 186 miles (300 kilometers) per hour. The decrease Pipe—A deep vertical formation at
in pressure also allows some of the fluids in the magma to expand into the earth’s surface that results
gases. Those gases are mostly water vapor and carbon dioxide, so they from a kimberlite or lamproite
act like the gases in a shaken bottle of club soda or champagne. emplacement.
The combination of speed and expanding gases is powerful enough to
force the rising rock mixture to explode through the surface. As kimberlite
blasts through the crust, it creates a deep carrot-shaped formation called a
pipe. Lamproite emplacement works the same way, but its pipe is wider at
the top, so it’s shaped more like a mushroom than a carrot.
The expansion of gases and the speed of delivery are important for
the survival of the diamonds. This combination keeps the diamonds
from converting to graphite, which would happen if they were exposed
to high temperature along with decreased pressure for a long period. In
a few places, geologists have found deposits containing diamond-
shaped masses of graphite that probably began the journey from the
earth’s depths as diamond. Changing temperature or pressure conditions
during the upward journey changed the diamond to graphite.

ARRIVAL AT THE SURFACE

The kimberlite—or lamproite—doesn’t flow out of the pipe like lava Ke y C o n c e p t s
from a volcano. It solidifies while it’s still very hot, so by the time it Very few kimberlites actually contain
reaches the surface it has changed from liquid to solid. The explosion is diamonds.
a mixture of solid rock, ash, and gases. After the material explodes
through the overlying rock, most of it falls back into its pipe, along with
its diamond cargo. What’s left is a deep diamond-bearing pipe, topped off
by a shallow crater.
Sometimes—millions of years later in some cases—new emplacements
can occur within older pipes. In fact, it’s possible for several emplacements
to occur in the same pipe. The “new” diamonds often have different features
from those delivered during earlier episodes.
Kimberlites are widespread—in the 1990s, there were about 6,000 of
them known worldwide. But fewer than 1,000 of them contained any
diamonds. Of those, only about 50 had enough diamonds to be economic
to mine, and only about 20 are still being mined today. With statistics like
that, it’s no wonder diamonds are considered rare and precious!
Understanding diamond’s formation and emplacement processes will
help you appreciate how unique diamonds really are, even if you don’t
have to relate the details every day. The knowledge itself will enrich your
experience, no matter what segment of the diamond industry you find
yourself in. In fact, as you learn about diamond exploration and mining in
the next two assignments, you’ll realize it’s a miracle diamonds exist at
all, and even more of a miracle that anyone finds them.
When you think about it this way, you’ll realize that gem-quality
diamonds are much rarer than you would guess as you contemplate the
array of diamond jewelry in the display case.

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DIAMONDS AND DIAMOND GRADING 4

Where Do They Come From?

In recent years, the public’s attention was captured by news of
so-called “conflict diamonds.” In simple terms, they were
diamonds sold through unofficial channels to finance destructive
and tragic civil wars. To combat the problem, some people
proposed a “country of origin” report for every diamond that
enters the market. But is this possible? Diamond researchers
tackled this question.
Each diamond carries some traces of its geologic history
inside it, in the form of inclusions and other internal character-
istics. Unfortunately, it doesn’t also carry its geographic history.
While researchers might be able to find some common
characteristics of diamonds from a certain area, they can’t be
sure that all diamonds from that area will have exactly the same
characteristics.
As a diamond travels farther into the market, it becomes less
and less possible to determine its origin. Manufacturers buy
assortments based on their needs for diamonds of a certain size
and clarity, not on the basis of their geographic origin. Those
assortments usually contain diamonds from many different
places.
The cutting process removes some characteristics of the rough
that might have provided a clue to that diamond’s geographic
origin. And there’s no data to suggest that polished diamonds
from a single source retain any characteristics that would connect
them to each other and to their country of origin. The problem
By the time a diamond reaches the is compounded in a piece of jewelry that contains several
rough-sorting stage, it has left its diamonds.
original source far behind. Even a
careful scientific examination of Even currently existing advanced lab techniques fall short
these diamonds would not reveal when it comes to determining origin. Analysis of a diamond’s
their country of origin. spectrum (the way it handles light) and chemical composition
have shown that there’s no relationship between these character-
istics and where a diamond comes from.
Without the possibility of scientific identification, a “country of origin” report would only be
possible if every diamond came through an “official” source. Recognizing this, the industry
implemented the Kimberley Process in 2003 to identify diamonds that come from non-conflict
areas. There’s more information about this procedure in Diamond Essentials Assignment 6 and
Diamonds Assignment 3.

