COMPLETE NOTE ON INQUIRY AND ACTION RESEARCH

FOR
UEW AFFILIATES COLLEGES OF EDUCATION

LEVEL 300, FIRST SEMESTER

Compiled by: Qwadwo Prince

(C) 2022
 UNIT ONE

DEFINITION AND CHARACTERISTICS OF ACTION RESEARCH

NATURE/ MEANING OF RESEARCH

There is no universally accepted definition of research. We can, however, consider research as a

systematic process of analyzing a problem, identifying the factors or variables involved in the
phenomenon, collecting and analyzing information (data) on such variables to find answers to
certain crucial questions. In a more scholarly approach, research has been defined by Bassey
(1999, p. 38) as ‘systematic, critical and self-critical enquiry which aims to contribute to the
advancement of knowledge and wisdom. According to Leedy and Ormrod (2010), research is “is
a systematic process of collecting, analysing analyzing and interpretating information in order to
increase our understanding of phenomenon about which we interested or concerned” (p,9).
Fraenkel and Wallen (2000) also viewed research as “any sort of careful systematic, patient
study and investigation in some filed of knowledge, undertaken to discover or establish facts and
principles” (p.9).

Characteristics of Research
The major characteristics of any research, are: objectivity, precision, design and verifiability.
Objectivity: Ideally, research is beyond the subjective bias of the researcher. The researcher
makes deliberate efforts to eliminate personal preference resisting the temptation to seek only
such data that supports his/her hypothesis. The scientific research has no onus to persuade or
prove. The emphasis is on testing, rather than proving the hypothesis. The researcher is willing to
suspend personal judgement and permit the data and logic to lead independently to a sound
conclusion. Objectivity is achieved through standardization of research instruments, choosing
appropriate research design and tools and ensuring dependability of data.
Precision: Research uses a technical language, so as to convey the exact meaning to the reader,
e.g., validity, reliability, random sampling, etc. The most precise expression in quantitative
research is a mathematical equation or statistical finding which explains or represents the truth.
Precision in qualitative research is achieved through words rather than numbers. Precise
language describes the study accurately so that the study may be replicated or the results
correctly used.
Design: As mentioned earlier, the researcher has to have a systematic design. This will imply
that any scientific inquiry will, in general, undergo the following steps: - definition of the
problem, - statement of the hypothesis, - collection and analysis of data, - testing and
confirmation or rejection of hypothesis, and - reporting of results. Only if the research has an
orderly design, it can be replicated for verification.
Verifiability: This is an important characteristic of every research. Research design and findings
are presented to the professional community for other researchers to analyze, confirm or reject
them. Research is a social enterprise and its information is open for public scrutiny. These
characteristics of research, i.e., verifiability, is related to the criteria of objectivity and precision.
Only through further investigation or replication of studies can the results of a single study be
confirmed or revised. Through this process, a body of new knowledge is developed and new
questions identified. Verifiability is achieved primarily through two different approaches: first,
analyzing the same data on the same sample through alternative analytical tools (statistical
methods), second, replicating the study on a different sample.

CHARACTERISTICS OF RESEARCH
Leedy (1974) outline a number of characteristics that explain the research process. Among these
are the following:
 Research begins with a question an issue or a problem in the mind of the researcher.
puzzles the mind of the researcher and to which answers or solutions are sought. This
basically is about the researcher seeing a problem of a sort that to him requires solution.
Sometimes the problems must have a puzzling effect. For instance, in teaching, we could
observe that a particular method is not effective to teach certain topics or subjects or not
promote understanding on the part of the learners. You can therefore, conduct research to
find out why that method is not working.
 Research requires a plan: the plan used in research is called a Proposal. As a purposeful
activity, research requires a plan for it to be successful. By developing a plan, you get to
know the specific question you want to answer, what data to collect, how to analyse and
what conclusion to reach. The plan therefore calls for the use of a scientific method as a
guide once you have identified the defined problem which interests you as a researcher.
 Research demands a clear statement of the problem. The relevant variables and the
expected relationship should be clearly stated. This helps in preventing other variables
which are no interest to the researcher from influencing the researcher. E.g., If the
independent variable to be worked on this is a method and its effectiveness in handling a
topic, other extraneous variables like a teacher’s experience, expertise and other
conditions should not be allowed to influence the method which is the value of the
interest that the researcher may want to find out. The statement of the research problem
should be made in both research plans as well as in the Research Report.
 Research deals with the main problem through sub-problems: Usually when the
researcher identified the problem it may be or becomes too broad or big to solve at a go.
What should be done therefore is to break the problem down into smaller problems. As
the researcher solves the smaller problems, he will end up solving the bigger problem.
Good researcher’s problems tend to have within them aspects and other areas of lesser
importance. These form the sub-problems take the form of specific Research questions
or hypothesis.
 Research seeks direction through appropriate or questions: having stated the problem or
issue of the study and the attendant sub-problem, the sub-problem are then each stated in
the form of using Descriptive statistics of inferential statistics.
  Research is circular: The cyclical process of the research begins with the identification of
a problem. Questions or hypothesis related to the problem are formulated. Relevant
dataon the problem is then collected after which it is organized and analyzed. The results
expose other issues which serve as the basis for new research.

