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Environmental Systems and Societies Mock Summary W:o Case Studies
Environmental Systems and Societies Mock Summary W:o Case Studies
Preservationists
• End of 19th century
• Advocated for preservation of land and resources in pristine untrouched conditions
• Based on the intrinsic value of nature
• John Muir
◦ Book in 1854
‣ Walden
◦ Founded the Sierra club
‣ Preservation organization
• Henry David Thoreau
Conservationists
• End of 19th and early 20th century
• Theodore Roosevelt and Gifford Pinchot
◦ Environment for goods and services it could provide
◦ Sustainable use and management of resources
• Appearance of wildlife conservation societies
• 1889 Plumage League
◦ Protection of animals during mating season
• 1869 Sea Birds Preservation Act
◦ First Nature Protection Law
• Focus on the impacts from industrialization in the mid 1800's to the mid 1900's
Early 20th Century:
• Rise in environmental awareness
• More species becoming extinct
• The impact of DDT on the food chain
• Bleaching of coral reefs
• Deforestation
• Overfishing
• Climate change
◦ 1972
• Impact of CFCs
• Rising sea levels
Perception of:
• Environmental threats
• How they can impact the environment
• Wether or not that matters
Cornucopian
• Carry on with development because technology will solve problems that arise
Ecocentrism proposes that there is an intrinsic value to natural resources and natural systems
and that spiritual, social and environmental dimensions are all integrated.
• Conservation of the environment
• Humans are a PART of nature
• Work with the natural environment to solve problems
• Economy
◦ Based on maintenance of natural capital
◦ Lifestyle change away from the use of non-
renewable products
• Set of interrelated parts and the connection between them that unites them to for a complex
whole and produces emergent properties.
• Interaction of parts and their environment
• Boundaries in both space and time
• COMPONENTS
1. Inputs
A. Identifies the elements that go into the system
a. Like water, energy, etc.
B. Flows that may be physical or behavioral
a. Environmental value systems, thoughts, cultures, etc.
2. Processes
A. Act on the inputs to make them outputs
B. Or transform inputs in some way
3. Outputs
A. Flows of matter and energy that leave the system
a. Policies could be outputs
• TYPES OF SYSTEMS
◦ Open systems
‣ Exchanges matter and energy with its surroundings
‣ Most natural ecosystems, social systems
◦ Closed systems
‣ Exchanges energy but not matter with its surroundings
‣ Earth is a closed system
‣ Global cycles (nitrogen, carbon and hydrological)
◦ Isolated systems
‣ No exchange in energy nor matter
‣ The universe
Negative feedback
• Promotes stability in a system as it reverses the change and returns the system to the original
state of equilibrium
• Examples
1. Predator prey relationship
2. Human body temperature
3. Toilet flush
Positive feedback
• Amplifies the change in the system and keeps it going in the same direction.
• A small disturbance in the system causes and increase in that disturbance.
• Some are beneficial while others are not
• Examples
1. Climate change and carbon
2. Deforestation
Tipping points
✦ Tipping point: A kick-start in a self-perpetuating positive feedback loop that pushes a system
into a new state of equilibrium.
• Possible problems as a result of tipping points:
1. Environmental support systems collapse
A. Like water regulation, clean air, etc.
2. Deterioration of the land's food production
3. Compromising of the sea's food production capacity
4. Climate may become unsuitable for human existence.
• In large systems, feedback loops may be slow and the impact hard to see immediately.
1.3.3 Equilibria and stability
✦Static equilibrium: non-living systems where the components remain constant over a long period
of time
✦Steady state equilibrium: Has many small changes over short periods of time which occur within
small limits, these changes are countered by negative feedback, creating an average steady
state.
• Most ecosystems are in steady state equilibrium
Stability
✦Stability: Ability of an ecosystem to remain in balance, being resistant and resilient.
✦ Resistance: Ecosystem continues to function during a disturbance
✦Resilience: Ability of the ecosystem to recover after a disturbance
Disturbances:
• If it occurs over an extended period of time, over large areas or of a suficient severity then a
tipping point might be reached.
• Natural
◦ Flooding
◦ Fires
◦ Volcanic eruptions
• Human induced
◦ Deforestation,
◦ Pesticides
◦ Introduced species
Factors affecting stability:
• Climate and limiting factors
◦ Equable climate that supports its vegetation
◦ No extreme temperatures or climactic conditions
◦ Deserts have lots of limiting factors and a low stability
• Biodiversity
◦ High biodiversity ensures a complex ecosystem with many interconnected parts
‣ If one part is lost, another can replace it
◦ Tropical forests have a high biodiversity and therefore high stability
• Trophic complexity
◦ Complex food webs support greater biodiversity
◦ Ensure that organisms from the same level can complete the other's if one is missing
• Nutrient stores
◦ The size and distribution ensures that if there is a drought or a depletion then the system
will not collapse
• Frequency and intensity of disturbances
◦ Small disturbances can be overcome
◦ Larger and more recurring disturbances can deeply affect the stability of an ecosystem
1.4 SUSTAINABILITY
1.5.3 DDT
• Organochloride insecticide
• Colorless, tasteless, and odorless
• Effective in controlling malaria and typhus
• Persistent organic pollutant (POP)
◦ Absorbed by the soil and never broken down
• Bioaccumulates
• Discussed in Silent Spring
• Soluble in lipids so it accumulates in fat tissues
• Causes eggshell thinning
• Carcinogenic
• DDT and malaria
◦ highly effective for its eradication
◦ Very deadly disease
◦ DDT was banned
Biotic components:
• Producers
◦ Plants that convert energy into matter
• Consumers
◦ Animals that eat plants or other animals
• Decomposers
◦ Organisms that breakdown waste into component parts for reuse
• Interactions
◦ Predation
◦ Herbivory
◦ Parasitism
◦ Mutualism
◦ Disease
◦ Competition
✦ Species: Group of organisms that share common characteristics and can interbreed to
produce fertile offspring.
✦Populations: Group of individuals of the same species living in the same area at the same time
• Population size is determined by
◦ Births and immigration
◦ Deaths and emigration
Abiotic components:
• Temperature
• Sunlight
• pH
• Salinity
• Precipitation
✦Limiting factors: resources in the environment that limit the growth, abundance, and distribution
of organisms in and ecosystem.
• Determine the carrying capacity of the area
◦ Density dependent
‣ Affect only when it reaches a certain density
‣ Tend to be biotic factors
◦ Density independent
‣ Control populations no matter what the density of it is
✦Carrying capacity: maximum number of individuals of a species that the environment can
sustainably support in a given area
Predation
✦Predation: One organism hunts and kills another to provide itself with energy or for survival
and reproduction
• Example of evolution in action
• Best-fit predators will be more successful at hunting
and survive
• Prey can evolve to increase avoidance tactics to
survive long enough to reproduce
Herbivory
✦Herbivory:The consumption of plant material by an
animal
• Herbivores evolve coping mechanisms to continue
eating after structural changes are made to their
food
• Long necks for giraffes
Parasitism
✦Parasitism: When an organism takes nutrients from another.
