NATURE OF MATTER:

1. DEFENTITION OF MATTER:
- Matter includes all substances in the universe with mass and volume.
- Chemistry studies how matter behaves and transforms into other
substances.

2. THREE STATES OF MATTER:

- Solid, liquid, and gas are the three physical states of matter.
- Changes in temperature and pressure can transition a substance
between these states.

3. CHARACTERISTICS:
- All states show volume changes with temperature: expansion when
increased, contraction when lowered.
 - Gases are highly compressible, liquids slightly compressible, and

solids unaffected by pressure changes.

4. PHYSICAL CHANGES:
Melting:
 Melting is when a solid changes into a liquid
 The process requires heat energy which transforms
into kinetic energy, allowing the particles to move
 It occurs at a specific temperature known as
the melting point which is unique to each pure solid
Boiling:
 ✩ Boiling is when a liquid changes into a gas

✩ This requires heat which causes bubbles of gas to form below the
surface of a liquid, allowing for liquid particles to escape from the
surface and from within the liquid

✩ It occurs at a specific temperature known as

the boiling point which is unique to each pure liquid

✩ Volatile liquid is one which evaporates easily and has a low

boiling point.

✩ Boiling point of a liquid can change if the surrounding

pressure changes.
Freezing;

✩ Freezing is when a liquid changes into a solid

✩ This is the reverse of melting and occurs at exactly

the same temperature as melting, hence the melting point and
freezing point of a pure substance are the same

✩ Water for example freezes and melts at 0 ºC

✩ It requires a significant decrease in temperature (or loss of

thermal energy) and occurs at a specific temperature which
is unique for each pure substance

Evaporation:

✩ When a liquid changes into a gas

✩ Evaporation occurs only at the surface of liquids where high

energy particles can escape from the liquids surface
at low temperatures, below the boiling point of the liquid
 ✩ The larger the surface area and the warmer the liquid/surface,
the more quickly a liquid can evaporate

✩ Evaporation occurs over a range of temperatures, but heating

will speed up the process as particles need energy to escape from
the surface
Condensation

✩ When a gas changes into a liquid, usually on cooling

✩ When a gas is cooled its particles lose energy and when they
bump into each other, they lack energy to bounce away again,
instead grouping together to form a liquid
Sublimation

✩ When a solid changes directly into a gas

✩ This happens to only a few solids, such as iodine or solid carbon

dioxide

✩ The reverse reaction also happens and is called de-sublimation

or deposition

Pure Substances:
✩ A pure substance consists of only one substance without
impurities.
✩ Pure substances have definite melting and boiling points.
Room Temperature Classification:

✩ Melting and boiling points in relation to room temperature

determine a substance's state (solid, liquid, or gas).
✩ If the melting point is below 20 °C and the boiling point is above 20
°C, the substance is a liquid at room temperature.

Testing Purity:
✩ Precise and predictable melting and boiling points of pure
substances are used to test purity.
✩ Melting point can be measured using specialized apparatus,
allowing identification and purity assessment.

1. Effect of Impurities:
✩ Seawater, an impure form of water, leaves a solid salt residue upon
evaporation.
✩ Seawater freezes below 0 °C and boils above 100 °C due to
impurities.
✩ Impurities can cause a substance to melt or boil over a range of
temperatures instead of a specific point.

2. Effects of Impurity Presence:

 ✩ Impurities lower the melting point and raise the boiling point of a
substance.

3. Heating and Cooling Curves:

- Using a melting point apparatus, a heating curve for a pure substance
(e.g., naphthalene) shows a constant temperature during melting.
- The heating curve for a mixture (e.g., wax) shows melting over a
range of temperatures.
- Cooling curves show level portions where gas condenses to a liquid
and liquid freeze.
- Heat energy is needed to change a solid to a liquid or a liquid to a
gas, and it's given out during reverse processes.

4. Key Points:
- Temperature remains constant during melting or boiling until b
process is complete.
 - Cooling curves illustrate the release of heat energy during

condensation or freezing.

1. Mixtures:

- Mixtures must have at least two parts, which can be solid, liquid, or
gas.

2. Solutions and Solvents:

- Solutions involve one substance dissolving in another, like solid salt
in liquid water.
 - The dissolved solid is the solute, and the liquid is the solvent.
- Some mixtures have states that remain separate, like a suspension of
solid particles in a liquid.

3. Examples of Solutions:
- Earth's surface is covered by a solution of salts in water.
- Solutions can also involve liquids dissolving in each other (e.g.,
alcohol in water) and gases dissolved in liquids (e.g., oxygen and carbon
dioxide in seawater).
- Alloys, mixtures of metals, are similar but often not termed solutions.

4. Separating and Purifying Substances:

- Understanding the material world requires methods to physically
separate and purify mixtures.
- Essential for satisfying curiosity and maintaining well-being and
health.
- Different physical techniques are available, relying on the varied
physical properties of substances in the mixture.

5. Factors Influencing Separation Method:

- The choice of a separation method depends on the type of mixture
and the substance of interest.
1. Separating Insoluble Solids from Liquids:

- Leaving a suspension of solid in a liquid to stand can achieve

separation, especially if particles are large.
- Decanting involves pouring off the liquid once the solid settles.
- Filtration is a more general method; it involves collecting insoluble
material as a residue on filter paper. Vacuum filtration is faster and often
used industrially.

2. Centrifugation:
- Centrifugation involves spinning a mixture at high speed in a
centrifuge, causing the solid to deposit at the bottom.
- The liquid can then be carefully decanted off.

3. **Separating Immiscible Liquids: **

- Mixtures of immiscible liquids can be separated by placing them in a
separating funnel and allowing them to stand.
- The liquids separate into layers based on density, and the lower,
denser layer is tapped off.

4. **Separating Mixtures of Solids: **

 - Separating solids depends on the specific substance and differences
in physical properties.
- Separation methods include differences in density, magnetic
properties, or sublimation.
- Grounding the mixture to a powder is helpful in laboratory settings.
- The most important method involves differences in solubility.

PRACTICAL ONE:

FILTRATION

 Used to separate an undissolved solid from a mixture of the solid

and a liquid / solution (e.g., sand from a mixture of sand and water)

o Centrifugation can also be used for this mixture

 A piece of filter paper is placed in a filter funnel above a beaker

 A mixture of insoluble solid and liquid is poured into the filter

funnel
 The filter paper will only allow small liquid particles to pass
through as filtrate

 Solid particles are too large to pass through the filter paper so will
stay behind as a residue


PRACTICAL TWO:

DISTILLATION OF MIXTURES