RESEARCH
PROBLEM

DATA RESEARCH
ANALYSIS HYPOTHESI
AND S OR
INTERPRET
ATION QUESTION

DATA
COLLECTIO
N

Also, research also has the following characteristics

CHARACTERISTICS OF A GOOD RESEARCH
 It is doable: this means any topic or problem one identifies one must be able to do it
 Systematic: it implies that research is done in orderly manner.
 Logical: it means that in presenting research report it should be coherent.
 Empirical: research should be based on factual evidence
 Replicable: this means a study that has been done elsewhere can be repeated in different
place.
 Creative
 Use of multiple method
Action Research
The popularity of action research and its applicability in many settings have brought variations in
in how researchers and practitioners from different disciplines understand and define action
research.
The different views on what constitute action research can be attributed to differences in
researchers’ worldviews, and philosophical belief, the goals of action research, its expected
outcomes and the ownership of the action research process and its consequences (Cochran -
Smith & Lytle, 1993). The most common terms for action research as research approach include
participatory action research, collaborative action research, community-based research,
community action research, teacher inquiry, teacher research, cooperative inquiry, critical action
research etc.
Traditionally, action research was linked to disciplined inquiry carried out by teachers with the
intent of informing and changing their classroom practice. However, pragmatic focus and
flexibility of action research has attracted practitioners from different fields (Koshy et al., 2011).
The growing popularity of action research is attributed to (1) its focus on the solution of practical
problems /issues that need immediate attention (2) its goal of improving practice or developing
individual, and (3) its emphasis on empowerment and emancipation with focus on social change
(Herr & Anderson, 2005). According to Stringer (2014), action research is “ a systematic
approach to investigation that enables people to find effective solutions to problems they
confront in their everyday lives’’ (p.277). Action or intervention is central to the idea of action
research and requires a spiral of action cycles at developing, implementing, evaluating action or
intervention plan to improve the practice (Kemmis, 1982).
Action research combines a substantive act with a research procedure; it is action disciplined by
enquiry, a personal attempt at understanding while engaged in a process of improvement and
reform’ (Hopkins, 2008, p. 47).
Action research involves the application of the steps of the scientific method to educational
problems. Although it is similar in some respects to experimental research, action research
differs principally in the extent to which findings can be generalized. Primary concern for action
research is problem solving, hence, it is focused on the immediate application and not on the
development of a theory. Many action research projects are carried out in a single classroom by a
single teacher; and the others, by all the teachers in an institution or even any aspect. Its findings
are to be evaluated in terms of local applicability, not in terms of universal validity. Its purpose is
to improve institutional practices.
Action research is a methodology; that is a framework for approaching a piece of research.
Action researchers believe, or adopt a position, which says the world can be seen differently
from different perspectives. They try to understand and make improvements to practice in an
environment where there are probably many viewpoints. Action researchers do not start out with
the opinion that there is one way of seeing the world and their research can discover this. Trying
to reach decisions and ways forward amongst a complex situation is the business of action
research (Arnold, 2015).
Origin of Action Research
It is generally accepted that action research emerged in the United States during the 1940s
through the work of social psychologist Kurt Lewin. In his work, Lewin (1946) promoted shared
decision-making by stakeholders in the workplace and the establishment of community action
programs.
While others, including John Collier and Jacob Moreno, have also been credited with the rise of
action research, it was Lewin’s work and reputation that gave impetus to action research
movements in many different disciplines.
In the 1950s, action research was taken up in educational circles, specifically by the teaching
profession, and was advanced by Stephen Corey in his book Action Research to Improve School
Practices (1953). Use of action research went into decline in the United States in the late 1950s,
perhaps because of a focus on new research models and technical excellence in the “space age.”
In contrast, the approach began to gain momentum in the U.K. only in the 1970s, mainly through
the influence of Lawrence Stenhouse, who was working in the context of teacher education.
Stenhouse argued that teachers in classrooms should be supported by higher education personnel
and wrote that the “fruitful development in the field of curriculum and teaching depends upon
evolving styles of cooperative research by teachers and using full-time researchers to support the
teachers’ work” (1975: 162).
Another researcher, Stephen Kemmis, became active in action research in Australia and gained
worldwide influence by developing ideas with a critical and participatory focus. Through
Kemmis’ contributions, action research became recognized as a form of practical research that
legitimized teachers’ attempts to understand their work from their own point of view. Instead of
learning about the disciplines and applying those theories to their work in a sterile, objective
manner only, teachers were encouraged to explore what they were doing and propose ways of
improving it by using a hands-on approach.
Although action research initially flourished in the field of education, this approach to inquiry is
now widely accepted across disciplines and recognized for its potential to contribute to
knowledge and theory generation. The adoption of action research by various disciplines
produced a number of variants of its basic tenets. The variants include cooperative inquiry
(Heron 1988; Reason and Rowan 1981), participatory action research (Sappington, Baker,
Gardner and Pacha 2010), and action science (Argyris and Schön 1978). teacher research
(Burnaford, Fischer, and Hobson 2001), reflective practice (Evans 2002), and community service
learning (Angelelli 1998; Kaye 2004).

Types of Action Research

Berg (2001) suggested that there are three modes of action research: (a) technical/scientific/
collaborative, (b) practical/mutual collaborative/deliberative, and (c) emancipating/enhancing/
critical science. Each mode has a distinct goal. The goal of the technical/scientific/collaborative
mode is to test a particular intervention based on a pre-specified theoretical framework. The
practical/mutual collaborative/deliberative mode seeks to improve practice- and-service delivery
while, the emancipating/enhancing/critical science mode focuses on assisting practitioners in
lifting their veil of clouded understandings, and help them to better understand fundamental
problems by raising their collective consciousness. Action research types has also been viewed in
terms of the its design. For instance, VanBaren (2019) categorised action research into four main
types:
 1. Individual Research
Individual action research is undertaken by a single teacher or member of staff. This type
of study is carried out to examine a certain activity. A teacher might ask if including
group activities into an English class will help students learn more effectively. The
teacher does research on his or her own by leading a group activity for a set amount of
time. The teacher assesses the results after the action is completed, makes changes, or
discards the program if it is not found to be productive.
2. Collaborative Research
Collaborative research entails a group of people working together to investigate a specific
issue. With collaborative research, more than one person is participating in the
implementation of the new program with collaborative research. A group of students,
usually larger than one class, is tested, and the results are anlaysed. Many a time,
collaborative research involves both teachers and principals of the school. This sort of
study allows a large number of people to work together on a single topic. Individual
action research frequently provides fewer benefits than collaborative action research.
3. School -Wide Research
In most cases, action research programmes are born out of a problem that concerns the
entire institution. School-wide action research is when a program is investigated for a
whole school. A school may be concerned about a school-wide problem for this form of
action research. This could be due to a lack of parental participation or research into how
to improve pupils' performance in a specific topic. During this research, the entire staff
collaborates to investigate the problem, introduce changes, and remedy or improve
performance.
4. District-Wide Research
When the problem borders on a whole school district, district-wide research is used. This
sort of action research is usually more focused on the community than the others. This
format can also be used to address district-wide organizational issues. Staff from each
school in the district collaborates on district-wide research to remedy the problem or find
methods to improve the situation.

Action Research as Reflective Practice

Reflection is a significant component of self-study and action research (Mills, 2003) as it is
a powerful way to know about the self in research and practice as well as to unpack the very
self in teaching practice. Reflective practice in teacher education allows teacher educators to
explore how teachers learn by including “I” in an epistemology of reflective practice
(Whitehead, 2000). Reflective pedagogy helps teachers closely examine current practice
and spearhead changes as teacher leaders (Reason & Reason, 2007).
In other words, self- study means studying one’s own practice in its simple term, but its
definition varies according to role, practice, and purpose (Smaras & Freese, 2006)—a
process that lendsitself to qualitative inquiry which uses narrative, descriptive approaches
to data collection and analysis. Reflective practice is learning and developing through
examining what we think happened on any occasion, and how we think others perceived the
event and us, opening our practice to the scrutiny of others, and studying texts from the
wider sphere. (Bolton, 2005, p. 7)

While engaging in self-study, teachers examine and problematize their own teaching by
reflecting on their practice. Fairbanks and LaGrone (2006) for example, examined the ways in
which teachers constructed knowledge through the discourse of a teacher research group and
found that teachers’ learning and teaching is transformed through the talk about theory and
practice to support their research efforts. Swinglehurst, Russell, and Greenhalgh (2008) assert
that “action research is becoming a popular approach to studying complex social situations such
as those found in educational settings, where the focus is on simultaneous [inquiry] into practice
(generating knowledge) and action to improve situations (e.g. designing new curricula or
learning activities)” (p. 385). Through this self-directed inquiry, the teacher will (1) “ask
essential questions, gather data and necessary information, and analyze and interpret the
information to answer their questions” (McVicker, 2008/2009, p. 22); and (2) engage in critical
and reflective thinking through self-directed (Elder & Paul, 2007) exploration to self-evaluate
current practice.
Many educators concerned with how and what teacher candidates learn in and beyond the
college classrooms (Zeichner, 2007) suggest that knowledge is not passed down from one
person with authority to another or a group of people with less power and limited knowledge,
instead knowledge is acquired through social interaction within a particular learning
community. In this context, self-study research can help to create a better understanding of what
constitutes professional knowledge.

