Cogent Business & Management

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Biometric-based self-service technology adoption

by older adult: empirical evidence from pension
fund sector in Indonesia

R. Amalina Dewi Kumalasari, Kusdi Rahardjo, Andriani Kusumawati &

Sunarti Sunarti

To cite this article: R. Amalina Dewi Kumalasari, Kusdi Rahardjo, Andriani Kusumawati &
Sunarti Sunarti (2024) Biometric-based self-service technology adoption by older adult:
empirical evidence from pension fund sector in Indonesia, Cogent Business & Management,
11:1, 2325543, DOI: 10.1080/23311975.2024.2325543

To link to this article: https://doi.org/10.1080/23311975.2024.2325543

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Cogent Business & Management
2024, VOL. 11, NO. 1, 2325543
https://doi.org/10.1080/23311975.2024.2325543

Operations, Information & Technology | Research Article

Biometric-based self-service technology adoption by older adult:
empirical evidence from pension fund sector in Indonesia
R. Amalina Dewi Kumalasari , Kusdi Rahardjo, Andriani Kusumawati and Sunarti Sunarti
Business Administration Department, Faculty of Administrative Science, Brawijaya University, Malang, Indonesia

ABSTRACT ARTICLE HISTORY

Digital transformation brings new perspectives for companies in managing their Received 3 April 2023
businesses. One is about how companies accelerate information and service processes Revised 19 November
by utilizing technology. Due to security factors, biometric-based self-service technology 2023
Accepted 27 February
(SST) is becoming popular and preferred in financial services. However, it is still relatively 2024
rare in developing countries like Indonesia, especially those specifically aimed at older
adults. This study reveals the unique factors of older adults by investigating the effect KEYWORDS
of health conditions and facilitating conditions on the sustainable use of biometric-based Self-service technology;
self-service technology (SST) among older adult users. This research framework is based older adult; biometrics;
on the Theory of Planned Behavior and involved 298 elderly respondents in three self-authentication;
acceptance
provinces of Indonesia. The result shows that facilitating conditions and behavioral
intentions to use are the main drivers of the continued use of biometric-based SST for REVIEWING EDITOR
elderly users. The declining health conditions of older adults (related to the ability to Jason Wang, University of
see, hear, and move limbs) affect their intention to use biometric-based self-service Huddersfield, United
technology. Although health conditions were found not to influence the use behavior Kingdom
significantly, these factors still contribute to the sustainable use of biometric-based SST SUBJECTS
by elderly users. They are considered a concern in the study and development of future Consumer Psychology;
technologies. Strategic Management;
Management of
Technology & Innovation

Introduction
The global population of people aged 65 and up is expected to more than double, rising from 761 mil-
lion in 2021 to 1.6 billion in 2050 (United Nations, 2023). Data from the Central Bureau of Statistics of
the Republic of Indonesia explain that from 1971 through 2019, the percentage of the elderly population
in Indonesia increased by about two-fold to 9.6 percent (approx. 25 million people), and reached 10.28
percent in 2021 (Central Bureau of Statistics (Indonesia), 2021). Since 2021, Indonesia has entered an
aging population structure, where around 1 in 10 of the population is elderly, and in 2022, the number
of older adults increase to 10.48 percent (Central Bureau of Statistics (Indonesia), 2022). The older adults
are a group that cannot be avoided by technological developments. Information and communication
technology use in Indonesia has developed rapidly (Central Bureau of Statistics (Indonesia), 2019). Even
though it is still relatively low, the technological literacy of older adults in Indonesia has increased from
5.73 percent in 2018 to 19.42 percent in 2022 (Central Bureau of Statistics (Indonesia), 2022). These data
illustrate that older adults are currently a group with the potential to adopt technology, including service
technology innovation.
During the COVID-19 pandemic, digital self-service has received much attention because social dis-
tance regulation necessitates non-contact services (Shi et al., 2023; Sixsmith et al., 2022). Self-service
technology is now equipped with more sophisticated security methods like biometrics. Fingerprints,
handprints, irises, voices, faces, signatures, ears, gaits, and other physiologic and behavioral traits of indi-
viduals are all examples of biometrics (Singh et al., 2021). Commercial biometrics deployments have been

CONTACT Andriani Kusumawati andriani_kusuma@ub.ac.id Business Administration Department, Faculty of Administrative Science,
University of Brawijaya Malang, Malang, Indonesia
© 2024 The Author(s). Published by Informa UK Limited, trading as Taylor & Francis Group
This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/), which
permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. The terms on which this article has been
published allow the posting of the Accepted Manuscript in a repository by the author(s) or with their consent.
2 R. A. D. KUMALASARI ET AL.