• Parasites that live outside of their host = ectoparasites
• Parasites that live inside of their host = endoparasites
• Not beneficial for them to kill their host
Mutualism
✦Mutualism: Two organisms of a different species exist in a mutually beneficial relationship
• Vital to ecosystem functioning
• 50% of all terrestrial plants rely on the fungi around their roots to absorb inorganic
compounds from the soil
• Example: Oxpecker
◦ Eats the ticks and parasites that feed on herds of animals
Disease
• Accompanied by signs or symptoms
• May be the result of environmental agents, infective agents, genetic defects, or a combination
of them.
Competition
• Organisms compete for a resource that is in limited supply
• If the resource is plentiful, there is no competition
◦ Growth like the J-shaped curve
• Intraspecific competition
◦ Members of the same species compete for a resource
• Interspecific competition
◦ Different species compete for a resource they both need.
◦ More impact on species survival
Key players
Producers
• Inorganic compounds into food
• Autotrophs
• Primary producers, base of the food chain
• Green plants
◦ Produce own food through photosynthesis
• Do not only grow on soil
• Some energy is also produced by chemosynthesis, in the absence of light
• Roles
1. Provide food for all other life on earth
2. Regulate the hydrological cycle
3. Absorb CO2 and release oxygen
A. maintain the balance of gases in the atmosphere
4. Habitats for animals
5. Reduce erosion
Consumers
• Heterotrophs
• Herbivores
◦ Just eat plants
• Carnivores
◦ Just eat meat
• Omnivores
◦ Eat both plants and animals
Photosynthesis
• Green plants take light energy and transform it
into chemical energy
• Chlorophyll is the pigment in chloroplasts that
contains the proteins to absorb light energy
from the sun.
• Word equation
◦ Carbon dioxide + Water →(Light and
chlorophyll) →Glucose + Oxygen
• Chemical Equation
• Systems diagram
Respiration
• reverse of photosynthesis
• Oxidation of glucose to release energy
• Energy is transformed from chemical into kinetic energy and then dissipated as heat
• Word equation
◦ Glucose + Oxygen → (Oxidation)→ Carbon dioxide + Water + Energy
• Chemical equation
◦
•
• Systems Diagram
• Biomass is the total amount of living matter in a given area so it represents the standing stock
of energy at each trophic level
• Measured in grams per meter squared (gm^-2)
• Measured as dry weight, eliminating water variation content in organisms
• Samples are collected, dried and weighed to find the biomass of a trophic level
• Advantages
◦ Overcome the problems of counting seen in pyramids of numbers
• Disadvantages
◦ The whole organism is measures, including parts that aren't consumed
◦ Samples have to be taken, so results are extrapolated
◦ Destructive and unethical methods
◦ Considerable seasonal variation
◦ Not al organisms have the same caloric value
• Each bar represents the amount of energy that is generated and available for the next trophic
level
• Energy/mass per unit are per unit of time (Jm^-2yr^-1)
• Always pyramid shaped
• Advantages
◦ Most accurate
◦ Accurate comparison of ecosystems
◦ Solar input can be added to the model
• Disadvantages
◦ Hard to collect data
◦ Hard to assign trophic levels
• 10% rule (about 10% of energy is lost from one trophic level to another)
• Length of food chains
◦ Terrestrial
‣ Avg 5 trophic levels
◦ Aquatic
‣ Avg 7
• They start with much smaller organisms
• Less of the biomass is taken up in skeletal formation
• Although less light gets to primary producers
• Toxins in the food chain
◦ Cannot be eliminated from their bodies
◦ Biomagnification and bioaccumulation
‣ ✦Bioaccumulation: Increase in concentration of a pollutant in an organism as it
absorbs or ingests it from its environment
‣ ✦Biomagnification: Is the increase in the concentration of the pollutant as it moves up
through the food chain
◦ DDT:
‣ POP
‣ Stored in animal fats cells
‣ Cannot be eliminated from the body
‣ Results in both bioaccumulation and biomagnification
‣ Sprayed on land to control malaria
‣ Thins out eggs and beaks, causes fertility issues
2.3.1 Energy
• Equatorial areas receive more radiation
◦ Affecting the climate
• Path of solar radiation
Reflectivity of surfaces
• Average planetary
albedo: 30-35%
• Dark surfaces: 4-20%
• Desert sand: 40%
• Clouds: 40-90%
• Fresh snow: 80-90%
• Sent back to space
• Solar radiation is scattered through the atmosphere
• Scattering reflection is about 30%
• Atmospheric gases and particles absorb about 19%
• 51% arrives at the surface
◦ Some is absorbed
◦ Some is used for photosynthesis
◦ Some is reflected
2.3.2 Productivity
Primary productivity
• Process of photosynthesis or chemosynthesis to make organic compounds
• Either Gross or Net
• Measured for a whole trophic level
• GPP (Gross Primary Productivity)
◦ Biomass produced by primary producers in a given amount of time
• NPP (Net Primary Productivity)
◦ Takes into account respiratory losses (R)
◦ NPP= GPP- R
◦ Amount of usable biomass in an ecosystem
◦ Not all that efficient
◦ Variation
‣ Terrestrial ecosystems and Marine ecosystems have different variations and avg NPP
2.3.3 Secondary productivity and energy pathways
Stores
• Atmosphere
◦ CO2
• Terrestrial plants and food web
◦ Carbohydrates
• Phytoplankton and food web in marine
ecosystems
◦ Carbohydrates
• Soil and organic matter
◦ Dead organic matter and soil biota
• Coal, oil, and gas
◦ Organic matter decomposed over millions of years
◦ Quickly decreasing
• Sediments and sedimentary rocks
◦ Calcite
• Ocean surface and deep oceans
◦ CO2 is initially dissolved
◦ Incorporated to shells, skeletons and organic matter as carbon
Flows
• Respiration and photosynthesis
◦ Move carbon into and out of the atmospheric store
• Decay
◦ Decomposers release nutrients along CO2 into the atmosphere
• Combustion
◦ Breaking down of hydrocarbon chains releasing CO2
• Biological pump
◦ Movement of carbon along the marine food web
Human interaction
• Dependance on the carbon cycle
• Alterations
• Increasing the atmospheric stores
Stores
• Atmosphere
◦ Most
• Soil organic matter
• Ocean
• Terrestrial plant biomass
Transformations
• Biological fixation
◦ Bacteria transform nitrogen into ammonium (nitrification)
• Physical fixation
◦ Lightning
• Denitrification
◦ Bacteria remove nitrates from the soil into the atmosphere
• Leaching
◦ Dissolve soluble nitrates and wash them out from the soil
• Combustion
◦ Release of nitrogen locked up in organic material
Flows
Human interaction
• Fossil fuel combustion increases nitrogen oxides
• Denitrification due to the draining of wetlands
• Use of inorganic fertilizers
◦ Supplementing natural fixation rates
◦ Increases denitrification and leaching
‣ Leading to eutrophication
• Increase of nutrient stores in the soil
• Livestock increases the amount of ammonia, through their waste.