Features/Characteristics of Action Research

Reading a number of accounts of action research is instructive because, in doing so, it
becomes clear that there is both agreement and disagreement among authors as to what are
its defining characteristics. For example, Denscombe (2007, p.123) suggests four such
characteristics:
1. its practical nature;
2. its focus on change;
3. the involvement of a cyclical process;
4. its concern with participation:
Reason and Bradbury, 2008, pp.3-4) has also outlined the following as critical features of action
research:
(1) Action research is a set of practices that respond to peoples’ desires to act creatively in
the face of practical and often pressing issues in their lives in organization and
community
(2) Action research calls for engagement with people in collaborative relationships,
 (3) Action research draws on many ways of knowing both in the evidence that is generated in
inquiry and its expression in diverse forms of presentation as we share our learning with
wider audiences
(4) Action research is value-oriented, seeking to address issues of significance concerning
the growth of human persons, their community, and the wider ecology in which we
participate.
At its core, the goal of action research is for people to increase the effectiveness of the work in
which they are personally engaged (Stringer 2014). This is achieved by examining the particular
dynamics present in a local setting, taking a specified action within that setting, and evaluating
the results of that action. This process of planning, taking action, and evaluating leads to further
planning, action, and evaluation (Burns 1999; Coghlan and Brannick 2010).

Need for Action Research

Arnold (2015) noted that action research is useful in the following ways:
o It can help you to learn more about a practice-based topic such as interactive teaching
methods or assessment rubrics, teaching through technology or learning through the
physical campus.
o It can help you to engage with others better. It gives us space to listen to those around
us and find out what their perspectives really are.
o It can help you to learn more about research methods and have a wider range of methods
that we can draw on in future.
o It can help you familiar with a popular research approach in higher education practice;
in turn this can make some of the literature easier to engage with.
o It can make a real difference to practice by enabling changes that improve the student
experience and other aspects of practice.
o It can provide space for us to think deeply about issues that affect us. It is sometimes
difficult to make this space in the run of practice;
o It can help you to consider your beliefs and values e.g., about technology’s place in the
classroom, about your feelings towards inclusive practice or about the role of a teacher

Key Principles of of Action Research

Classroom action research is distinguished by the researcher's participation and collaboration
with members of the target group. Classroom action research must show that there has been a
positive change in the direction of progress. If the action results in weakness, negative decline, or
change, it is no longer classified as classroom action research. What gives action research its
unique position is the set of principles that guide the research. Richard (1989) provides a
comprehensive general overview of six key principles which can be considered in any of the
educational settings.
The following are the key principles of classroom action research:

1) Reflexive critique: The principle of reflective critique ensures people reflect on issues and
processes and make explicit the interpretations, biases, assumptions and concerns upon which
judgments are made. An account of a situation, such as notes, transcripts or official documents,
will make implicit claims to be authoritative, i.e., it implies that it is factual and true. In this way,
practical accounts can give rise to theoretical considerations.
2) Dialectical critique: Reality is consensually validated, which is to say it is shared through
language. Phenomena are conceptualized in dialogue; therefore, a dialectical critique is required
to understand the set of relationships both between the phenomenon and its context, and between
the elements constituting the phenomenon. The key elements to focus attention on are those
constituent elements that are unstable, or in opposition to one another. These are the ones that are
most likely to create changes.
3) Collaborative Resource: Participants in an action research project are co-researchers. The
principle of collaborative resource presupposes that each person’s ideas are equally significant as
potential resources for creating interpretive categories of analysis, negotiated among the
participants.
4) Risk: The change process potentially threatens all previously established ways of doing
things, thus creating fears among the practitioners. One of the more prominent fears comes from
the risk to ego stemming from open discussion of one’s interpretations, ideas, and judgments.
Initiators of action research will use this principle to allay others’ fears and invite participation
by pointing out that they, too, will be subject to the same process, and that whatever the
outcome, learning will take place.
5) Plural Structure: The nature of the research embodies a multiplicity of views, commentaries
and critiques, leading to multiple possible actions and interpretations. This means that there will
be many accounts made explicit, with commentaries on their contradictions, and a range of
options for action presented. A report, therefore, acts as a support for ongoing discussion among
collaborators, rather than a final conclusion of fact.
6) Theory, Practice, and Transformation: For action researchers, theory informs practice,
practice refines theory, in a continuous transformation. In any setting, people’s actions are based
on implicitly held assumptions, theories and hypotheses, and with every observed result,
theoretical knowledge is enhanced. The ensuing practical applications that follow are subjected
to further analysis, in a transformative cycle that continuously alternates emphasis between
theory and practice.
Models of Action Research
In order to illustrate their views, many authors offer diagrammatic representations of action
research models: For example, As Drummond and Themessl-Huber (2007, 432–433) suggest:
‘The variations of the action research cycle presented in the literature include circles of action,
spirals, varying combinations of circles and spirals and flow diagrams’. At its most basic, action
research can be viewed in terms of the processes outlined in Figure 1.1.
This model has its origins in the work of Kurt Lewin (1946) and has been cited in several more
recent accounts of action research (e.g. Ritchie et al., 2002; Norton, 2009). From the point of
view of teachers and teaching, it involves deciding on a particular focus for research, planning to
implement an activity, series of activities, or other interventions, implementing these activities,
observing the outcomes, reflecting on what has happened and then planning a further series of
activities if necessary.

plan

Action

Observe

Reflect

Figure 1.1 A basic action research model.

A more elaborate action research model is offered by Michael Bassey, whose framework consists
of eight stages which may be summarised as follows (see Bassey, 1998, pp. 94–95 and Robson,
2002, pp. 217–218):
Stage 1: Defining the enquiry.
Stage 2: Describing the educational situation.
Stage 3: Collecting and analysing evaluative data.
Stage 4: Reviewing the data and looking for contradictions.
Stage 5: Tackling a contradiction by introducing some aspect of change.
Stage 6: Monitoring the change.
Stage 7: Analysing evaluative data concerning the change.
Stage 8: Reviewing the change and deciding what to do next.

The framework is based on three central questions (Bassey, 1998, p. 94): what is happening in
this educational situation of ours now? (Stages 1 to 4); what changes are we going to introduce?
(Stage 5); what happens when we make the changes? (Stages 6 to 8).
 UNIT TWO
PROCESS ONE IN CONDUCTING ACTION RESEARCH

Background to the study meaning

The background to the study is part of a research provided in the introduction section of the
paper. It is a compilation of adequate information that is based on the analysis of the problem or
proposed argument, the steps and methods needed to arrive at the design, the implementation of
the results achieved, and feasible solutions. It is different from the introduction. The introduction
only contains the preliminary information about your research question or thesis topic. It is
simply an overview of the research question or thesis topic. But the background to your study is
more in-depth - it explains why your research topic or thesis is worth the time of your readers.
Read more: https://www.legit.ng/1174941-background-study-research-write-2021.html
The background of the study helps your reader determine if you have a basic understanding of
the research problem being investigated and promotes confidence in the overall quality of your
analysis and findings. Read more: https://www.legit.ng/1174941-background-study-research-
write-2021.html
Lango (2020) argues that a good background to a study should revolve around the independent
and dependent variables in the study topic. It should also define the relevance of the study topic
and its potential to contribute to knowledge. In writing the background to any study. Lango
(2020) proposes an eight- step procedure that the researcher may consider:
STEP 1: Worldview Background of the Study Area
STEP 2: Regional View of the Background Study Area
STEP 3: National View of the Background Study Area
STEP 4: Local View of the Background Study Area
STEP 5: FIRST Research Intuition
STEP 6: Background Information and Definitions of Dependent Variable (DV)
STEP 7: Background Information and Definitions of Independent Variable (IV)
STEP 8: SECOND Researcher’s Intuition
Worldview Background of the Study Area
Depending on where location of the research is based, worldview background takes into
considerations a global view of the research area. For example, if located in Ghana, your
worldview background will consider studies done in Europe and Asia while studies done in
African countries other than Ghana will form the regional view.
National View of the Background Study Area
This section of the background study has a great significance as it brings the study closer to its
environment by looking at information available on the topic area in wider national outlook. In
most instances this section addresses the background information available on the study within
the country of study. It is important to look at the national view in terms of available information
on the dependent variable.