successful in financial, telecommunications, and other markets where authentication and fraud manage-
ment are required (Kockmann et al., 2021). Several previous studies have analyzed the acceptance and
use of biometric technology as security in consumer self-service, for example, banking services (Breward
et al., 2017; Fatima, 2011; Lee & Pan, 2023), e-commerce (Al-Harby et al., 2010; Clodfelter, 2010; Hino,
2015), payment service (Moriuchi, 2021; Sulaiman & Almunawar, 2022; Zhong et al., 2021), and hospitality
(Boo & Chua, 2022; Ciftci et al., 2021; Norfolk & O’Regan, 2020; Pai et al., 2018). However, securing only
one biometric identification is not enough to improve customer security nowadays. Unimodal biometric
systems cannot guarantee correct identification with certainty, whereas multimodal biometric systems,
which employ multiple biometric modalities, ensure better recognition (Allam et al., 2022).
One of the pension fund services in Indonesia has implemented a biometric-based self-authentication
service utilizing complex authentication and identification, including pin or password, face, eye, and
voice, via a smartphone. The authentication of pension fund customers must be performed every month
as proof that the pension beneficiaries are still alive. At the beginning of every month, retired civil ser-
vants will line up at the bank counters to be authenticated by the counter staff. For retirees who have
reached old age and are beginning to become ill, their spouse or heirs can represent the disbursement
of pension funds. Typically, the party representing the beneficiary must prepare a cover letter stating
that the beneficiary is still alive and has the right to disburse the funds. A statement letter is needed to
prevent disbursement of pension funds by individuals who are not entitled to receive them, or there is
an element of fraud. There are cases where the retiree has died, but the heirs still take pension funds
that are not their right (Kuswayati, 2019). The authentication process, previously limited to face-to-face
interactions with officers at service counters, has recently been expanded to include self-authentication
services enabled by a smartphone application on the customer’s device. This application’s authentication
begins by entering an ID number and PIN or password. The application will then direct users to conduct
a facial and eye biometric scan (accompanied by nodding, shaking the head, and blinking the eyes) and
a voice for data matching. Upon successful authentication, pension beneficiaries can withdraw their pen-
sion funds from an automatic teller machine (ATM).
Biometric-based self-service is one way the pension fund company can expedite the service process
while maintaining high security. However, the provision of biometric-based self-service technology in the
form of smartphone applications for older adults is still relatively uncommon in Indonesia. Older people
tend to use technology services less than younger groups due to factors such as digital literacy and
access to the Internet (Anderson & Jiang, 2018; Hunsaker & Hargittai, 2018). Beyond these factors, per-
sonal and environmental contexts are also important to consider (Sixsmith et al., 2022). According to the
Central Bureau of Statistics (Indonesia) (2022), slow access to technology by older adults in Indonesia is
due to structural obstacles, namely the economic difficulties in accessing internet data packages or inad-
equate signals from internet service providers in the area where they live, and functional obstacles,
which are characterized by a decline in the older adult health condition.
The older adult’s physical health is a crucial aspect of their continued use of technology since, as they
age, their physiological and psychological abilities change, which has a significant impact on their
demands and capacity to use technology or technical instruments (Farage et al., 2012; Tenneti et al.,
2012). These modifications can occur against a person’s will. In several studies, physical condition is con-
sidered one of the individual factors that can predict technology adoption by older adults (e.g. Chen &
Chan, 2014; Li et al., 2019; Mostaghel & Oghazi, 2017; Wang et al., 2017; Wang & Sun, 2016; Wilson et al.,
2021). Age-related vision and hearing impairments might influence the usability of devices that rely pri-
marily on graphical/text-based or sound-based user interfaces to deliver information (e.g. mobile phones
and digital cameras) (Fisk et al., 2019; Wu et al., 2011). A study conducted by Wilson et al. (2021) found
that one of the barriers for older people in using digital devices is due to the individual’s physical func-
tion, usually vision, for which they will choose a larger device, such as a tablet rather than a smartphone,
because of the screen size. Older people may also have difficulty performing accurate movements
(Cheong et al., 2013). For example, persistent pain, particularly in the fingers and wrists, was also a prob-
lem and impacted the way in which individuals used digital devices (Wilson et al., 2021). Even though
it is not a technology that is used every day, self-authentication applications are run using smartphones,
and biometric recognition requires the user to be precise in following system instructions to move body
parts and match certain points so that authentication can be successful. These age-related differences in
 Cogent Business & Management 3

performance can be a major barrier to activities undertaken by older adults and must be considered for
continued use of technology (Fisk et al., 2019).
In addition to the decline in older adults’ physical condition, which can impede the self-authentication
process as they age, the availability of support can also determine the continued use of this technology.
The biometric authentication application on a smartphone will scan certain points on a user’s body and
match them with the biometric data that has been recorded. The supporting equipment (in this case,
the smartphone’s camera and microphone) must be accurate and connected to a stable internet net-
work. Self-service technology gives customers more flexibility and efficiency but requires skills and
knowledge to use (Scherer et al., 2015). Customers participate actively in service delivery by interacting
with platforms that provide opportunities for resource integration and encourage participation in prod-
uct innovation or service improvement (Foroudi et al., 2018).
On the other hand, older adults lack confidence in their ability to use electronic devices to complete
online tasks and require assistance in managing or utilizing these devices (Anderson & Perrin, 2017). In
the customer technology acceptance and use context, perceptions of the availability of critical resources
and assistance in carrying out specific activities are referred to as facilitating conditions (Venkatesh et al.,
2012). Adequate facilitating conditions should play an essential role in the intention to use biometrics
(Miltgen et al., 2013). For older adults, facilitating conditions are one of the variables having the greatest
influence on the actual use of technology (Chen & Chan, 2014). In order to encourage older adults to
use and become familiar with technology, incoming users of biometric-based SST should have more
access to technical assistance and resources, such as user introductions and tutorials (Zhong et al., 2021).
Most of the studies on self-service technology, especially those using biometric technology, still
involve young respondents or have not explicitly investigated the behavior of elderly users (e.g. Al-Harby
et al., 2010; Norfolk & O’Regan, 2020; Soh et al., 2010; Zhong et al., 2021). Differences in technology
adoption behavior between young adults and older people have been studied in several studies, either
using age as a moderation (e.g. Kim & Bernhard, 2014; Venkatesh et al., 2003, 2012) or focusing on
elderly users (e.g. Arenas-Gaitán et al., 2015; Chen & Chan, 2014; Ellis et al., 2021; Hoque & Sorwar, 2017;
Hunsaker & Hargittai, 2018; Li et al., 2019; Mostaghel & Oghazi, 2017; Sixsmith et al., 2022; Tsai et al.,
2020; Wang et al., 2017; Wilson et al., 2021). Studies focusing on elderly users have mostly been con-
ducted in China and the United States, whereas those conducted in Southeast Asian countries are still
very few (Yap et al., 2022). As one of the developing countries in Southeast Asia, Indonesia is also still
lagging in its ability to adopt and explore digital technology to carry out transformations in government
practices, business models, and society in general (ranked 51st out of 63 countries) (International Institute
for Management Development, 2022). This research is important to encourage increased digital compet-
itiveness in Indonesia. In addition, a study by Yap et al. (2022) shows most research focusing on elderly
users is related to healthcare & assistive technology. Meanwhile, the relevance between online shopping
and e-services is still minimal (Yap et al., 2022). In fact, along with technological developments, older
adults are a group that has the potential to utilize increasingly diverse technology. This research aims to
fill the gap by analyzing factors that can support or hinder older users’ continued use of biometric-based SST.
Previous studies have compared behavioral theories in the use of technology (e.g. Cheng, 2019; Ling
et al., 2011; Rejali et al., 2023; Seok Kim et al., 2015). However, TPB still performs best in representing
technology acceptance (Cheng, 2019; Rejali et al., 2023). TPB also remains valid in analyzing technology
acceptance in elderly users (Choudrie & Vyas, 2014; Deng et al., 2014; Ellis et al., 2021). One of the main
differences between TPB, the Technology Acceptance Model (TAM), and the Theory of Reasoned Action
(TRA) is the treatment of behavioral control in TPB, referring to the skills, opportunities, and resources
needed to use the system (Mathieson, 1991). According to TPB, success in carrying out a behavior plan
depends not only on effort but also on the person’s control over other factors such as necessary infor-
mation, skills, and abilities, including possession of a workable plan, will, presence of mind, time, oppor-
tunity, and so on (Ajzen, 1985).
This research adopts part of the TPB, namely the role of perceived behavioral control, to develop a
model focusing on factors that support or hinder older adults from continuing to use biometric-based
self-service technology. We use certain considerations to produce a more concise model. First, consider-
ing the results of a previous study conducted by Davis et al. (1989), Thompson et al. (1991), Taylor and
Todd (1995), and Venkatesh et al. (2003) who stated that with the presence of other constructs in the
4 R. A. D. KUMALASARI ET AL.