22

Ke y C o n c e p t s
Diamond and graphite are both made
of carbon.
Diamonds form in cratons, which are
located only under continental land-
masses.
The carbon needed for diamond
formation is always present.
Diamonds might wait hundreds of
millions of years before they’re carried
to the surface.
Key Terms
Core—Earth’s innermost layer.
Cratons—Ancient, large, and
stable parts of the earth’s
continental crust.
Crust—The surface and outermost
layer of the earth.
Emplacement—A geologic
process that delivers materials
(sometimes diamonds) to the
surface.
Igneous—A category of rocks
formed from a molten state.
Kimberlite—An igneous rock
that transports diamonds to the
surface.
HOW DIAMONDS FORM
Diamonds that exist today were
delivered to the surface between 2.5
billion and 20 million years ago.
Kimberlites and lamproites transport
diamonds to the surface, but diamonds
don’t form in them.
Very few kimberlites actually contain
diamonds.
Lamproite—An igneous rock, rarer
than kimberlite, that transports
diamonds to the surface.
Mantle—Layer between the
earth’s crust and its core.
Pipe—A deep vertical formation at
the earth’s surface that results
from a kimberlite or lamproite
emplacement.
Subduction—Process in which two
crustal plates collide, forcing one
under the other.
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DIAMONDS AND DIAMOND GRADING 4

ASSIGNMENT 4

QUESTIONNAIRE

Each of the questions or incomplete statements below is followed by several possible answers. Choose the
ONE that BEST answers the question or completes the statement. Then place the letter (A, B, C, or D)
corresponding to your answer in the blank at the left of the question.
If you’re unsure about any question, go back, review the assignment, and find the correct answer. When
you’ve answered all the questions, transfer your answers to the answer sheet.

________1. How far beneath the earth’s surface do diamonds form?

A. 15 to 30 miles (25 to 50 km)
B. 30 to 50 miles (50 to 75 km)
C. 50 to 90 miles (75 to 140 km)
D. 90 to 120 miles (140 to 190 km)

________2. The deep vertical formations through which diamonds traveled to the surface are called
A. drifts.
B. pipes.
C. cratons.
D. alluvials.

________3. The first authenticated diamond discovered in South Africa is named the
A. Eureka.
B. Cullinan.
C. De Beers.
D. Star of Africa.

________4. Most of the world’s kimberlite pipes

A. are located close to large cities.
B. are being mined for diamonds at the present.
C. do not contain diamonds in profitable quantities.
D. are believed to contain great quantities of diamonds.

CONTINUED NEXT PAGE...

IF YOU NEED HELP: Contact your instructor through the GIA Virtual Campus, or call 800-421-7250 toll-free in the US and Canada, or 760-603-4000;
after hours you can leave a message.

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 HOW DIAMONDS FORM

________5. The correct conditions for diamond formation exist under

A. cratons.
B. volcanic ash.
C. oceanic crust.
D. large mountain ranges.

________6. Scientists have found that diamonds form in two types of rocks, called
A. marble and shale.
B. sandstone and schist.
C. peridotite and eclogite.
D. kimberlite and lamproite.

________7. The large, stable parts of the earth’s continental crust are called
A. plates.
B. islands.
C. shields.
D. cratons.

________8. Diamond and graphite are both made of

A. carbon.
B. helium.
C. oxygen.
D. nitrogen.

________9. Diamond is hard and graphite is soft because of the difference in

A. their atoms.
B. their transparency.
C. their chemical formulas.
D. the way their atoms fit together.

________10. The proper environment for diamond formation includes the right temperature,
pressure, and
A. molten lava.
B. indicator minerals.
C. the availability of carbon.
D. the presence of trace elements.

CONTINUED NEXT PAGE...

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DIAMONDS AND DIAMOND GRADING 4

________11. Subduction occurs when

A. volcanoes erupt.
B. mountains collide.
C. tidal waves sweep over landmasses.
D. two of the earth’s crustal plates collide.

________12. Diamonds were delivered to the earth’s surface as recently as

A. 20 billion years ago.
B. 20 million years ago.
C. 1 million years ago.
D. 10,000 years ago.

________13. The three main components of the earth are the crust, mantle, and
A. core.
B. center.
C. stratosphere.
D. subduction zone.

________14. Before arriving at the earth’s surface, diamonds might remain in the mantle for as
long as a few
A. days.
B. hours.
C. hundred years.
D. hundred million years.

________15. During emplacement, if diamonds are exposed to high temperature along with decreased
pressure for a long period, they will
A. melt.
B. explode.
C. vaporize.
D. convert to graphite.

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 HOW DIAMONDS FORM

PHOTO COURTESIES
The Gemological Institute of America gratefully acknowledges the following people and organizations
for their assistance in gathering or producing some of the images used in this assignment:
Ashton Mining Limited, 16 (bottom)
British Antarctic Survey Information Library, 12
Diamond Trading Company, 2, 16 (top), 22
GE Corporate Research and Development, 7
Glodiam Israel Ltd., back cover

27
 1. Introduction: Beyond the Essentials

2. Birth of the Modern Diamond Industry

3. The Modern Diamond Market

4. How Diamonds Form

5. Exploring for Diamonds

6. Diamond Mining

7. The Diamond Crystal

8. Diamonds and Light

9. The Evolution of Diamond Cutting

10. Finding and Identifying Clarity

Characteristics

11. Grading Clarity

12. Diamonds and Color

13. Grading Color

14. Grading Proportions—Table, Crown,

and Girdle

2/2008
15. Grading Proportions—Pavilion and
Culet—and Evaluating Finish

16. Grading Fancy Cuts

17. Estimating Weight, Recutting, and

Repolishing

18. Diamond Simulants

19. Synthetics and Treatments

20. Succeeding in the Marketplace