Local View of the Background Study Area

At this stage, the researcher looks at the specific target location of the study, focusing on the
tenets of the variables with a view to giving grounds for the study. The local view also provides a
glimpse into the background gap of the study topic.
Statement of the Problem
A statement of the problem is used in research work as a claim that outlines the problem
addressed by a study. A good research problem should address an existing gap in knowledge in
the field and lead to further research. The statement of the research problem is very pertinent and
must be considered with all the seriousness that it deserves. A research problem can be defined
as an issue in need of investigation. Thus, problems spring from puzzle experience. However, a
vague feeling that something is wrong or that some theory or policy is not adequate does not
constitute a problem. Such a situation is an indication that a problem may exist. Before you
proceed with your proposal you must be isolate, shape, and clarify the pertinent variables and
relationships that give rise to the problems’ statement. This you can do by reviewing related
literature. This will enable you put the problem in appropriate theoretical framework or context.
The statement of the problem should indicate the variables of interest to the investigator and the
relationships as well as the subject of study. The research problem can be stated in difference
ways.
Macmillan (1996) identified six criteria that can be used to evaluate a research problem. These
are:
Is the problem researchable? (i.e., The problem should be such that you can collect, organise
and analysed data).
Is the problem important? (i.e., significant to practice, policy or theory).
Does the problem indicate the type of research? (Example: Quantitative, qualitative or mixed
methods)
Does the problem specify the population? (i.e., the target group of study).
Does the problem specify the variables of interest? (Example: achievement, self-efficacy,
perception or motivation).
Is the problem clear? (i.e., devoid of ambiguity).
A problem statement is a concise description of the problem or issues a researcher seeks to
address. The problem statement identifies the current state, the desired future state and any
gaps between the two. A problem statement is an important communication tool that can help
ensure everyone working on a project knows what the problem they need to address is and why
the project is important.(https://www.indeed.com/career-advice/career-development/what-is-a-
problem-statement Further reading )
Importance of a Problem Statement
A problem statement is important in the action research process because it helps clearly identify
the goals of the research and outlines its scope. It also helps to guide the activities and decisions
of the people who are working on the project/research.

Key Elements of a Problem Statement in Research

There are four key elements to be considered for inclusion when writing a problem statement:
1. Ideal situation
2. Reality
3. Consequences
4. Proposal (https://www.indeed.com/career-advice/career-development/what-is-a-problem-
statement (Further reading).
Ideal situation
The problem statement should first describe what the ideal situation would be if there wasn't a
problem in need of investigation for any solution. This section identifies the goals and scope of
the project and provides a clear understanding of what the ideal environment will be, once the
issue has been resolved.
Reality
The next section of the problem statement should describe what the current reality is for your
classroom or wider school environment. This section will identify what the problem is, state
why it is a problem and identify who the problem is impacting. It will also describe when and
where the problem was identified.
Consequences
The next section of the problem statement should identify what the consequences of the problem
are. This section describes the effects of the problem by describing how the people affected by
the problem are being impacted and quantifying how much the problem is impacting them.
Common consequences can include the loss of time, money, resources, competitive advantage,
productivity, poor academic achievement, exclusion and more.
Proposal
The proposal section of a problem statement may contain several possible solutions to the
problem, but it is important to remember that it does not need to identify a specific solution
(proposed solution allowed). The purpose of the proposal section should be to guide the researchteam on
how to research, investigate and resolve the problem.

HOW TO WRITE A PROBLEM STATEMENT

A good problem statement can be created by identifying and answering several questions related
to the problem. The process used to write a problem statement should involve answering
questions using a method commonly known as 5W2H. This process involves identifying what
the problem is, why it is a problem, when and where the problem was identified, who the
problem impacts, how they are impacted by the problem and how much of an impact the
problem has. You can use the following process to craft a problem statement that addresses the
following:
1. Identify the problem.
2. Begin your statement with your ideal situation.
3. Describe current gaps.
4. State the consequences of the problem.
5. Propose addressing the problem.
Problem statement example
Here is an example of a problem statement for a sales call center:
Ideal situation:
Ideally, our sales associates would be able to maximize their production by being able to make
more contacts with leads each day.
Reality:
Currently, our sales associates are unable to maximize the number of leads they are contacting
each day because they are spending too much time finding qualified leads to call and inserting
lead information into the system before making calls. This is a problem because the time our
sales associates are spending finding leads and entering lead information into our system could
be used to contact more qualified leads and generate more sales. We identified this problem in
our sales call center while surveying to gather feedback from our sales associates about what
limits their ability to maximize their sales numbers.
Consequences:
Our sales associates currently spend about two hours per day finding qualified leads and another
two hours per day entering lead information into our system before they begin making calls. This
means our sales associates are only spending half of their workday actually making calls to
qualified leads. Because our sales associates are not able to use their entire shift to make contact
with leads, their overall sales numbers are being impacted. Our company estimates that our sales
associates would be able to make at least double the number of sales if they were able to spend
their entire shift contacting qualified leads.
Proposal:
Our company seeks to resolve this issue by creating a process improvement team to identify
several potential solutions for how we can reduce the time our sales associates spend not making
contact with qualified leads.
Purpose of the Study

The Purpose of the Study illustrates what the study will do, which should reflect the statement
of the problem. Broadly, a component of the purpose of the study is to describe what the study
will do and should include reference to the areas defined in the statement of the problem.

The “Purpose of the Study” section consists of a few short paragraphs describing, aptly, the
purpose of your study. Within this section is the “Purpose Statement,” which is a single sentence.
The purpose statement succinctly explains (on not more than 1 page) the objectives of the
research study. The purpose of the study illustrates what the study will do, which should reflect
the statement of the problem. Broadly, a component of the purpose of the study is to describe
what the study will do and should include reference to the areas defined in the statement of the
problem.

Good purpose statements:

 Flow from the problem statement and actually address the proposed problem
 Are concise and clear
 Answer the question ‘Why are you doing this research?’
 Set the stage by clearly stating, “The purpose of this (qualitative or quantitative) study is
to...
A purpose statement will clearly define what is being explored or studied, how it is being
explored and where it is being explored. You will typically see quantitative research purpose
statements, which focus on comparing measurable variables, or qualitative research purpose
statements, which explore a central phenomenon.
Research objectives

Research objectives are the outcomes that you aim to achieve by conducting research. Many research

projects contain more than one research objective. Creating strong research objectives can help your

organization achieve its overall goals. The purpose of research objectives is to drive the research project,

including data collection, analysis and conclusions. Research objectives also help you narrow in on the

focus of your research and key variables, guiding you through the research process.
The purpose of research objectives is to drive the research project, including data collection, analysis and
conclusions. Research objectives also help you narrow in on the focus of your research and key
variables, guiding you through the research process.

The importance of research objectives lies in the fact that they determine:

 The kind of questions to be asked. In other words, research questions are derived from
theobjectives.
 The data collection and analysis procedure to be used. Data collection tools are developed
fromthe research objectives.
 The design of the proposed study. Various research designs have different research
objectives(Wanjohi, 2012).