model, attitude becomes insignificant towards behavioral intention. For this reason, we do not include
attitude in our research model. Second, subjective norms refer to a person’s perception that the majority
of people who are important to him think he should or should not carry out the behavior in question
(Ajzen, 1991). In some studies, this is referred to as social influence. In several previous studies on bio-
metric acceptance and technology use in older adults, social influence was found to have an insignificant
effect on behavioral intention to use (e.g. Al-Harby et al., 2010; Arenas-Gaitán et al., 2015; Choudrie et al.,
2020; Li et al., 2019; Miltgen et al., 2013; Sunandi & Koesrindartoto, 2019). Ellis et al. (2021) in their study
found that family as a social influence source did not have a significant effect on the intention to use
technology in older adults, both in the age group under 65 years and elderly aged 65 years and over. The
reason for these results is that older adults often live far from family (children and/or grandchildren), so
there is no advice from those closest to them about using technology (Ellis et al., 2021). However,
another reason could be that older adults are more mature individuals and consider many things before
behaving, including when using technology. The laggards group in the Diffusion of Innovation Theory
(Rogers, 2003) is often associated with older adults (Lee & Coughlin, 2015; Peek et al., 2017), those who
are very careful in adopting innovation. Thus, subjective norms or social influence are not really consid-
ered by older adults when using technology. Because this study aimed to analyze factors that may hin-
der and support the continued use of technology in older adults, we did not include subjective norms
in the model.
Control beliefs in TPB can be individual (e.g. ability to use the system) and situational (e.g. having
access to the system) (Mathieson, 1991). In older adults, age-related health conditions can be individu-
alized supports or barriers to using self-authentication. For example, when eyesight declines, older adults
may not be able to run a self-authentication application because they have difficulty seeing the small
print on a smartphone and have difficulty adjusting the scanning area on the smartphone screen or
because hearing loss means they have difficulty hearing the voice instructions of the application clearly,
which can cause the wrong response. In other words, their reduced physical abilities prevent them from
having the opportunity to use self-authentication applications. Facilitating conditions can be situational
supports or barriers to using self-authentication. Elderly users who do not have resources, adequate
knowledge about technology, and limited physical abilities due to age may experience difficulties, and
using this technology will be hampered when they do not find someone who can help. In other words,
they are not given the opportunity to use technology by situational factors.
Some control factors will be stable across situations, while others will vary from context to context
(Ajzen, 1985). TPB utilizes important control variables for each situation independently and is more likely
to capture those situation-specific factors (Mathieson, 1991). As suggested by Rejali et al. (2023) and Yap
et al. (2022), the role of PBC in representing admissions requires further investigation. This research uses
a modified TPB as a conceptual framework with more emphasis on perceived behavioral control (PBC) in
the TPB. Perceived control over aspects related to older people’s technology use is important to trigger
behavioral intentions (Yap et al., 2022).

Literature and hypothesis development

The theory of Planned Behavior by Ajzen (1985) is an extension of the Theory of Reasoned Action
by Fishbein and Ajzen (1975). TPB added the construct of perceived behavioral control to the TRA
model. Similar to TRA, TPB is predicated on the premise that humans often behave rationally, ana-
lyze available information, and implicitly or overtly weigh the consequences of their actions (Ajzen,
2005). Ajzen (1985) suggests that the development of TPB is also based on a number of assump-
tions, one of which is the ability of intention to foresee and explain that human conduct will be
significantly affected when non-intentional circumstances exert a major influence on planned behav-
ior. The theory of planned behavior examines the consequences of perceived behavioral control on
the achievement of behavioral objectives. Intention primarily indicates a person’s willingness to
attempt to engage in a specific conduct, whereas perceived control takes into account certain real-
istic limits.
Intentions can change throughout time, and any measure of intention gathered before the shift can-
not be relied upon to predict future action reliably. Weak intention to do (or not perform) an activity
 Cogent Business & Management 5

result in less commitment, and relatively essential events can alter the intention or cause a change of
mind. Some people are more prone to changing their minds than others (Ajzen, 1985). Hence, the asso-
ciation between intention and behavior is typically larger when the intention is held with high assurance.
The accuracy of intention to behavior decreases when behavior is influenced by factors over which one
has at least limited control.