• K-strategists
◦ Few offspring Increased quality of them
◦ Parental care
◦ More common in the climax community in succession
◦ large size
◦ Large amounts of time and energy on parental care
◦ Out-compete r-strategists
◦ Mature and reproduce slowly
◦ Regulated by internal factors
◦ Long life span
◦ Slow growth rate
◦ Predators/higher trophic levels
• R-strategists
◦ Quantity of offspring
◦ Little to no parental care
◦ Low survival chances
◦ At least some survive because of the
amount
◦ Beneficial in unstable, unpredictable
environments
◦ Early stages of succession
◦ Small size
◦ vast numbers of offspring and low chances of survival
◦ No parental care
◦ Pioneer species
◦ Mature young and reproduce quickly
◦ Regulated by external factors so carrying capacity is often exceeded
◦ Short life span
◦ Pre/low trophic levels
• Succession
◦ ✦Predictable change in a vegetation
community over time
◦ Is a change over time
◦ Changes in the plant community can
cause changes in the physical
environment
◦ May occur alone
◦ Starts with a pioneer community
◦ Vegetation transitions through intermediate communities to the final climax community
◦ Steps:
1. Colonization
A. Initiated by pioneer species
a. Suited for unstable environment
B. Find nutrients within the rock
2. Establishment
A. Getting going as an ecosystem
B. Deep enough soil fro invertebrates
C. Building of humus
D. development of habitats
3. Competition
A. Species adapted to specific abiotic
conditions
B. Less extreme conditions
C. Complex, larger plants
D. K-strategists
4. Climax
A. Stability
B. Steady state equilibrium
C. Self perpetuating
◦ Types of succession
‣ Hydrosere
• Succession in a body of freshwater
• Small lakes may disappear and be replaced by plant communities
‣ Halosere
• Succession in salt water marshes
‣ Psammosere
• Succession along sand dunes
• Stabilizes the dunes and stops them shifting
‣ Lithosere
• Succession starting from bare rock
‣ Xerosere
• Succession in dry areas
• Zonation
◦ ✦Zonation: Change in a vegetation community along an environmental gradient
◦ Caused by things such as: changes in altitude, depth of water, tidal level, distance from
the shore, etc.
◦ Is a spatial change in response to changing conditions
◦ Plant communities adapt to different environmental conditions
◦ Occurs without succession
◦ Changes are spatial and determined by changes in abiotic factors
◦ Altitudinal zonation
‣ Triggered by changes in climactic conditions with increased altitude
‣ Changes up the mountain:
• Shortened growing season
◦ Caused by lower temperatures and longer freezing periods
• Increased precipitation and change from rain to snow
• Higher rates of insolation
• Strong winds for longer periods of time
◦ Distance from the shore
‣ Increases vegetation communities change with changing conditions
‣ Sand dunes show both succession and zonation
‣ Father from the sea:
• Soil changes
◦ Depth and humus content increase
◦ pH decreases moving from alkaline to neutral
◦ Improvement in moisture holding capacity
• Sea spray and wind speeds decrease
2.5.1 Sampling
• Larger samples represent a greater part of the
population
• Number of samples depend on what you are
sampling
• Avoid bias
Random Sampling
• Every item has the same chance to be selected
• Use of random numbers
• Methodology
◦ Random points
‣ pair of numbers
◦ Random areas
◦ Random lines
• Unbiased
• May not have access to some sample points
• Suitable for large populations
• Points may miss some places
Systematic sampling
• The nth method
• Every nth term, a sample is chosen
• Easy to apply, no need for a grid
• May be biased due to location of places
• Whole study can be covered
• Patterns can be missed or areas exaggerated
Stratified sampling
• Sample represents the proportions of the populations
• Representative of the population
◦ So long as the proportions are known
• Flexible
• Good for comparing sub-sets
• Must know size of subsets to get an accurate picture
• Quadrat
◦ A plot used to identify the area studies
◦ Square or rectangular
◦ Size depends on the organisms studied
◦ Used to study plants
◦ Calculate the number of individuals
◦ Percentage frequency of how ofter a species appears in an area
◦ Find population density
◦ Quick easy method
◦ Accurate with large species
◦ Good for comparing over time or space
◦ Hard with small species
◦ Inaccurate with some species
◦ May miss some species
◦ Need for the person to identify species
accurately
◦ Species may look different in different life
stages
• Transects
◦ Line transects
‣ Vegetation that touches the line can be
recorded at intervals
‣ Random sampling
• Lines randomly placed
‣ Stratified sampling
• Known subsets
‣ Systematic sampling
• Studying an environmental gradient
◦ Line placed across
◦ Belt transects
‣ Use a quadrat to create a belt of sampling
• Dichotomous key
◦ Use only observable characteristics, things that you can see.
◦ Give specific measurements if you are talking about size or weight. Is the insect longer
than 5 cm? Is the leaf longer than it is wide?
◦ Use very specific language, no vague statements like is it long? Long to one person is not
the same as long to another person.
◦ Beware of using color as some organisms change color during the year. The Arctic fox is
white in winter but brown in summer.
◦ You can use paired statements (as in the video) or yes/no questions
◦ Easy to use & construct
◦ Require prior knowledge
◦ Difference during stages of life
◦ Some parts may be damaged
• Can be extrapolated
• Highly destructive
• Does not account for underground mass
• Not accurate for large vegetation
• Not possible to get accurate figures for animals
Capturing animals
• Non-lethal methods
• Simple and require little equipment
• Can result in the death of organisms
• Can cause stress
• Only suitable for small, non aggressive animals
Traps & Nets
• Catch anything
• Birds
• Bats
• Fish
• Working the animal to avoid double counting
◦ Ring on the leg
◦ Patch of fur clipped
◦ Fin clipped
Aerial photography
• Study large areas
• Large animals
• Carnivores can be counted
• Animals may appear in two squares
• Expensive commission aerial photography
• Animals may be hidden by trees
• Young animals may be missed
- Terrestrial biomes
• Abiotic environment is crucial for plants
◦ Temperature, soil type, precipitation and light
• Plants act as habitats, so more plants= more species
• Type of vegetation
◦ Woodland vegetation has many layers creating a multi-storied apartment block for
animals
◦ Grasslands= less diversity of accommodation
- Marine habitats
• Determined by abiotic factors (not only their impacts on plants)
◦ dissolved gases, land run-off, marine topography, nutrients, ocean gyres, currents pH,
salinity, sunlight, temperature, latitude, and turbulence
THE LINKS
1. High habitat diversity gives more areas for populations to spread to. Increases genetic pool
variation
2. High habitat diversity also allows species to adapt into newer spaces, resulting in higher
species diversity
3. High genetic diversity increases the adaptability of species and can result in speciation,
therefore higher species diversity
4. High species diversity of plants results in higher habitat diversity
3.2.1 Evolution
• Charles Darwin
◦ 1859 - "On the origin of species"
• Causes of evolution:
1. Mutations
• A change in DNA
◦ Evolution could result from the accumulation of several mutations
• Totally random and can/could not manifest on an individual
• Could be beneficial, harmful or neutral
• Small or large-scale impacts.