EXAMPLE
Using the study on ‘Teacher and Parental Factors Affecting Students’ Academic Performance in Public
Basic Schools in East Mamprusi Municipality, Ghana,’ as an example, you may state your research
objectives as follows:

1. To assess teacher factors influencing students’ academic performance in public Basic schools in
East Mamprusi Municipality.
2. To determine parental factors influencing students’ academic performance in public Basic
schools in East Mamprusi Municipality.
3. To ascertain which teacher/parental factors affect students’ academic performance in public
Basic schools in East Mamprusi Municipality.
4. To find out what measures can be put in place to improve students’ academic performance in
public Basic schools in East Mamprusi Municipality.

Research Question
A research question is a question that a study or research project aims to answer. This question
often addresses an issue or a problem, which, through analysis and interpretation of data, is
answered in the study’s conclusion. In most studies, the research question is written so that it
outlines various aspects of the study, including the population and variables to be studied and the
problem the study addresses (Farrugia, Petrisor, Farrokhyar & Bhandari, 2010).

As their name implies, research questions are often grounded on research. As a result, these
questions are dynamic; this means researchers can change or refine the research question as they
review related literature and develop a framework for the study. While many research projects
will focus on a single research question, larger studies often use more than one research question.
Importance of the Research Question
Typically, a research question focuses on the research, determines the methodology and
hypothesis, and guides all stages of inquiry, analysis, and reporting. With the right research
questions, you will be able to gather useful information for your investigation.

The primary importance of framing the research question is that it narrows down a broad topic of
interest into a specific area of study (Creswell, 2014).

Research questions, along with hypotheses, also serve as a guiding framework for research.

These questions also specifically reveal the boundaries of the study, setting its limits, and
ensuring cohesion (Creswell, 2014).

Moreover, the research question has a domino effect on the rest of the study. These questions
influence factors, such as the research methodology sample size, data collection, and data
analysis (Lipowski, 2008).

Hulley et al. (2007) suggest using a set of criteria- known as the “FINER” criteria-to find out if
you have a good research question. The FINER criteria are outlined below:

F – Feasible
A good research question is feasible, which means that the question is well within the
researcher’s ability to investigate. Researchers should be realistic about the scale of their
research as well as their ability to collect data and complete the research with their skills and the
resources available to them. It’s also wise to have a contingency plan in place in case problems
arise.

I – Interesting
The ideal research question is interesting not only to the researcher but also to their peers and
community. This interest boosts the researcher’s motivation to see the question answered.

N – Novel
Your research question should be developed to bring new insights to the field of study you
are investigating. The question may confirm or extend previous findings on the topic you are
researching.

E – Ethical
This is one of the more important considerations of making a research question. Your research
question and your subsequent study must be something that review boards and the appropriate
authorities will approve.

R – Relevant
Aside from being interesting and novel, the research question should be relevant to the scientific
community and people involved in your area of study. If possible, your research question should
also be relevant to the public’s interest.
Significance of the study
In simple terms, the significance of the study is basically the importance of your research.
While stating the significance, you must highlight how your research will be beneficial to the
development of science and the society in general.
The significance of the study is a written statement that explains why your research was needed.
It’s a justification of the importance of your work and impact it has on your research field, it’s
contribution to new knowledge and how others will benefit from it.
Why is the Significance of the Study Important?

The significance of the study, also known as the rationale of the study, is important to convey to
the reader why the research work was important. This may be an academic reviewer assessing
your manuscript under peer-review, an examiner reading your thesis a funder reading your grant
application or another research group reading your published journal paper. Your academic
writing should make clear to the reader what the significance of the research that you performed
was, the contribution you made and the benefits of it.

Research Delimitation
Delimitation in research refers to the boundaries of the research study, based on the researcher's
decision of what to include and what to exclude. It also focuses on the area of interest of the
researcher, specifies the scope of the study and determines its limits. That is, taking the research
problem from a very large situation to a concrete reality, easy to handle. Delimiting a research
means specifying in concrete terms our areas of interest in the search, establishing its scope, and
deciding the boundaries of space, time, and circumstances that we will likely affect the findings
of the study.
Research delimitation means, focus on concrete terms in our area of interest, specify its scope,
determine its limits. That is, taking the research problem from a very large situation to a concrete
reality, easy to handle. In such a way, delimiting a research means specifying in concrete terms
our areas of interest in the search, establishing its scope, and deciding the boundaries of space,
time, and circumstances that we will impose on our study.

Importance of delimiting the problem

Delimitations narrow the study to make it more manageable and relevant to what the researcher
is trying to prove. There are several aspects that research can present, according to which a series
of parameters can be developed, which will help the researcher to correctly generate the study
and offer the desired results. Thus, as one of the most important aspects that all research presents
are summarized in the problem, and this is the centre from which all the research starts. It marks
the beginning of the study and positions the guidelines that must be followed. But for all this to
be possible, it is necessary that according to the problem certain aspects must be taken into
consideration, such as its correct delimitation.
Operational definition of terms
Operational definition of terms refers to a detailed explanation of the technical terms and
measurements used during data collection.
Organization of the study
Broadly, components of the organization of the Study provide a map that may guide readers
through the reading and understanding of the research report. Specifically, each component of
the Organization of the Study is to briefly establish how each chapter is constructed to achieve
the research objectives.
 UNIT 3.

PROCESS TWO OF CONDUCTING ACTION RESEARCH

Literature Review

The “literature” in research means the works you referred to or consulted in order to understand
and investigate your research problem.
A literature review is an assessment of a body (or bodies) of literature that pertains to a specific
question. A literature review is helpful in several ways. It not only helps researchers glean the
ideas of others interested in a particular research question (through important research findings
and theories), but it also lets them read about the results of similar or related studies. Literature
reviews also give researchers ideas about areas where more research needs to be done (known as
gaps). Thus, researchers often weigh information from a literature review in light of their own
interests and situation. There are two important points here: Researchers need to be able not only
to locate other work dealing with their intended area of study but also to be able to evaluate this
work in terms of its relevance to the research question of interest.

Before planning the details of the study, researchers usually read written related materials to the
problem or topic in detail to find out what has been written about the topic or had been done.
Opinions of experts in the field, as well as other research studies are of interest to the researcher
in performing this important duty. Such reading is referred to as a review of the literature. The
review of literature involves the systematic identification, location and analysis/"digging" of
documents containing information related to the research problem. These documents include
periodicals, abstracts, review books, and other research reports.

Purpose of literature review

 It places the paper within the context of known research on the subject; focuses one’s
own research topic.
 Provides thorough knowledge of previous studies;
 Introduces seminar works.
 It identifies a conceptual framework for one’s own research questions or problems;
 It indicates potential directions for future research.
 Indicates timely nature of one’s research, if applicable
 Identifies resources previously unknown or unexplored
  Suggests previously unused or underused methodologies, designs, quantitative and
qualitative strategies.