Individual factor – health condition

Increasing age can result in physical challenges and health problems caused by decreased vision, hear-
ing, and mobility/flexibility (Wood et al., 2010). There are limitations related to perception, cognition,
and movement control that are increasing in prevalence (Fisk et al., 2019). The ability to use
self-authentication in smartphone applications with complex biometric recognition can be impaired due
to declining health conditions due to increasing age. In fact, periodic authentication (as proof of life)
once a month is mandatory for pension benefit recipients in Indonesia and will be carried out until
they die.
Visual impairment disproportionately affects older adults (Servat et al., 2011). Changes in the nor-
mal ability of the eye may occur in the 30s and will be more noticeable in the 40s (Kline & Scialfa,
1996). Vision changes also affect sensitivity to glare, breadth of the field, and processing speed
(Erdinest et al., 2021; Fisk et al., 2019). The marked slowdown of visual information processing
increases with age, gradually reducing the perceptual flexibility of visual sensations (Fisk et al.,
2019). Like vision, hearing loss is also closely related to age. Older people generally experience
moderate hearing loss (Kline & Scialfa, 1996). Hearing loss affects one-third of adults aged 60–70
and two-thirds of adults by the time they reach 70; every ten years, the frequency of older adults
with hearing loss doubles (Contrera et al., 2016). Approximately 10 percent of all middle-aged adults
have hearing loss, and by age 65 and over, the percentage jumps to more than half of all men and
30 percent of all women (Fisk et al., 2019). Reduced hearing can result in mishearing and responding
illogically (Hyams et al., 2018).
In the previous study, age-related health that affects the physical was constructed as perceived phys-
ical condition (Deng et al., 2014), biophysical aging restrictions (Wang et al., 2017) and health condition
(Chen & Chan, 2014; Ha & Park, 2020; Li et al., 2019; Mostaghel & Oghazi, 2017). Chen and Chan (2014)
measure health conditions with respect to five items: general health status, health conditions compared
with the same-age groups, visual ability, auditory ability and movement ability. Meanwhile, Li et al.
(2019) measured health conditions with three items: health status, health status compared with peers,
and the ability of auditory, visual and mobility. In this study, health condition refers to an individual’s
perception/view of their physical health condition that allows them to use self-authentication technol-
ogy. According to Wang et al. (2017), physical aging, which includes visual acuity, hearing, and dexterity,
must be considered in predicting technology acceptance in older adults because the technology industry
must carry out market positioning and consider the demands and physiological conditions of older
adults as the starting point for product development.
Li et al. (2019), in a study about health smart clothing technology, found that health conditions affect
behavioral intention in using technology. Health conditions were also found to influence behavioral
intention to use in research on digital games (Wang & Sun, 2016) but not significantly in studies on cell
phones (Wang et al., 2017). Health conditions were found to directly predict technology usage (Chen &
Chan, 2014; Ha & Park, 2020). The use of technology for older adults needs further research on different
technologies to fill in the gaps in the results of previous studies (Yap et al., 2022). The user’s ability is
essential because health conditions tend to decline with age, which can be a barrier to using
self-authentication applications. Older adult may not be able to run self-authentication applications
because they have difficulty seeing small print on a smartphone and are less precise when adjusting the
scanning area on the phone screen. Hearing loss may make it difficult for them to hear the app’s voice
instructions clearly. Therefore, it is hypothesized that:
H1: Health conditions significantly affect the intention to use self-authentication applications.

H2: Health conditions significantly affect the use behavior of self-authentication applications.
6 R. A. D. KUMALASARI ET AL.

