AinShams University

Faculty of Engineering

CSE 351s: Computer Networks

Section 5
Eng. Noha Wahdan Class textbook:
ANDREW S. TANENBAUM, DAVID J.
WETHERALL, “Computer Networks”, 6th
edition, PRENTICE HALL, 2011.
Chapter 2: The Physical layer
 Sheet 2: Question 2
It is desired to send a sequence of computer screen images over an optical
fiber. The screen is 3840 × 2160 pixels, each pixel being 24 bits. There are 50
screen images per second. What data rate is needed?
▪ Image size = 3840 × 2160 × 24 = 199.066 × 106 bits
▪ Data rate = 199.066 × 106 × 50 = 9,953,280,000 bps = 9.953 Gbps.
 Data Rate and Bandwidth

Data rate = Signal rate× Number of bits per signal element

Bitrate (bps) = Sampling rate (samples/sec) × Number of
bits/sample

Note:
• Data rate = Bitrate
• Signal Rate = Sampling Rate = Symbol Rate = Baud Rate = Modulation rate
= The rate at which the signal changes.
• The number of bits/sample in its basic form means how many bits are
represented by each signal element. Calculating it depends on the signaling
technique.
 Two digital signals: one with two signal levels and the other
with four signal levels

Number of bits/sample for multilevel signalling = log2V

V is the number of levels
 Nyquist Bandwidth
In the case of a channel that is noise free. The limitation of data rate is simply the
bandwidth of the signal.
The theorem states that: Given a bandwidth of B, the highest signal rate
that can be carried is 2B.
• For binary signals, the data rate that can be supported by B Hz is 2B bps
• With multilevel signaling, the Nyquist formula becomes:
Capacity C = 2B log2V
• Data rate can be increased by increasing the number of different signal
elements (V).
– Noise and other impairments limit the practical value of V
 Shannon Capacity Formula
• Considering the relation of data rate, noise and error rate:
– Faster data rate shortens each bit so bursts of noise corrupt more bits
– Given noise level, higher rates mean higher errors
• Shannon developed formula relating these to signal to noise ratio
(signal/noise)
• C = B log2(1+ signal/noise)
• SNRdb=10 log10 (signal/noise)
– Theoretical maximum capacity
– Get much lower rates in practice
 Sheet 3: Question 3
Identify three physical properties that limit the maximum data rate of digital
communication channels used in practice. Explain your answers.
▪ Bandwidth of the channel.
▪ Number of levels of signals that are used.
▪ Noise present in the channel.
 Sheet 3: Question 4
A noiseless 10-kHz channel is sampled every 1 msec. What is the maximum data
rate? How does the maximum data rate change if the channel is noisy, with a signal-
to-noise ratio of 30 dB?

▪ Maximum signal rate for noiseless channel = 2 × B = 2 × 10,000 = 20,000

samples/sec.
▪ (No matter how many bits are sampled/sec → Use a large number of levels and
send arbitrarily large amounts of data)

▪ Signal to noise ratio is expressed in dBs → 30 = 10 log10 S/N → S/N = 1000

𝑆
▪ Maximum data rate for noisy channel = B × log 2 (1 + ) =
𝑁
10,000 × log 2 (1 + 1000) = 99.67 kbps
 Sheet 3: Question 5
Television channels are 6 MHz wide. How many bits/sec can be sent if four-
level digital signals are used? Assume a noiseless channel.
Maximum data rate for noiseless channel = 2 × B log 2 𝑉
= 2 × 6 × 106 × log 2 4 = 24 Mbps
 Sheet 3: Question 6
If a binary signal is sent over a 3-kHz channel whose signal-to-noise ratio is 20
dB, what is the maximum achievable data rate?
▪ Maximum data rate for noiseless channel = 2 × B log 2 𝑉 = 2 × 3000 ×
log 2 2 = 6 kbps
▪ Signal to noise ratio is expressed in dBs → 20 = 10 log10 S/N → S/N = 100
𝑆
▪ Maximum data rate = B × log 2 (1 + )
= 3000 × log 2 (1 + 100) = 19.93
𝑁
kbps
▪ The maximum achievable data rate is then 6 kbps
Baseband Transmission

Line codes: (a) Bits, (b) NRZ, (c) NRZI,

(d) Manchester.
Passband Transmission (1)

(a) A binary signal. (b) Amplitude shift keying.