2. Natural selection
• Gene variation has survival advantages
• "survival of the fittest"
• Action
◦ Divergent and convergent plates
‣ Significant impacts on biodiversity
◦ Destructive boundary
‣ Limited impact on biodiversity
• Divergent plate margins
◦ Move apart
◦ Create huge underwater mountain chains
‣ Hydrothermal activity
◦ Shallow sections
‣ Surface
• Convergent plate margins
◦ Create mountains, volcanoes and ocean trenches
◦ Huge mountain range
‣ Himalaya
‣ Impact on biodiversityProtect from extreme weather
• Volcanic activity
◦ New habitats and niches
◦ Land is subjected to succession
◦ New islands underwater and over as well
• Mass extinction: sudden global decrease in the number of species over a relatively short
period of time.
• Background or normal extinction: standard rate at which species go extinct.
• THE BIG FIVE
◦ Five mass extinctions
◦ Named after geological eras
• NGO'S:
- Non-profit, voluntary organizations funded by charitable donations and membership fees.
- Focus varies, can work specifically with one issue in one area to international concerns and
reach.
- Lobby governments to change the law (through petitions, boycotts and protest marches)
- Use the media to bring the issue to attention.
- Direct action to combat ecological damage. Human blockade and confronting ships, etc. Some
are illegal but they bring a lot of media attention.
- Education to bring media understanding, in order to change behaviors and influence future
policies.
- Through research assess the situation, identify threats and potential solutions
- Purchase and manage threatened habitat areas and protect biodiversity for future
generations.
- Work with governments, businesses and local communities as to reduce degradation and
improve habitat and species.
- Serve as watchdogs, monitoring activity to ensure laws are not broken and government
agencies are enforcing legislation. When laws are broken some NGOs sue businesses that are
carrying out illegal activity and also government agencies for not fulfilling their role.
• Intergovernmental organizations:
- IGO's
• United Nations
◦ Founded their own organizations:
‣ The United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP)
‣ Food and Agricultural Organizations (FAO)
‣ Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC)
• International Union for Conservation for Nature and Natural Resources (IUCN)
◦ Countries + NGO's
• Key features:
◦ Decisions @ international level
‣ Provide guidelines
‣ International treaties
• Enforcement of agreements through legislation
◦ Information provided to the public (reliable)
‣ Latest reviews, reports and scientific papers
‣ National and global trends
◦ Direct communication w/media
‣ Informing of changes in policies and legislation
‣ Covered by world press generally
◦ Long and lengthy decision making process.
‣ Needs consensus from many countries
‣ Slower response than NGOs
◦ Bad reputation in regards to the understanding and connection to local communities
affected by environmental damage.
ICUN definition: ‘… a clearly defined geographical space, recognised, dedicated and managed,
through legal or other effective means, to achieve the long term conservation of nature with
associated ecosystem services and cultural values’.
EDGE EFFECT
- A dramatic change in the composition of the vegetation at the boundary, creating an abrupt
edge due to fences and boundaries
- This clearance of land causes:
‣ Increased sunlight at lower forest levels
‣ Higher temperature
‣ Lower humidity
‣ Increase in air movement
- UNESCO Man and Biosphere Programme created three distinct zones to design protected
areas:
• Core area:
* Pristine natural environment under protection
• Buffer zone:
* In the middle of the other two zones
* Use is limited to minimize harm to the area
* Barrier to protect the core from human activities
• Transition zone:
* Sustainable use of resources
* Can be affected by human activities like farming
- Optimal shape: circle.
- Lowest perimeter therefore lowest edge effect
- Ideal size:
- Larger the better, support more ecosystems
- Animals need bigger areas to be supported by the resources
- Single large or several small?
- Depends on the species
- Larger species require large reserves and smaller species require smaller ones
- Smaller reserves will created a greater edge effect
- Connecting reserves
• Wildlife corridors are used for animals to move
• Advantages:
◦ Migration reduces isolation
◦ Increases in gene pools
◦ Seasonal migration
• Disadvantages:
◦ Can spread diseases
◦ Threats from invasive species
◦ Threats from predators and hunters
• 2.5% is freshwater
• only 0.76% available in rivers, lakes and
aquifers
• Storages
◦ Oceans
◦ Surface waters
◦ Ice caps and glaciers
◦ Soil moisture
◦ Water vapor and clouds within the atmosphere
◦ Groundwater within aquifers
◦ Organisms such as plants and animals
• Flows
• Flow of water between storages
◦ Into the atmosphere
‣ Evotranspiration
‣ Water vapour
◦ Out of the atmosphere
‣ Water as precipoitation
‣ Deposition as well
◦ On land
‣ Dependent on topography,
geography, soil, vegetation, etc.