Situational factor – facilitating condition

TPB suggests that individual external factors determining the occurrence of behavior are perceived facil-
ities. Perceived facilities in TPB (facilitating conditions) refer to individual judgments about the impor-
tance of resources for achieving results (Mathieson, 1991). Facilitating conditions may also involve
motivation or environmental obstacles that influence an individual’s perception of the ease or difficulty
of carrying out particular actions (Taylor & Todd, 1995). Venkatesh et al. (2003) conceptualized facilitating
conditions from three constructs: perceived behavioral control (TPB/Decomposed TPB, Combined
TAM-TPB), facilitating conditions (Model of PC Utilization), and compatibility (Innovation Diffusion Theory),
which were operationalized to include aspects of the technological and organizational environment that
designed to remove barriers to use. Facilitation conditions are defined as the extent to which a person
believes that there is an organizational and technical infrastructure to support the use of the system
(Venkatesh et al., 2003). In the context of the customer, facilitating conditions can be characterized as
the customer’s perception of the availability of essential resources and help for carrying out particular
tasks (Venkatesh et al., 2012). Related to age, the effect of facilitating conditions on behavioral intention
is more pronounced in older women as this consumer group considers the availability of resources,
knowledge, and support to be necessary for the continued use of technology (Venkatesh et al., 2012).
The research results of Chen and Chan (2014) show the importance of facilitating conditions (knowl-
edge, guidance and support from other people, and a level of accessibility) that allow the older popu-
lation to use gerontechnology. Choudrie et al. (2020), in their research about older adults’ adoption of
mobile phones, found that facilitating condition (including resources, knowledge, operating cost and the
person available for assistance) influences behavioral intention to use. However, facilitation conditions
were found to have no significant effect on behavioral intention to use mHealth (Hoque & Sorwar, 2017).
The effect of facilitating conditions in previous studies involving elderly users has not shown consistent
results (Yap et al., 2022).
Facilitating conditions are an important factor that influences behavioral intentions to use biometric
technology (Miltgen et al., 2013; Ngugi et al., 2011; Zhong et al., 2021). However, inconsistent results
were still found. A study by Zhong et al. (2021) in South Korea found that facilitating conditions were a
vital variable that was statistically significant to behavioral intention to use facial recognition payment.
However, research by Ciftci et al. (2021) in the United States found that facilitating conditions did not
have a significant effect on behavioral intention to use facial recognition systems in quick-service restau-
rants. In the current research, the Self-Authentication application used by pension benefit recipients uses
multimodal biometric systems. In order to carry out online self-authentication, the user’s smartphone
must be connected to the internet network. Apart from that, compatible technological support is needed
because in operation this system will scan certain points on an individual’s body, including voice and
match it with biometric data that has been recorded. Of course, the supporting equipment used, for
example the camera and mic on a smartphone, must be has good accuracy. In addition, due to limited
physical abilities caused by increasing age, they will really need the help of other people when they
experience problems in using this technology. Facilitating conditions can be important for technology
users heavily relying on technical support and other resources to adopt the technology. This will affect
the behavioral intention and the continuance use self-authentication application. Therefore, it is hypoth-
esised that:
H3: Facilitating conditions significantly affect the intention to use self-authentication applications.

H4: Facilitating conditions significantly affect the use behavior of self-authentication applications.

Behavioral intention to use and use behavior

TPB is based on the assumption that humans usually behave reasonably, consider available information,
and implicitly or explicitly consider the implications of their actions (Ajzen, 2005). Behavior is determined
by the intention to do so. Nonetheless, it was found in a study on biometric technology that behavioral
intention to use the technology did not have a significant effect on use behavior (Kanak & Sogukpinar,
 Cogent Business & Management 7

Figure 1. Purposed research framework.

2017). However, another study on smartphone adoption, use and diffusion among older adults in the UK
found that behavioral intention to use influences use behavior (Choudrie et al., 2020). Therefore, it is
hypothesized that:
H4: Behavioral intention to use significantly affects the use behavior of self-authentication applications.

H5: Behavioral intention to use significantly affects the use behavior of self-authentication applications.

The research framework of this study is depicted in Figure 1.

Methodology
Measurement development
This study examines the research model, the influence of health conditions and facilitating conditions on
behavioral intention in using technology, and how they impact use behavior. This study used a quanti-
tative survey method to test the proposed research model empirically. Questionnaire items were devel-
oped from previous research (Table 1.), including statements about self-reported health conditions,
facilitating conditions, behavioral intention to use, and use behavior. Health condition items include gen-
eral health status, health conditions compared to the same age group, visual ability, hearing ability, and
movement ability (Chen & Chan, 2014).
Facilitating condition items include financial resources, basic knowledge, individual or group assis-
tance/support, technology support (compatible), and instructions (Chen & Chan, 2014; Zhong et al.,
2021). Behavioral intention to use items consists of intention to use, willingness to use, plans to continue
using the technology despite alternatives to counter services, and intentions to suggest others to use
self-authentication applications (Morosan, 2012; Zhong et al., 2021). Use behavior items include using
self-authentication applications as a pleasurable experience, self-reported use, and frequency of use
(Hoque & Sorwar, 2017).
Variables were measured using a Likert scale of 5, in which ‘1 = strongly disagree’ to ‘5 = strongly agree’.
The questionnaire was designed in two parts; the first part captured information regarding the respon-
dent’s demographic profile, and the second part captured information regarding the user’s assessment
of their health conditions, facilitating conditions, behavioral intention and behavior in using
biometric-based SST. The research structural model is shown in Figure 2.

Sample and data collection

Since the self-authentication application was implemented, this application has not been used by all
retired civil servants. As a result of the study’s purpose, the target population in this study is retired
civil servants (age 60 and above) who have used self-authentication applications. The G*Power program
8 R. A. D. KUMALASARI ET AL.

Table 1. Measurement item of construct.

Items Author
Health condition Chen and Chan (2014)
HC1: I have a good health condition when compared to people my age.
HC2: I have good vision conditions to use apps on smartphones.
HC3: I can hear sounds/voices clearly.
HC4: I can move my limbs well to perform biometric authentication with applications.
Facilitating condition Chen and Chan (2014); Zhong
FC1: My financial ability helps me overcome difficulties in accessing the self-authentication application. et al. (2021)
FC2: My knowledge of technology helps me overcome difficulties in using the app.
FC3: The instructions provided in the app can help me overcome difficulties in using the application.
FC4: I have a sufficient mobile device to use the app.
FC5: Family/people around help overcome difficulties in using the app.
Behavioral intention to use Morosan (2012); Zhong et al.,
BI1: I intend to use the application again in the future. 2021)
BI2: I will use the application independently whenever I take a pension fund.
BI3: I will continue to use the app for authentication rather than to the counter (bank).
BI4: I would suggest other retirees use the self-authentication application.
Use behavior Hoque and Sorwar (2017)
UB1: Using the self-authentication application is a pleasant experience.
UB2: I did self-authentication with the authentication application on my smartphone.
UB3: Before withdrawing my pension fund, I always authenticate myself with the self-authentication
application on my smartphone without coming to the bank/post office.