(c) Frequency shift keying. (d) Phase shift keying.
Passband Transmission (2)

(a) QPSK. (b) QAM-16. (c) QAM-64.

Passband Transmission (3)

Gray-coded QAM-16.
 Sheet 3: Question 7
What is the minimum bandwidth needed to achieve a data rate of Y bits/sec if
the signal is transmitted using NRZ or Manchester encoding? Explain.
Maximum bit rate = Maximum number of samples/sec × Number of
bits/sample
= 2×B × Number of bits/sample

1) With NRZ encoding:

Y bps = Number of samples/sec × 1
So, we need to transmit Y/1 = Y samples/sec.
So, 2 × B = 20
Which means that we need at least channel of bandwidth B = Y/2 Hz.
 Sheet 3: Question 7
What is the minimum bandwidth needed to achieve a data rate of Y bits/sec if
the signal is transmitted using NRZ or Manchester encoding? Explain.
2) With Manchester encoding:
Y bps = Number of samples/sec × 0.5
So, we need to transmit Y/0.5 = 2Y samples/sec.
So, 2 × B = 2Y
Which means that we need at least a channel of bandwidth B = 2Y/2 = Y Hz.

So, the downside of Manchester encoding is that it requires twice as much

channel bandwidth as NRZ because of the clock.
 Time Division Multiplexing

• TDM allows only one user at a time to transmit, and the

sharing of the medium is accomplished by dividing available
transmission time among users.
• Here, a user uses the entire BW of the channel, but only for a
brief moment.
6.19

Frequency-division multiplexing (FDM)

 Frequency Division Multiplexing

In FDM channels must be separated by strips of unused BW or

guard bands, to prevent signals from overlapping
 Code Division Multiplexing (1)

(a) Chip sequences for four stations.

(b) Signals the sequences represent
Computer Networks, Fifth Edition by Andrew Tanenbaum and David Wetherall, © Pearson Education-Prentice Hall, 2011
 Code Division Multiplexing (2)

(a) Six examples of transmissions.

(b) Recovery of station C’s
Computer Networks, Fifth Edition by Andrew Tanenbaum and David Wetherall, © Pearson Education-Prentice Hall, 2011
 Sheet 3: Question 8
Suppose that A, B, and C are simultaneously transmitting 0 bits, using a CDMA
system with the chip sequences of the following Figure. What is the resulting
chip sequence?
 Sheet 3: Question 8 (Continued)
Suppose that A, B, and C are simultaneously transmitting 0 bits, using a CDMA
system with the chip sequences of the following Figure. What is the resulting
chip sequence?
▪ The result is obtained by negating each of A, B, and C and then adding the
three chip sequences. Alternatively, the three can be added and then
negated.
▪ The result is (+3 +1 +1 −1 −3 −1 −1 +1).
 Sheet 3: Question 9
A CDMA receiver gets the following chips: (-1 +1 -3 +1 -1 -3 +1 +1). Assuming
the chip sequences defined in the previous figure, which stations transmitted,
and which bits did each one send?
 Sheet 3: Question 9 (Continued)
A CDMA receiver gets the following chips: (-1 +1 -3 +1 -1 -3 +1 +1). Assuming
the chip sequences defined in the previous figure, which stations transmitted,
and which bits did each one send?

▪ S . A = (−1 +1 −3 +1 −1 −3 +1 +1) . (−1 −1 −1 +1 +1 −1 +1 +1) = 8

▪ S . B = (−1 +1 −3 +1 −1 −3 +1 +1) . (−1 −1 +1 −1 +1 +1 +1 −1) = -8
▪ S . C = (−1 +1 −3 +1 −1 −3 +1 +1) . (−1 +1 −1 +1 +1 +1 −1 −1) = 0
▪ S . D = (−1 +1 −3 +1 −1 −3 +1 +1) . (−1 +1 −1 −1 −1 −1 +1 −1) = 8
▪ The result is that A and D sent 1 bits, B sent a 0 bit, and C was silent.
 Sheet 3: Question 11
Three packet-switching networks each contain n nodes. The first network has
a star topology with a central switch, the second is a (bidirectional) ring, and
the third is fully interconnected, with a wire from every node to every other
node. What are the best-, average-, and worst-case transmission paths in
hops?
The three networks have the following properties:
• Star: best case = 2, average case = 2, worst case = 2.
• Ring: best case = 1, average case = n/4, worst case = n/2.
• Full interconnect: best case = 1, average case = 1, worst case = 1.
Thanks