‣ Could become frozen
‣ Can be absorbed
‣ Can be filtrated underground
◦ Into groundwater
‣ Through permeable surface
‣ Gravity+percolation
◦ Out of groundwater
‣ Directly into the sea
‣ Human activity
◦ Into surface water
‣ Precipitation run off
◦ Out of surface water
‣ Into the sea, rivers and lakes
‣ Evaporation into the atmosphere
‣ Flooding in-land
• Reservoirs
◦ Damming rivers
◦ Flooding valleys
◦ Benefits
‣ Generation of hydropower
‣ Flood control
‣ Navigation
‣ Fisheries
‣ Recreational, aesthetic and scenic value
‣ Control of water quality
◦ Impacts
‣ Change of habitat
‣ Relocation of people
‣ Changing the flow of the water
‣ Loss of fish and migratory routes
‣ Sedimentation in the reservoir and loss of capacity
• Artificial recharge
◦ Methods
‣ Ditch/trench above aquifer to intercept and collect runoff
• Water gradually seeps into the ground
• Can be expensive
‣ Pump directly
• Can be clogged due to sediment
• Using reservoirs can be useful
• Rainfall harvesting schemes
◦ Collecting precipitation in the roofs of buildings
◦ Stored in tanks
◦ Used for domestic purposes
◦ Reduces risk of flooding and soil erosion
• Desalination
◦ Energy intensive process
◦ Used in regions where there's cheap energy
◦ Method
‣ Reverse osmosis
• Seawater under pressure forcing water through a membrane and leaving salt
behind
• Water redistribution:
◦ Taken from surplus to where there's a deficit
◦ grand, expensive projects
◦ Adverse effects on donor:
‣ Lower water levels affecting habitats and associated species
‣ Disruption of flow can affect biota
‣ Water may not be sufficient to meet the needs of local people
• Use of greywater
◦ Used water that is clean enough to be used again
◦ Household water
‣ Not discharge from toilets
◦ Used for toilet flushing and gardening
◦ Physical treatment
‣ Filtration to remove large particles
and disinfection to kill pathogens
◦ Biological treatment
‣ Bacteria or wetland systems to utilize
nutrients and filter particles from the
water
• Reducing demand
◦ Increased water efficiency
‣ Agriculture efficient water irrigation
‣ Reusing water in the industry
‣ Aeration traps, low flush toilets, efficient washing machines and greywater recycling
◦ Public awareness
‣ Shower instead of baths
‣ Water efficient machines
‣ Avoid unnecessary use of water
‣ Use of rainwater
◦ Education in schools
◦ Economic incentives
‣ Increased cost of water
‣ Installation of water meters
‣ Fines for wasting water
◦ Legislation and policies
‣ All new buildings using efficient supplies
◦ Changing to crops that require less water to produce
◦ Reducing meat based diets
◦ Detecting and repairing leaks
• Lake zones
◦ Littoral zone
‣ Shallow are that goes up to the shore
‣ Macrophytes occur
◦ Limnetic zone
‣ Open water where there is enough light for phytoplankton to photosynthesize
◦ Euphotic zone
‣ Littoral and limnetic zone
‣ Photosynthesis
◦ Profundal zone
‣ Deep water
‣ No light penetration
◦ Benthic zone
‣ Organisms live within the sediments
• Freshwater trophic levels
◦ Primary producers
‣ Phytoplankton and macrophytes
◦ Primary consumers
‣ Zooplankton and water snails
◦ Secondary consumers
‣ Fish, birds, and frogs
◦ Tertiary consumers
‣ Large fish, large birds ,and mammals
• Algae
◦ Used by the food, pharmaceutical, and cosmetic industries
◦ Animal feed, fertilizer, and to produce fuel
• Fish
◦ Used:
‣ Pet food
‣ Feed for livestock
‣ Aquaculture feed
‣ Fish oil
‣ Gelatin
‣ Fertilizers
◦ Factors contributing to increase in demand
‣ Growth in human population
‣ Promotion of health benefits of consuming fish
• Protein and nutrient
• Essential fatty acids
• Low in saturated fats
• Shellfish and other groups of animals
◦ Molluscs
◦ Crustaceans
◦ Echinoderms
◦ Reptiles
◦ Amphibians
◦ Aquatic mammals
• Hunting of seals
◦ Inuit communities
◦ Hunted
◦ Controversy:
‣ Concerns over species becoming threatened
‣ Methods are inhumane
‣ Only pelts are used
‣ Seals have been blamed for the collapse of the cod fishery in Newfoundland
‣ Melting of ice as a result of global warming reducing the habitat and threatening
populations
◦ Regulations
‣ Use of quotas
‣ Open and closed season for hunting
‣ Limited number of catches a day
‣ Number of boats allowed to hunt
‣ Banning hunting of young seals
• Energy efficiency of aquatic food systems
◦ Less efficient than terrestrial food systems
4.3.4 Capture fisheries
• Use of quotas
◦ Total Allowable Catches
‣ Set by authorities
• Reduction in fishing effort
◦ Reducing number of boats
◦ Restricting boat size
◦ Restricting type of gear used
◦ Limits on the minimum size of fish
◦ Restricting fishing times
• Use of exclusion zones and Marine Protected Areas (MPAs)
◦ Fishing is banned
◦ Protects habitats to threatened species
◦ Exclusion zones act as breeding grounds
◦ Lead to the recovery of fish stocks
• Two Contrasting cases
◦ Newfoundland
‣ Cod fisheries
‣ Canada
‣ 1950's
• Large shipping fleets
• Factory fishing boats with the ability to process and freeze fish on board
• More efficient methods to find fish
‣ Peak in catches in 1968
‣ Over-fishing
‣ Closing of the fishery
‣ In 2011 fishing stocks were beginning to recover, though not completely
◦ Iceland
‣ Cod fishery
‣ Action to allow fishing but at a sustainable rate
‣ Protection of territorial water from fishermen from other countries
‣ Restrictions on fishing gear and fleet sizes
‣ Strict quotas
‣ Banning the disposal of any bycatch including undersize cod
‣ Diversification of target species
‣ Use of exclusion zone
• Permanent closure of nursery areas
• Seasonal closures
• Temporary closures
‣ High level of enforcement
4.3.6 Aquaculture
• Organic pollution
◦ Turbulence in the water
◦ Affecting oxygen levels
◦ Production of ammonia and hydrogen sulphide due to anoxic conditions
‣ Fish kills
• Inorganic plant nutrients
◦ Nitrates and phosphates
◦ Eutrophication
◦ Block light penetration
◦ Water becomes unsuitable for drinking
◦ Reduced recreation use of water
◦ Reduced commercial value of the ecosystem
◦ Increase in water related diseases
• Toxic metals
◦ Toxic
◦ Interfere with cellular processes
◦ Bioaccumulation/biomagnification
• Synthetic compounds
◦ Non-biodiegradable
◦ Organochloride compounds
◦ Bioaccumulated
◦ PCBs and DDT
◦ Effects:
◦ Inhibition of phytoplankton growth
◦ Inhibition of oyster shell growth
◦ Effects on fish reproduction
◦ Bird's immune system repressed
◦ Reproductive failure in mammas as a result of its effect on the endocrine system