Figure 2. Structural model.

calculates the number of samples in this study with the following parameters: statistical power of 80
percent, significant level of 5 percent, and minimum R2 of 0.20. The 80 percent determination of statis-
tical power is based on the opinion of Hair et al. (2017) that the level of commonly used statistical
power is 80 percent. The minimum R2 is determined at 0.20 since an R2 value of 0.20 is considered high
in disciplines such as consumer behavior (Hair et al., 2017). Thus, the minimum sample in this study was
193 respondents.
A total of 360 offline questionnaires were distributed in three provinces in Indonesia, namely East
Java, Central Java, and West Java. These three provinces have the highest number of retired civil ser-
vants in Indonesia. The questionnaire was distributed in collaboration with the Association of
Wredatama Republik Indonesia, a social organization in Indonesia whose members are retired civil
servants. The questionnaire given to prospective respondents was accompanied by a statement from
the researcher to ensure the confidentiality of the participant’s data. The answers will be used only
for research purposes. The questionnaire was then filled out by individuals who had agreed and were
willing to be respondents. All respondents met the criteria for being elderly according to the provi-
sions in Indonesia, namely, aged 60 years and over. There was a total of 298 valid responses for anal-
ysis. According to Hair et al. (2017), the ideal sample size for structural equation modeling is between
100 and 200. This study met the criterion with a sample size of more than 200. The demographic
profile of the respondents in Table 2 illustrates that 47 percent of men and 53 percent of women
 Cogent Business & Management 9

participated in this study. Most respondents (56.0%) are between 60 and 69 years old, and the major-
ity (49.0%) have Bachelor’s degrees.
The proposed model was evaluated using the PLS-SEM (partial least squares structural equation mod-
eling) technique with WarpPLS software version 7. In examining complex interactions between numerous
variables, PLS is often useful for avoiding invalid solutions and factor indeterminacies (Fornell & Bookstein,
1982). This approach has been widely used in several business studies in recent years (He et al., 2020;
Xu et al., 2020). In PLS analysis, the measurement model is frequently referred to as the outer model,
while the structural model is referred to as the inner model (Hair et al., 2018).

Result
Measurement model
The measuring model is evaluated based on its internal consistency, convergent validity, and discrimi-
nant validity (Hair et al., 2017). In accordance with Hair et al. (2017), AVE and CR values over 0.5 and
0.70, respectively, imply that the model has the same construct dependability. Tables 3 and 4 exhibit the
loading factor, AVE, composite reliability, and Cronbach’s alpha (α). In Table 3, the estimated Cronbach’s
alpha (α) values vary from 0.852 to 0.885, while the composite reliability values range from 0.891 to
0.921, indicating a high degree of internal consistency. Table 3 further reveals that the loading factor
values vary from 0.670 to 0.918, and the AVE values range from 0.624 to 0.785, which is over the rec-
ommended limit. Thus, the criteria of convergent validity are satisfied in the present investigation. The
square root of the AVE and the cross-loading matrix were used to evaluate discriminant validity. For
discriminant validity, the square root of the AVE of a construct must be greater than its correlation with
other constructs (Hair et al., 2017). Table 4. demonstrates that all constructs from this investigation sup-
port the discriminant validity of the data.

Table 2. Sample profile.

Demographic Variables Frequencies Percent (%)
Age 60–69 167 56.0
70–79 121 40.6
Above 80 10 3.4
Gender Male 162 54.4
Female 136 45.6
Education Below diploma 44 14.8
Diploma 57 19.1
Degree 146 49.0
Master 38 12.8
Doctor/PhD 13 4.4

Table 3. Measurement model assessment.

Item Loading factor AVE CR Cronbach’s alpha
Health condition
HC1 0.813 0.700 0.903 0.857
HC2 0.818
HC3 0.866
HC4 0.848
Facilitating condition
FC1 0.869 0.688 0.916 0.885
FC2 0.845
FC3 0.900
FC4 0.786
FC5 0.736
Behavioral intention to use
BI1 0.954 0.877 0.966 0.953
BI2 0.929
BI3 0.925
BI4 0.936
Use behavior
UB1 0.940 0.884 0.958 0.934
UB2 0.959
UB3 0.921
10 R. A. D. KUMALASARI ET AL.

Table 4. Latent variable correlations and square-roots of aves.

HC FC BI UB
HC (0.837) 0.544 0.479 0.539
FC 0.544 (0.829) 0.741 0.754
BI 0.479 0.741 (0.936) 0.917
UB 0.539 0.754 0.917 (0.940)
The bold value emphasizes that this value is higher than the correlation value of other constructs.

Figure 3. Structural model measurement.

Table 5. Path coefficients.

Hypothesis β SE p-Value Result
H1 HC → BI 0.164 0.089 0.000*** Accepted
H2 HC → UB 0.040 0.051 0.122 Not accepted
H3 FC → BI 0.552 0.071 0.000*** Accepted
H4 FC → UB 0.123 0.065 0.000*** Accepted
H5 BI → UB 0.779 0.047 0.000*** Accepted

Structural model
The structural model was developed to identify the relationship between constructs in the research
model. This study examines the relationship between the dependent and independent variables with a
path coefficient (β) and a p-value <0.05. Based on the results of structural model testing (Figure 3. and
Table 5.), health conditions (HC) have a significant effect on behavioral intention to use (BI) (β = 0.164;
p < 0.05), which confirms H1, but has no significant effect on Use behavior (UB) (β = 0.040; p > 0.05), which
rejected H2. Behavioral intention to use (BI) is significantly influenced by facilitating condition (FC)
(β = 0.552; p < 0.05), which confirms H3. Use behavior (UB) is significantly influenced by facilitating condi-
tion (FC) (β = 0.265; p < 0.05) and behavioral intention to use (BI) (β = 0.621; p < 0.05), which confirms
H4 and H5.
The model explained 65.6 percent of the variance in use behavior (R2 = 0.66) and 35 percent in inten-
tion to use (R2 = 0.35). In addition to the R-squared, the Q-squared (Q2) was used to assess the predictive
relevance of the model (Hair et al., 2017). The models had predictive relevance because the Q2 was
greater than zero (Q2 = 0.779).