Sources of Literature Review

A researcher needs to be familiar with three basic types of sources as he or she begins to
search for information related to the research question. These terms apply both to
computerized searching (online or electronic) as well as manual searching (using print/paper
tools to locate print/paper sources). Regardless of the tools involved, the search process is
similar.
General reference tools are the sources researchers often refer to first. In effect, they tell
where to look to locate other sources such as articles, books, reports, and other documents
that deal directly with the research question. General reference tools are usually either
indexes, which list the author, title, and place of publication of articles and other materials,
or abstracts, which give a brief summary or annotation of various publications, as well as
their author, title, and place of publication. Historically, indexes and abstracts were only
available in paper format, but since the advent of computers and the Internet, most libraries
have access to indexes and abstracts through online databases containing electronic index es,
abstracts, dictionaries, and encyclopedias. For example, the Current Index to Journals in
Education (CIJE) and Resources in Education (RIE), the indexes most frequently used by
researchers in education, are no longer available as distinct publications in paper format.
Instead, since 2002 the information they contain is now only available electronically in E
RIC (Education Resources Information Center), an online database of education research and
information sponsored by the U.S. Department of Education and the Institute of Education
Sciences. (We’ll show you how to do an ERIC search of the literature later in this chapter.)
Similarly, Psychological Abstracts, the general reference most commonly used by
researchers in psychology, is now only available through Psyc INFO, a computer database
compiled by the American Psychological Association (APA) that includes abstracts and
bibliographic citations for journal articles, evaluation reports, conference papers and
proceedings, speeches, and the like.

Theoretical and Empirical Literature Review

Empirical literature review
An empirical literature review is more commonly called a systematic literature review and it
examines past empirical studies to answer a particular research question. In empirical literature,
established research methodologies and procedures are systematically applied to answer the
questions of interest.
Theoretical Review
Anfara and Mertz (2015) are of the view that theoretical framework is any empirical or quasi-
empirical theory of social and or psychological processes, at a variety of levels that can be
applied to the understanding of phenomena. Collins and Stockton (2018) have argued that a
strong theoretical framework allows the researcher to reveal existing predispositions about a
study and assist in data coding and interpretation. Theoretical framework is based upon theories
that have already been tested. These are theories that are the result of painstaking research
conducted earlier by other investigators (Akintoye, 2015).

Sources of literature

There are two main sources one can review one’s literature from: primary, secondary
sources.
1. Primary sources are first-hand accounts of experience, research, experiments and
investigations.
They are found in journal articles, in conference papers, reports, and minutes of meetings,
research papers, thesis, as well as interview and questionnaires.
2. Secondary sources are summaries of information collected from primary sources, or
books and articles in which other researchers report the results of their research based on
primary data such as translations, summaries, reviews, abstracts, commentaries and
guidebooks.
NB Some authors add the third source which is tertiary source
 Tertiary sources include textbooks, dictionaries, encyclopedias, guides, and handbooks.
Note that they are generally weak support for your own arguments.

Steps Involved in a Literature Search

The following steps are involved in a literature search:
1. Define the research problem as precisely as possible.
2. Look at relevant secondary sources (these can include research reviews).
3. Select and peruse one or two appropriate general reference works.
4. Formulate search terms (key words or phrases) pertinent to the problem or question of
interest.
5. Search for relevant primary sources using appropriate general reference tools.
6. Obtain and read relevant primary sources, and note and summarize key points in the
sources.

Writing the Review Chapter

It is important that one undertakes a literature review on a subject before actually conducting a
research project. Having gone through the steps involved in identifying a literature review which
includes identifying potential references, locating references, reading relevant references and
taken notes, organizing, analyzing and integrating the references; the final step is to write the
review. This session presents what should into the review chapter and how to organize the
materials.
Parts of the Literature

After reading and taken notes on the various sources collected, researchers can prepare the final
review. Fraenkel and Wallen (1993) have identified four parts of the literature review. These
include:

1. The introduction

The introduction briefly describes the nature of the research problem. The researcher also
explains in this section what led him/her to investigate the topic and why it is an important topic
to investigate. It implies that the introduction should identify your topic, some discussion of the
significance of that topic and a thesis statement that outlines what conclusion you will draw from
your analysis and synthesis of the literature.
2. The Body

In the body, discuss and assess the research according to specific organizational principles rather
than addressing each source separately. Most, if not all, paragraphs should discuss more than one
source. Avoid addressing your sources alphabetically as this does not assist in developing the
themes or key issues central to your review.
The body of the review briefly reports what others have found or thought about the research
problem. How is the related literature discussed in the review? Related studies are usually
discussed together, grouped under subheadings to make the review easier to read. Major
studies are described in more detail, while less important work can be referred to in just a
line or two. In most cases this is done by referring to several studies that reported similar results
in a single sentence as shown at the previous sub session.
 3. The Summary
The summary of the review ties together the main threads revealed in the literature reviewed.
The summary also presents a composite picture of what is known or thought to date. Provide
a summary of the findings from the literature review by explaining what your analysis of the
material leads you to conclude about the overall state of the literature, what it provides and
where it is lacking. You can also provide suggestions for future research or explain how your
future research will fill the gaps in the existing body of work on that topic.
 UNIT 4.

PROCESS THREE IN CONDUCTING ACTION RESEARCH

(METHODOLOGY)

Research Design

A research design is a systematic plan to study a scientific problem. The design of a study
defines the study type (descriptive, correlational, semi-experimental, experimental, review, meta-
analytic) and sub-type (e.g., descriptive-longitudinal case study), research question, hypotheses,
independent and dependent variables, experimental design, and, if applicable, data collection
methods and a statistical analysis plan. Research design is the framework that has been created to
seek answers to research questions.

Research design is also seen as the conceptual blueprint within which research is conducted.
A researcher's overall plan for obtaining answers to the research questions or for testing the
research hypotheses is referred to as the research design. Research design is thus a plan or
blueprint that specifies how data relating to a given problem should be collected and analysed.
It provides the procedural outline for the conduct of any investigation. What we mean here is that
the research design spells out the basic strategies that the researcher adopts to develop
information that is accurate and interpretable. The design, therefore, incorporates some of the
most important methodological decisions that the researcher makes in conducting a research
study.
Gay (1992) notes that, the research design indicates the basic structure of the study; the nature of

the questions and the variables involved in the study. The design thus indicates whether there is

an intervention and what the intervention is, the nature of any comparisons to be made, the

method to be used to control extraneous variables and enhance the study’s repeatability, the

timing and frequency of data collection, the setting in which the data collection is to take place,

and the nature of communications with subjects.

Study settings

The study setting is the physical, social, or experimental context within which research is

conducted. In a research paper, describing this setting accurately is crucial since the results and

their interpretation may depend heavily on it. For example, in a paper that describes the social

behavior of chimpanzees, the authors may need to provide the following details about the

research setting: where the chimpanzees were observed (in the wild or in captivity), the number

of chimpanzees observed and whether they belonged to the same social group, the geographic

location, the period of study, the time of year/weather conditions, the availability of resources

like food/water/shelter, presence of environmental threats, and so on.

The research setting, the environment within which studies are run has important consequences

for experimental design, the type of data that can be collected and the interpretation of results.

So, for example running a study in an experimental laboratory may allow you to control

variables in a way you cannot do in field work, and the results may be criticized for not

reflecting real life. It is often important to conduct complementary studies in various research

settings in order to build arguments for the generalizability of findings.

Population

In a study, an investigator may be interested in a group of people. The group becomes the

investigator's target group. Examples of such groups may include "all

teachers", "all senior secondary school students", "all principals in training colleges in Ghana,

"all State Registered Nurses at the Oti region", "all lower primary pupils in 'Krachi East

Municipality". The target group about which the researcher is interested in gaining information

and drawing conclusions is known as the population. Polit and Hungler (1996) defined a

population as the entire aggregation of cases that meet designated set of criteria. It must be noted

that whatever the basic unit, the population always comprises the entire aggregation of elements

in which the researcher is interested.