◦ Yusho illness
• Inert suspended solids
◦ Suppress light penetration
◦ Clog feeding and respiratory structures of benthic organisms
• Hot water
◦ Elevate local temperatures
◦ Sub-tropical species can outcompete native ones
◦ Lower oxygen concentration
• Oil
◦ Prevents gaseous exchange
‣ Oxygen depletion
◦ Prevents photosynthesis
◦ Loss of phytoplankton
◦ Death of organisms due to sedimentation
◦ Birds/mammals
‣ Die from drowning or hyperthermia
‣ Due to the toxic effect of oil
• Pathogens
◦ Concern for humans
◦ Concern for animals which may be infected
• Plastic debris
◦ Entanglement with animals
◦ Ingestion
‣ Internal injury and death
‣ Altering of hormone levels
• Light pollution
◦ Effects on sea turtle populations
• Noise pollution
◦ Beaching of whales and dolphins
• Invasive species
◦ Competition with endemic species
• Biological monitoring
◦ Use of indicator species
‣ Macro-invertebrates for indication
• Stationary
• Long life history
• Abundant
• Easy to sample
• Diverse groups of organism which increases the chances of at least one group to
react
• Removed from shallow waters
‣ Disadvantages:
• Potential organisms drifting into the area and being accidentally sampled
• Difficulty identifying some species
• Absence of some species
◦ Biotic index
‣ Determine water quality using aquatic
organism
‣ Little pollution
• Presence of a wide range of
species
• Presence of sensitive species
(indicators)
‣ Categories for macro-organisms
• Highly sensitive to oxygen
depletion
◦ mussels
• Moderately sensitive species to oxygen depletion
◦ Shrimp
◦ Snails
• Little sensitivity to oxygen depletion
◦ Maggots and mosquito
◦ Microbial test
‣ Testing pathogens of faecal origin
‣ Indicator species
• E. coli and F. streptococci
◦ Occur when pathogens are present
◦ Great numbers
◦ Easy to isolate and identify using conventional methods
◦ Disadvantages:
‣ Expensive
‣ Sterile lab necessary
‣ Time delay for incubation
• Agricultural run-off
◦ Pesticides
‣ Use alternative approaches (biological control)
‣ Applying them only when necessary rather than regularly
‣ Biodegradable pesticides
‣ Target specific pesticides
‣ Storing pesticides in safe place
◦ Fertilizers
‣ Replace nitrate fertilizers with ammonium fertilizers
‣ Organic fertilizers
‣ Application only when required and at a necessary rate
‣ During dry weather only to avoid run-off
‣ Avoid near aquatic systems
◦ Organic waste
‣ Avoid spreading near water courses
‣ Only applying during dry weather
‣ Ensuring everything is collected before discharging it into the water body
◦ Run-off
‣ Reducing water used for irrigation
‣ Use of contours and terraces
‣ Planting crops
‣ Using buffer zones
◦ Management of eutrophication
‣ Macrophyte channels to absorb nutrient from the water
‣ Mix water to aerate it
‣ Dredge the bottom to remove sediments
‣ Mechanically remove macrophytes to use as fertilizer on-land
‣ use biological control
‣ Reintroduction of native species
• Pedosphere (soil)
◦ Interacts with
‣ lithosphere (rocks)
‣ Hydrosphere (water)
‣ Atmosphere (air)
‣ Biosphere (living)
• Factors affecting soil characteristics
◦ Climate
‣ Precipitation/evaporation
◦ Organisms
‣ Breaking down of organic matter and mix it into the upper layers of the soil
◦ Relief
‣ Elevation of the land
‣ Aspect of the slope
‣ Angle of the slope
◦ Parent material
‣ Original material the soil develops from
◦ Time
‣ Amount of time developed
• Soil as an ecosystem
◦ Micro-organisms
‣ Bacteria, algae and fungi
◦ Macro-organisms
‣ Earthworms, insects, mammals (e.g:
moles)
◦ Organic debris accumulates in the upper
layer and it is broken down by
decomposers
◦ Breaking down of DOM (dead organic matter)
• Soil properties
◦ Sandy soil
‣ Feels gritty
‣ Big particles
‣ Well drained soils
• Rarely water logged
‣ Subject to droughts
‣ Warm up quickly in the summer
◦ Clay
‣ Smallest
‣ Sticky feel
‣ Small pore spaces
‣ Poorly drained soils
‣ Prone to water logging
‣ Long time to dry after rainfall
‣ Warm up slowly in summer
◦ Silt
‣ Smooth feel
‣ Small particles
‣ Small pore spaces
• Properties between sand and clay
• Soil texture
◦ Affected by organic matter and organisms
◦ Good soils
‣ Crumble easily
• Arable farms
◦ Crops
• Pastoral farms
◦ Rearing animals
• Type of farming and level of production depend on:
◦ Environmental conditions
◦ Topography and soil conditions
◦ Access to vehicles and technology
◦ Financial inputs
‣ Land
‣ Seeds
‣ Fertilizers
‣ Pesticides
‣ Equipment
‣ Labour
◦ Cultural and environmental value systems
◦ Government and political initiatives
• Intensive commercial farming
◦ Crop production
‣ Large-scale
‣ Single crop
• Monoculture
‣ High yield
‣ Low production cost
‣ More accessible food source
‣ Use of:
• GMOs
• Fertilizers
• Herbicides
• Insecticides
• Water (irrigation)
• Automated techniques
• Frequent sowing
◦ Environmental impacts
‣ Pesticides kill non-target organisms
‣ Fertilizers can result in nutrient run-off
• Eutrophication
‣ Monoculture increases risk of disease
‣ Use of fossil fuels for mechanical equipment
• Emission of greenhouse gases
‣ Soil degradation
• Nutrient depletion
‣ Loss of natural habitats
• Clearing of land
‣ Loss of pollinators
• Vital for fertilization
◦ Animal production
‣ Maximum and cheapest output
‣ Battery farming
• Animals kept indoors in limited spaces to reduce movement
‣ Concerns
• Rapid spread of disease
• Ethical concerns
• Use of growth hormones to enhance production
• Antibiotics to prevent diseases
◦ Resistance
• Pollution due to high concentration of organic matter
• Factors:
◦ Political commitment
◦ Economic support to sustainable farming systems
◦ Change in social and individual behavior
• Sustainable farming strategies
◦ Legislation
‣ Restrict substances
‣ Set standards for food production
‣ Controlled used of drugs and growth hormones
‣ Regulation of environmental conditions
◦ Minimum space requires per animal
◦ Pollution management
‣ reduce the use of pesticides and fertilizers
‣ Land management practices
‣ Remove pollutants from the environment
◦ Reduction of food waste
◦ Growing indigenous crops
‣ More resilient to drought and disease
‣ Adapted to grown in areas of low fertility and low rainfall
◦ Polyculture farming
‣ Growing multiple crops
‣ Use of inter-cropping
• Low growing crops between taller
ones
• Reduce soil erosion
• Reduce weed growth
‣ Use of companion planting
• Reduce pest attack
◦ Reduction of meat consumption
‣ More vegetarian based diet