Discussion
This study aimed to determine the effect of health conditions and facilitating conditions on intention to
use and their impact on the continued use of biometric-based self-service technology among elderly
users in a developing country. The results revealed that health conditions and facilitating conditions
significantly influence behavioral intention to use, which is consistent with TPB (Fishbein & Ajzen, 1975).
 Cogent Business & Management 11

Based on TPB, the ability of intention to predict and explain human behavior will be significantly influ-
enced by non-intentional factors. Our findings show that a positive effect of declining health conditions
will tend to reduce the intention of elderly users to use self-authentication applications or, in other
words, a decrease in older adult health conditions, including the ability to see, hear, the ability to move
limbs will affect their behavioral intention to use self-authentication application. Of course, this can hap-
pen, considering that authentication with self-service technology based on biometrics is carried out
using a cellular phone. The users must make movements according to specific instructions to match
authentication points such as eyes and head movements. Obstacles that arise from a decline in physical
condition due to age can make older people ultimately less interested in using self-authentication appli-
cations. Their reduced physical abilities prevent them from having the opportunity to use self-authentication
applications. This self-service seems more difficult, and counter service may be the best option.
The age of the respondents strengthens this result. The majority of respondents in this study were
60–69 years, or 56 percent. Still, the other 44 percent were aged 70 years and over, where the decline in
physical condition in older people aged 70 years and over is often more significant than in those in their
60s. The reduction in vision becomes more pronounced and hearing also decreases further (Contrera
et al., 2016; Fisk et al., 2019; Kline & Scialfa, 1996). In addition, obstacles in movement and mobility
become more severe. This result aligns with the previous study by Wang and Sun (2016) and Li et al.
(2019). In line with the opinion of Wang et al. (2017) that physical aging affecting visual acuity, hearing,
and dexterity must be considered in predicting technology acceptance for older adults because the tech-
nology industry must carry out market positioning and consider the demands and physiological condi-
tions of older adults as a product development starting point.
Facilitating conditions affect behavioral intention to use and use behavior directly. This effect con-
firms that facilitating conditions such as adequate resources and support are very important for elderly
users to encourage their intention to use technology sustainably. This result aligns with previous
research stated that facilitating conditions must play an important role in the biometrics technology
adoption (i.e. Miltgen et al., 2013; Ngugi et al., 2011; Zhong et al., 2021), but different from the results
of previous studies by Ciftci et al. (2021) that showed an insignificant effect of this construct on the
intention to use facial recognition system. In developed countries such as the United States, consum-
ers may perceive face authentication as a technology that does not require additional training, guid-
ance, or support (i.e. facilitating conditions) to use it because this technology is implemented in many
different settings for personal use, including unlocking personal devices and identity verification in
computer games and social media (Ciftci et al., 2021). These previous studies did not focus on elderly
consumers. Therefore, this research adds evidence to the knowledge that the continued use of
biometric-based SST by elderly consumers in developing countries is highly dependent on situational
factors: financial ability, knowledge of technology tutorial support, sufficient mobile device technology,
and help from other people.
In Indonesia, internet access, on average, is still paid. For this reason, respondents in this study con-
sider financial ability to be important for using self-authentication applications. Basic knowledge of tech-
nology can help seniors overcome difficulties in using self-authentication applications. Adequate basic
knowledge is reinforced by the description of respondents, which shows that the majority of respon-
dents in this study had a bachelor’s degree (49.0%). Riddell and Song (2017) state that employees with
higher education tend to use computers at work. Graduating from high school increases the probability
of using a computer at work by 37 percent, and an additional year of school increases that probability
by 7 percent; these figures have a large impact in size and statistically (Riddell & Song, 2017). The bio-
metric authentication system is slightly different in its use because it is related to the support of com-
patible technology (in this case, the camera and mic on a smartphone), which must have good accuracy
to scan certain points on an individual’s body and match it with the biometric data that has been
recorded. The decline in the ability of older people due to increasing age makes them dependent on
other people to guide them in using self-authentication applications, but SST distances customers from
service personnel, therefore, instructions available in the application and support from people around
them become important. Older adult users may eventually be unable to use this technology if no one
helps them. Facilitating conditions are one of the variables having the most significant influence on the
older adults actual use of technology (Chen & Chan, 2014).
12 R. A. D. KUMALASARI ET AL.