Population refers to all the members of a particular group. It is the group of interest to the
research, the group to whom the researcher would like to generalize the results of a study.
Population can be any size and must have at least one or several characteristics that distinguish it
from any other population.
A research population is generally a large collection of individuals or objects that is the main
focus of a scientific query. It is for the benefit of the population that researches are done.
However, due to the large sizes of populations, researchers often cannot test every individual in
the population because it is too expensive and time-consuming. This is the reason why
researchers rely on sampling techniques. A research population is also known as a well-defined
collection of individuals or objects known to have similar characteristics. All individuals or
objects within a certain population usually have a common, binding characteristic or trait.

Two Types of Population in Research

Target Population

Target population refers to the ENTIRE group of individuals or objects to which researchers are
interested in generalizing the conclusions. The target population usually has varying
characteristics and it is also known as the theoretical population.

Accessible Population
This is the portion of the population to which the researcher has reasonable access. The
accessible population is usually a subset of the target population and is also referred to as the
study population. It is from the accessible population that researchers draw their samples
(Research Population. Retrieved Feb 01, 2022 from Explorable.com:
https://explorable.com/research-population)

Sampling and Sampling Techniques

Sampling technique refers to the process of selecting a portion of the population to represent the entire

population. Generally, sampling enables the researcher to study a relatively small number of units in

place of the target population, and to obtain data that are representative of the whole target population.

Sample
A sample in a research study refers to any group on which information is obtained for the study.
Sampling is concerned with selection of a sample. It is important in descriptive research because
the subjects selected should be a true representation of the population. If not, the conclusion will
not be valid.
A sample consists of a carefully selected subset of the units that comprise the population. In most cases
researchers opt for incomplete coverage and study only a small proportion of the population. This small
proportion of the population is the sample. Sampling is thus the process of choosing the units of the
target population which are to be included in the study.
In sampling, the units that make up the samples and population are referred to as elements. The element
is the most basic unit about which information is collected. In social research, the elements are usually
humans.

Reasons for Sampling

 In many cases a complete coverage of the population is not possible.

 Complete coverage may not offer substantial advantage over a sample survey.

 Sampling provides a better option since it addresses the survey population in a short period of

time and produces comparable and equally valid results.

 Studies based on samples require less time and produce quick answers.
 Sampling is less demanding in terms of labour requirement, since it requires a small portion of

the target population.

 It is thought to be more economical, since it contains fewer people and requires less

printed material, fewer general costs (travelling, accommodation, etc) and fewer experts

 Samples are thought to offer more detailed information and a high degree of accuracy

because they deal with relatively small numbers of units.

Characteristics of a good sampling design

1. Truly representative (representativeness is not the property of the sample but of the
procedure by which the sample is obtained
2. Having small sampling error
3. Economically viable
4. Optimum size
5. Similar to population/universe
Types of Sampling Techniques

Sampling techniques can be grouped into two categories. These are Probability Sampling and

Non-Probability Sampling.

Probability Sampling
In a probability sampling, the subjects are selected randomly in such a way that the researcher
knows the probability of selecting each member of the population. In fact each member of the
population or sub-group has an equal chance of being selected into the study. Probability
sampling therefore goes with random sampling.
The second feature is that is equal chance/opportunity is given to each member of the group. It
reduces the biases in the sampling.

The hallmark of probability sampling is the random selection of elements from the

population. What is a random selection process? A random selection process is one in which

each element in the population has an equal, independent chance of being selected.

Probability sampling methods includes: Simple random sampling; Systematic sampling;

Stratified sampling; and cluster sampling.

Simple Random Sampling

Simple random sampling is the most basic of the probability designs. This type of sampling gives

all units of the target population an equal chance of being selected. The simple random sampling

is appropriate when Simple a population of study is similar in characteristics of interest. The

sample units are selected by means of two main methods or strategies. These are the lottery

method and the random number method.

The Lottery Method

Choosing respondents by the lottery method follows a procedure that can be described in the

following steps.

Step 1: Identify or construct a sampling frame. Constructing a sampling frame is preparing a list

of the units of the target population, that is, the list of all elements in the population. Such frames

are, for instance, the electoral register in the area, students’ records and include names and if

possible, addresses of sample units in alphabetical order and numbered accordingly.

Step 2. Write names listed in sample from or their numbers on slips of paper and put in a

container.

Step 3: Mix well and remove one slip or paper at a time from the container without looking into

it.
Step 4: Register or record the number or name on the slip. When a slip is selected and recorded,

it is thrown back into the container before the next one is picked. The process is continued until

the required number of respondents is recorded. If an already drawn number is selected for a

second or third time it is ignored, that is, it is thrown back into the container.

The Table of Random Numbers Method

This method is similar to the lottery method, except that the container and strips are replaced by

already generated tables of random numbers. These are usually found at the back of statistical

textbooks. It

Choosing the sample by using the random numbers method involves the following steps.

Step 1: A sampling frame is identified or constructed as in the lottery method. Thus decide on

the sample size.

Step 2: Appropriate tables of random numbers are selected

Step 3 Numbers are picked from the tables randomly and registered, the name in the sampling

frame corresponding to the numbers constitute the sample. For example, assume that we are

interested in the attitudes of JSS teachers in Cape Coast Municipality to the Best Teacher

Award scheme in Ghana. A sample of 100 teachers are required cut of 5000 JSS teachers in

the municipality.'

Systematic Sampling

This method is a modified form of simple random sampling. It involves selecting the subjects

from a population list in a systematic rather than a random fashion. A systematic sampling

consists of the selection of Kth term from a list of all elements in a population beginning

with a randomly selected element. For example, if there is the need to select 100 subjects

from a population of 50,000.

Step 1. Select/compute the sampling fraction (the Kth term) which is N/n where N is the number

of units in the target population and n the number of units of the sampling.
In the example above N=50,000 n=100; sampling fraction is Kth = 50,000/100 = 500th. Every nth

would therefore correspond to 500th subject/element.

Step 2. Select the first element randomly using lottery or random numbers. In this example that

would be some number between I - 500.

Step 3. Identify all numbers between 0 - N that result from adding Kth to the random number.

The process is repeated until N is reached. Suppose 240 was randomly selected as a starting

point, in step 2, the first sample chosen would be the 240th number the next subject would be the

740th i.e., 240+500, the third would be 1,240 i.e. 740+500 etc.

Locate the names on the sampling frame that corresponds to the number drawn above, example

the names corresponding to 240th, 740th etc.

Stratified Random Sampling

Stratified sampling involves dividing the population into a number homogeneous groups or

strata. Each group contains subjects with similar characteristics. A sample is then drawn from

each group or stratum. The sub samples make up the final sample for the study. The division of

the population into strata or homogeneous group is based on one or more criteria, for example,

sex, age economic status, professional status. For instance, group A, or the stratum A might

contain males and group B or stratum B females. In order to obtain a sample representative of the

whole population in terms of gender or sex, a random selection of subjects from group A and B

must be taken. The sample size can be proportionate or disproportionate to the units of target

population. For example, the target population, consisting of equal number of males and females,

may be divided into two strata or homogeneous groups’ males and females.

Step I; identify the stratification variable. The target population is divided into a number of

strata/homogeneous groups according to the number of the significant groups in the population
Step 2: The sampling frames for each of the groups are identified. If not available, relevant

sampling frames must be developed.

Step 3: Employing one of the methods• discussed above simple random Sampling, systematic

etc, a sample is drawn from each group. This can be proportionate or disproportionate to the

number of units in the population

Step 4: The individual samples are merged into one, and this constitutes the sample for the study.