‣ Less energy loss in the lower food chain
‣ Reduced ecological footprint
‣ Less resource use
‣ Les waste
• Fertile soils
◦ Medium for plant growth
◦ Organic matter
‣ Sufficient soil moisture holding capacity
‣ Good soil structure
• Prevention of water logging
◦ Healthy soil community
‣ Break down organic matter
‣ Return nutrients back into the soil
◦ Essential nutrients and minerals
‣ Nutrients
• Nitrates
• Phosphates
• Potassium compounds
‣ Minerals
• Sulphur
• Calcium
• Magnesium
• Iron
• Manganese
• Boron
• Copper
• Zinc
◦ Suitable pH
‣ Between 5.5 to 7.5
‣ If too acidic it releases toxic aluminum ions
• Role of succession on fertility
◦ Biological activity contributes to mineralization of DOM
‣ Invertebrates
• Mix organic matter into the soil
• Feed off and digest some of the OM
‣ Fungi and bacteria
• Break the organic matter down
◦ Release nutrients into the soil
◦ Nitrogen fixation
• Non-renewable resource
◦ Soil formation takes around 1000 years to develop (5cm)
◦ Fastest under sunny, warm and wt conditions
‣ Medium for plant growth
◦ Current rate of degradation is occurring at a much faster rate
◦ Not replenishable within a human lifespan
Erosion
• Soil particles transported from one place to
another
• Removes fertile topsoil
• Can reduce water retention capacity
• Problems:
◦ Entering water courses
◦ Sediment clogging up ditches
‣ Increased risk of flooding
◦ Water pollution
‣ Pesticides and nutrients in the soil
• Water erosion
1. Detachment
A. Raindrops free the soil
B. Run-off detaches more as it flows
2. Transport
A. Flow of water carries the soil particles
3. Deposition
A. Soil particles are deposited when the water slows down
◦ Types of soil erosion
‣ Sheet erosion
• Fairly thin layer of soil removed
‣ Rill erosion
• Scours channels into the soil
‣ Gully erosion
• Deep channels due to great force
• Wind erosion
◦ Dry regions
◦ Exposed soil surfaces
◦ Light and loose particles are more easily picked up
◦ Wind blown particles can damage plants in their path
◦ Reduction of visibility
• Chemical degradation
◦ Salinization
‣ Water evaporation
• Leaves salt behind
‣ Soil becomes saline
‣ Arid and heavily irrigated areas
• High levels of evaporation
◦ Acidification
‣ Increase in hydrogen concentration
‣ Lower pH
‣ Acid deposition
‣ Leaching
‣ Removal of nutrients
‣ Ammonium based fertilizers
◦ Nutrient depletion
‣ Over exploitation
‣ Reduced capacity of the soil
◦ Chemical pollution
‣ Accumulation of toxic metals
• Physical degradation
◦ Soil compaction
‣ Heavy machinery
‣ Animals
◦ Reduced soil porosity
◦ Easily waterlogged areas
• Urbanization
◦ Growth of cities
◦ Loss of soil cover
◦ Compaction
◦ Soil pollution
◦ Water and wind pollution ca affect infrastructures
• Livestock overgrazing
◦ Excessive vegetation removal
◦ Leaves soil exposed to water and wind erosion
• Deforestation
◦ Trees removed
◦ Uncovered land
◦ Increase in water runoff
◦ Decreased percolation
• Farming
◦ Tillage
‣ Ploughing the land and clearing debris
◦ Monoculture
‣ Extraction of specific nutrients
◦ Multiple crops per year
‣ Remove nutrients at a faster rate
◦ Chemicals
‣ Damage soil and microbial community
◦ Cultivating on steep slopes
‣ Loss of topsoil to water and wind erosion
◦ Marginal areas
‣ Limited productivity
‣ Necessary use of fertilizers
‣ Poor filtration
• Desertification
◦ Arable land to desert
◦ Loss of food production
Troposphere
• Closest to earth's surface
• 10km above sea level
• Warmest near the surface
• Wind speeds increase with height
• Most of the atmospheric mass is found within
• Most weather occurs
• Humans have most interaction
• Greenhouse effect occurs
◦ Energy enters the earth's atmosphere as short wave radiation and some is absorbed by
the earth's surface
◦ Energy is radiated back into the atmosphere in long wave radiation
◦ Green house gases
‣ Absorb long wave radiation
‣ Their absence would result in a much lower global temperature
‣ Average temperatures of 15ºC
◦ Main GHGs and their sources
‣ Water vapor
• Most abundant
• Rise in temperature= more water vapor= positive feedback loop
‣ Carbon dioxide
• Increased by:
◦ Burning fossil fuels
◦ respiration
◦ Volcanic activity
◦ Deforestation
‣ Methane
• Livestock
• Anaerobic decomposition of waste
• Rice cultivation
• Fossil fuels
‣ Nitrous oxide
• Fertilizers
• Combustion
• Industrial processes
‣ Chlorofluorocarbons and hydrofluorocarbons (CFCs and HFCs)
• Liquid coolants
• Production of plastic foam
• Industrial solvents
‣ Perfluorocarbon
• Production of aluminum
‣ Sulphur hexa-fluoride
• Production of magnesium
• Stratosphere
◦ 10 to 50km above sea level
◦ Stratospheric ozone absorbs uv radiation
◦ Ozone layer
◦ Dry air
◦ Increased winds with height
◦ Stratopause
‣ End of stratosphere
‣ Constant temperature
• Mesosphere
◦ 50 to 80km above sea level
◦ Coldest part of the atmosphere
◦ Strong winds
◦ Mesopause
‣ Temperature doesn't change
‣ End of the mesosphere
• Thermosphere
◦ 80km to 500-1000km
◦ Uv and X-radiation absorbed
‣ Breaking down molecules into atoms
◦ Temperature increases with height
◦ Can expand
‣ Causing depth variation
◦ Ionosphere
‣ Within the thermosphere
‣ Electrical charge to particles
• Formation of ozone
◦ UV radiation
‣ Sufficient to drive the formation of
ozone
◦ Formed by sunlight energy breaking the
bonds within diatomic oxygen molecules to
form atomic oxygen
‣ Reacts with oxygen molecules to form
ozone (O3)
◦ @ the same time ozone molecules react with oxygen atoms to reform oxygen molecule
◦ Rate of ozone formation= rate of ozone destruction
‣ Constant level of ozone
‣ Without the presence of pollutants
• Effects of stratospheric ozone
◦ UV radiation
‣ UV-A
• Unable to absorb by ozone
‣ UV-B
• Most is absorbed
• Highly detrimental to humans
◦ Sunburn and premature skin
aging
◦ Skin cancer
◦ Cataracts
◦ Immune suppression
◦ Health problems in animals
◦ reproduction is crop production affected
◦ Reduced phytoplankton growth
◦ Reduction if forest productivity
‣ UV-C
• All is absorbed
• Measuring ozone levels
◦ Dobson units (DU)
‣ Depth the ozone molecules occupy at standard temperature and pressure
◦ When concentration falls ozone becomes more dispersed
‣ Ozone thinning
◦ Measured using lasers
‣ Intensity of certain wavelengths
‣ Normal levels range from 300 to 500 Dobson Units (that is the equivalent of 3mm to
5mm thickness of ozone)
‣
• International Agreement
◦ Vienna convention in 1985
‣ UN
‣ Reduce ozone depletion