The interesting thing about this study is that the effect of health conditions on use behavior is insig-
nificant. It is inconsistent with TPB, which emphasizes that success in carrying out a behavior plan (actual
behavior) depends not only on effort but also on the person’s control over other factors, one of which is
ability (Ajzen, 1985). This result also differs from previous research stating that health conditions directly
affect the actual use of technology (Chen & Chan, 2014). Although not significant, the effect of health
conditions on use behavior shows a positive direction. Our research finding contradicts the study by Chen
and Chan (2014), which shows that health conditions negatively affect the usage behavior of gerontech-
nology, or it can be said that people with poor health conditions are more likely to use technology. The
difference could be due to the different types of technology examined in our study. The insignificant
effect of health conditions on use behavior means that declining health conditions does not sufficiently
influence the use behavior of self-authentication application. This result is possible because of the avail-
ability of supporting conditions that can assist older adults in using technology even though they have
limited abilities due to age. Based on the average respondent’s statement on the facilitating condition
variable, it was found that the items regarding the availability of support from family members/people
around them has the highest score. It means that the assistance from family members/people around
plays an important role in supporting elderly users to continue using biometric-based self-service technol-
ogy. This result is supported by statistical data on the elderly population of Indonesia 2021 (Central Bureau
of Statistics (Indonesia), 2021) which shows that more older people in Indonesia (34.71 percent) live with
three generations in a household. Living with three generations means that the elderly lives with their
children and grandchildren in one house, or with their children and parents. Furthermore, 29.66 percent
of the elderly live with their nuclear family and 22.78 percent live with their partners.
Behavioral intention to use has the most significant influence on use behavior (0.779) compared to
facilitating conditions (0.123). Our findings support the TPB (Ajzen, 1985), indicating that the individual’s
intention to conduct a behavior is the primary factor in the Theory of Planned Behavior. It is considered
that intention captures the motivational variables that influence action; intention reveals how hard peo-
ple are willing to try and how much effort they intend to exert to achieve a behavior. Intention, in turn,
is seen as one of the direct antecedents of actual behavior. The stronger people’s intentions to engage
in a behavior or achieve their behavioral goals, the more predictably successful they will be. The higher
the behavioral intention of elderly users to authenticate through biometric-based self-service technology,
the higher the actual use or behavior of using biometric-based self-service technology will be. Our result
aligns with the research of Demoulin and Djelassi (2016), which found that behavioral intention to use
self-service technology positively influences use behavior, and research of Choudrie et al. (2020) on
smartphones among older adults in England, which found that behavioral intention influences use
behavior.

Conclusion
Reduced health condition (general health condition, visual acuity, hearing, and movement) is a barrier
for older adults to continue using self-authentication applications. In order to maintain the continued use
of biometric-based SST, it is necessary to pay special attention to the unique characteristics of older
adults, particularly in services designed for older people. On the other hand, older adults depend heavily
on facilitating as a situational factor (technical support and resources) that can encourage them to con-
tinue using self-service technology.
This study summarizes the TPB model by focusing on the importance of perceived behavioral control
aspects, developing and validating a model to identify the unique characteristics of older adults that
may hinder and support the continued use of biometric-based self-service technologies by older adults
in developing countries. The results of the model testing demonstrated high predictive (Q2=0.78) and
explanatory power (R2=0.66) for all dependent variables. This study provides additional support for the
use of TPB in the implementation of biometric self-service technology.
The findings of this research provide practical implications for the benefits of increasing the applica-
tion of self-service technology for older adults in developing countries, especially in Indonesia, one of
the developing countries currently experiencing a demographic bonus. This research contributes to the
government’s increasing technology adoption in all age groups and the creating of an elderly-friendly
 Cogent Business & Management 13

digital ecosystem. According to Laudon and Laudon (2016), behavioral problems are an important part
that arises in the development and long-term maintenance of information systems. The behavioral
approach focuses not on technical solutions but on changing attitudes, management and organizational
policies, and behavior (Laudon & Laudon, 2016). In order to increase service efficiency and achieve
long-term success, businesses must improve their services with the latest technology while remaining
focused on elements that encourage sustainable use of service technology. Companies as service provid-
ers need to consider the physical condition of older adults and the availability of accessible support to
develop service technology based on customer needs and avoid wasted investment due to discontinua-
tion of technology use.
This study presents theoretical and practical insights that can be used to predict the adoption of
biometric self-service technologies for older adults in other developing countries. However, there are
several limitations in this research. First, respondents were limited to a certain age, namely 60 years and
over, who met the criteria for older people in Indonesia. The age limit for older people in each country
can vary. Second, a specific location is selected to carry out the survey. This research was conducted in
3 provinces in Indonesia, and the technology literacy index was different in each province. Therefore,
further research could cover a wider geographical area or in different countries. Third, the health condi-
tions in this study are health conditions self-reported by respondents. There are two ways to measure
health condition variables, namely (1) using a person’s health condition based on medical reports and
(2) using self-reported health. Self-reported depends on the accuracy of the respondent’s assessment.
This method was used because it is easier to process and cheaper because it does not require special
equipment (Tenneti et al., 2012). Future research can use measurements of health conditions in various
ways, namely by measuring a person’s health condition or based on medical reports. Finally, this research
focuses on health conditions and facilitating conditions as control variables in the TPB. Future research
can expand this research model by involving other variables.

Acknowledgment
The research received no research funding.

Disclosure statement
No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author(s).

About the authors

R. Amalina Dewi Kumalasari is a Doctoral program student at the Faculty of Administration Science, Brawijaya
University, Indonesia. She holds a Bachelor’s and Master’s in Business Administration from the Faculty of Administration
Science the University of Brawijaya. Her main focus of research is on technology user behavior.
Kusdi Raharjo is a Professor in the Business Administration Department, Faculty of Administrative Science, Brawijaya
University, Indonesia. He obtained his doctorate in Gestion des Organization from the Institute d’Admnistration des
Entreprises, Nice Sophia Antipolis University, France. His research focuses on human resources. He actively partici-
pates in seminars domestically and abroad as a speaker and participant.
Andriani Kusumawati is an Associate Professor in the Business Administration Department, Faculty of Administrative
Science, Brawijaya University, Indonesia. She obtained his doctorate from Sydney Business School, the University of
Wollongong, Australia, in Marketing Management with a DBA degree. Her research focuses on marketing, consumer
behavior, service marketing, tourism marketing, and education marketing.
Sunarti is an Assistant Professor in the Business Administration Department, Faculty of Administrative Science,
Brawijaya University, Indonesia. She obtained his doctorate from the University of Airlangga, Indonesia. Her research
focuses on marketing.

ORCID
R. Amalina Dewi Kumalasari http://orcid.org/0000-0002-0663-494X
Andriani Kusumawati http://orcid.org/0000-0002-0684-8550
14 R. A. D. KUMALASARI ET AL.

Data availability statement

The datasets used and/or analyzed during this investigation are available upon reasonable request from the corre-
sponding author.

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