‣ Influential in creating the Montreal protocol
‣ First UN treaty to be ratified by all 197 nations
‣ Exchange of information and research
◦ Montreal protocol
‣ 1987
‣ Targets set of the production and consumption of ODS
‣ Legally binding
‣ Deadlines vary from LEDCs to MEDCs
‣ Financial assistance to LEDCs
‣ Targets
• 1987
◦ Reduce CFCs by 50%
◦ Freeze production of halons
• 1990
◦ Phase out production of ODS
• 1992
◦ Move deadlines to 1996
• 1999
◦ More stringent controls for HCFCs
◦ Additional ODs added to be phased out by 2004
◦ Challenges
• Long-life span of ODS
• ODs present in discarded equipment
• Lack of alternatives
• Replacements are also ODS
◦ Like HCFCs as a replacement for CFCs
• Illegal trade
◦ Driven by:
‣ High cost of alternatives
‣ Costly to alter existing machinery
‣ Less effective replacements
• Lack of policing and enforcement
◦ Pollution management
‣ Altering human activity
• Campaigns for education
‣ Controlling release of pollutant
• International legislation
‣ Clean up and restoration
• Removal and destruction of existing ODS
• Progress
◦ CFCs
‣ banned
◦ Methyl bromide
‣ Banned by 2015
◦ Halons
‣ Banned
‣ Concentration in the atmosphere is
increasing
◦ HBFCs
‣ Banned
◦ HCFCs
‣ Phase out deadline 2030
‣ Increasing atmospheric concentration
◦ Reduction overall in ODS emissions
◦ Slowed down rate of decline
• Value of Montreal protocol amendments
◦ Reduced levels of stratospheric ozone
• Legislation
◦ International agreements
◦ Setting emission standards
◦ Building regulations
‣ Improve energy efficiency of new homes and buildings
◦ Planning regulations
‣ Cycle paths
‣ Road lanes for public transport
‣ Vehicle free zones
• Clean-up measures and restoration
◦ Scrubbers
‣ Filtering emissions
‣ Reforestation
• Aquatic ecosystems
◦ Enter directly as precipitation
◦ Indirectly as run-off
◦ It can lower the pH of the aquatic environment beyond the ability of organisms to survive
◦ Affect the food chain due to loss of species
◦ Unsuccessful hatching of eggs
◦ Leaching of aluminum ions
‣ Fish secrete excess mucus around the gills
• Prevention of oxygen uptake
• Death by asphyxiation
• Terrestrial ecosystems
◦ Leaching of nutrients and reducing nutrient availability
◦ Mobilization of:
‣ Aluminum ions that damage plant root systems
‣ Toxic metals contaminating water systems
‣ Damage cuticle wax of leaves
‣ Lower pest tolerance
‣ reduction of crop yields
‣ Loss of biodiversity
• Materials
◦ Stone erosion
‣ Buildings and statues made out of limestone = vulnerable
‣ Penetration beneath the pores cracking them
◦ Metal corrosion
‣ Increases corrosion
• Iron and steel
7.3.1 Mitigation
7.3.2 Geo-engineering
7.3.3 Adaptation
8.1.1 Fertility
8.1.2 Mortality
• Population pyramids
◦ Age-sex
• MEDCs
◦ Narrower base
◦ Increased age of survival
• LEDCs
◦ Wider base
◦ Great IMR
◦ Lower age of survival
8.1.6 Predicting population change -
demographic transition models
• DTM
• Developed in the 1920s
• Assumption LEDCs and MEDCs will go
through the same stages
• Stages
◦ CBR
◦ CDR
◦ NIR
◦ STAGE 1: Pre industrial society
‣ High fluctuating CBR and CDR
‣ Cancel each other
• Very low to zero NIR
‣ Lack of awareness in family planning
◦ STAGE2: Urbanizing/industrializing
‣ CBR remains high
‣ CDR drops
‣ Significant increase in NIR
‣ Improved food production & storage
‣ Better sanitation and medical assistance
‣ Discovery of penicillin
‣ Health care and education
◦ STAGE 3: Industrial
‣ Highest NIR
‣ Large gap between CBR and CDR
‣ Fall in birth rates
• Contraception
• Ban on child labour
◦ STAGE 4: Post industrial
‣ CBR, CDR and NIR are all low
‣ High growth
◦ STAGE 5: Post industrial
‣ Death rates exceed birth rates
‣ Lifestyle diseases
◦ Criticisms of the DTM
‣ MEDCs at the end of the model are being observed to
further develop it
‣ LEDCS may not follow some patterns
• MEDC based model
• Some LEDCs are going through the stages at a much faster rate
• Doesn't factor migration
• Cultural and religious factors not taken into account
• Doesn't consider government policies
• Economic capital
◦ Goods and services
◦ Economic value
◦ Changes in value
‣ Oil and petrol
• Aesthetic and intrinsic capital
◦ Appreciation of the beauty of nature
◦ Inherent nature of it being there
◦ Status changes over time and space
• Renewable
◦ Can be replaced as fast as it is being used
• Non-renewable natural capital
◦ Geological time scales to form
◦ Irreplaceable in our lifetimes
◦ Finite
◦ Find substitutes
• Living
◦ Living species
◦ Must be managed and used sustainably
‣ We could deplete that resource
• Non-living
◦ Renewable energy
◦ Water
◦ Ozone
◦ Cannot be un-sustainably used
‣ Not depleted through use
◦ Mismanaged if their cycle is affected
‣ i.e Hydrological cycle
• Methods
◦ Landfills
◦ Incineration
◦ Recycling
◦ Composting
• Types of SDW
◦ Organic material
‣ Garden waste
‣ Food/kitchen waste
‣ Wood
‣ Corks
◦ Paper
◦ Plastics
◦ Glass
◦ Metals
◦ Hazardous
‣ Paint
‣ Dry cell batteries
‣ Car batteries
‣ Fluorescent light bulbs
◦ Others
‣ Ceramics
‣ Rock
‣ Ash
‣ Soil
• Linear vs Circular
◦ Linear economy
‣ Use and discard
◦ Circular economy
‣ Restorative
‣ Material re-enters the system naturally
‣ Biological nutrients and Technical nutrients
• Non-biodegradable waste
◦ Anything that will not break down
◦ Plastic
‣ Made up of crude oil
‣ Finite source
‣ Not all can be recycled
◦ Batteries
◦ E-waste
‣ Electrical
‣ Electronic devices
• Reduce
◦ Most important strategy
◦ Altering the human activity that produces the waste
◦ Use re-usable products
◦ Avoid single-use plastics
• Reuse
◦ Reusing for the same purpose or for another thing
◦ Re-using old items
◦ Make materials long lasting
• Recycle
◦ Prevents the loss of useful raw materials
◦ Reduces the consumption of new raw materials.
◦ Reduces energy usage in some areas (though
collection and processing does use energy).
◦ Reduces pollution at the extraction phase of
the process - getting the raw materials out of
the ground.
◦ Lowers the release of greenhouse gases.
◦ Tax incentives to entice recycling
◦ Difficult to start recycling programmes
◦ Curbside recycling and recycling centers
• Educate
◦ Lowest cost financially
◦ Culture of reduce, reuse, recycle
◦ Changes in LEDCs to MEDCs
◦ LEDCs are more sustainable
‣ Second hand shops are cheaper
‣ No food waste because of economic pressures
‣ Maximize use of products
• Legislate
◦ Economic incentives for recycling
◦ Taxes/fines on excessive waste
• Remediate
◦ Reclaiming landfill sites