Cluster Sampling

When population is large and widely dispersed, gathering a simple random sample poses

administrative problems. Cluster sampling is used when it is impossible or impractical to

sample individual elements from the population as a whole or when there is no exhaustive

list of all elements. In cluster sampling, there is a successive random selection of naturally

occurring groups or areas and then selecting individual elements from the chosen group or

areas. Thus, a characteristic of this sampling method is that first groups of elements (clusters)

are selected (e.g., schools, classes, suburbs) and then individual elements are selected from

these clusters. To choose the clusters and the respondents from the clusters one of the methods

discussed above can be employed.

Cluster sampling is considerably more economical and practical than other types of

probability sampling, particularly when the population is large and widely dispersed.

Non-Probability Sampling

In non-probability sampling, elements are selected by non-random methods. There is no way

to estimate the probability that each element has the chance of being selected in a non-

probability sample.
Usually, not every element in the population has a chance of being selected.

This method is less strict and makes no claim for representativeness. It is generally left up to

the researcher or the interviewer to decide which sample units should be chosen. It is

generally employed in exploratory research observational research and qualitative research.

Non-Probability Sampling Techniques

Non-probability sampling is less likely than probability sampling to produce accurate and

representative samples. Despite the disadvantage that arise from their non-representativeness,

they are far less complicated to set up, are considerably less expensive, and can prove

perfectly adequate where researchers do not intend to generalize their findings beyond the

sample in question or where they are simply piloting a survey questionnaire as a prelude to

their main study. The major kinds of non-probability sampling are as follow”:

Convenience or Accidental Sampling: A convenience is a group of individuals who are

(conveniently) available for study. The procedure thus involves selecting a sample based on their
availability to the researcher. They could be students at a school canteen who are interviewed on
their views about the quality of food served, late comers who are interviewed on their reasons for
coming to school late, third year Junior High School students at a school who are interviewed on
their Senior High School choices, etc. A major disadvantage of this sampling techniques is the
likelihood of bias.

Purposive or Judgmental Sampling: This is selecting a sample based on previous knowledge

of a population and the specific purpose of the research using personal judgment. The researcher
thus selects subjects for the study based on their knowledge about the issue under study. The
subjects are presumed to have some special qualification to be included in the study. This is
different from convenience sampling in the sense that the researcher does not simply use
whoever is available, but rather the researcher uses his/her judgment to select a sample that
he/she believes, based on prior information, will provide the needed data. The major
disadvantage of this procedure is that the researcher’s judgment may be wrong or erroneous. The
researcher may also not be correct in estimating the representativeness of a sample or their
expertise regarding the needed information.
Snow Ball Sampling: This is used where the researcher does not have access to or finds it
difficult locating a special population or all members of the required sample. It is mostly used in
qualitative field research. The researcher locates a small number of individuals who have the
requisite characteristics and collects data on them and asking those individuals to provide
information needed to locate other members of that population who they happen to know. The
contracted individuals lead him to some others and the process continues until the required
sample size is obtained.

Quota Sampling: This involves generating a matrix describing the characteristics of the target
population and assigning proportions to each cell in the matrix after which data is collected from
persons having all the characteristics of a given cell. The characteristics may be gender, age,
qualification, educational level, years of working experience, ethnicity, political preference,
learning problems, etc. For instance, in a population of 120 men and 80 women, a researcher
may want a sample consisting of 40% of each sex in the population.

This will mean getting 40% × 120 = 48 and 40% × 80 = 32 making a total sample size of 80.

Planning, Implementing and intervention activities:

Intervention is the process of taking action on the strategies and activities that have been

planned during the planning stage of the first cycle. Intervention is also called the

implementation of the activities as agreed upon by the various groups involved in the action

research.

Action or intervention refers to the specific strategies, activities, media, materials, innovation, or

any changes implemented to achieve the intended improvement. To make the implementation

intervention (pre-test or pre-action survey), at the end of each cycle (post-tests), and at the end of

cycle 3 (post-action survey). The data is to be collected by the researcher (This is possible

because the test and survey are not conducted during the intervention. If the data collection is

conducted simultaneously with the intervention, it must be done by one or more collaborator).
The intervention strategies selected help in formulating the topic for the research and makes clear

the purpose of the research. This planning phase would take into consideration the creativity,

practicality and originality, researching into them, application to the age, interest and abilities of

the pupils, time duration, allocating responsibilities, monitoring strategies, The intervention to be

considered can be modern and innovative adaptations of a combination of aspects of strategies

from creative approach, talk for learning, questioning, group work, Teaching Learning Materials,

to mention but a few.

The intervention is usually done in a period of three to five weeks. It spells out the number of

days to be used in a week, the duration for each day, the intervention objective and strategies for

each day (optional) and the intervention process.

Data Collection Instruments

Data collection refers to obtaining relevant information, either verbal or quantitative regarding

the major ideas of the hypotheses or research questions for the purpose of answering them.

In a descriptive research data may be obtained through a variety of techniques as follows:

i. Observation guide

ii. Questionnaire

iii. Interview guide

iv. Tests

v. Attitude scale

Observation Guide

Observation is one of the oldest methods of data collection. Literally, observation means a

method of data collection that employs vision as its main means of data collection.
In observational studies researchers collect data on the current status of subjects by watching

them and listening and recording what they observe rather than asking questions about them. An

observation may take many forms/types.

Types of Observation

There are several types of observation; some are more popular than others. Some types/forms of

observation are Participant and Non-Participant observation.

In general, the degree of the observers’ involvement in the observation varies from no

participation to full participation. In non-participant observation, observers study their subjects

from outside the group without becoming a part of the environment of the observed. In,

participant observation they actually become members of the group they are supposed to be

studying. They observe from inside the group and, ideally, their identity as a researcher is not

known.

By participating actively in a group, one may gain insight into the structure of the group and

obtain certain types of information not accessible in any other way. On the other hand, by

becoming emotionally involved the researcher may lose objectivity.

1. Structured and Unstructured observation

Structured observation employs a formal and strictly organised procedure, with a set of well-

defined observation categories. It is subject to high levels of control and differentiation. It is

organised and planned before the study begins. Unstructured observation is loosely organised

and the process of observation is largely left up to the observer to define.

 2. Active/ participant and Passive/ non participant Observation
This type of observation refers to the degree to which the observer is involved in the process

and purpose of observation. Active observation presupposes full engagement of the observer

in the course of the study. In passive observation, the role of the observer is seen as being

just a strict recording of data. In this ease observation is a job to be done in an objective and

neutral fashion

3. Direct and Indirect Observation

Direct observation studies the subjects it intends to explain, for example, if the study intend to

explain the patterns of conflicts in marital homes, and observation involves named couples,

this is a direct observation. Indirect observation does not involve the subject of study, either

because the subject refuses to take part in the study, a direct observation is not possible, or

the subject is deceased. Instead, the observer/researcher observes the physical times the

phenomena under study that the subject has left behind and makes conclusions about the

subject.

Advantages of Observation

a. It provides information when other methods are not effective,

b. It employs a less complicated and less time-consuming procedures of subject selection.

c. It can offer data when respondents Are unable and/or unwilling to correlation-operate

or to offer information.

d. It approaches reality in its natural structure and studies events as they evolve.

e. It offers first-hand information without relying on the reports of others,

f. It is relatively inexpensive.
Limitations of Observation
 It cannot be employed when large groups or extensive events are studied

 It cannot provide information about past, future or unpredictable events.

 It cannot study opinions or attitudes directly.

 It is a relatively laborious and time-consuming method.

 It cannot offer quantitative generalizations on the results.

Questionnaire

A set of printed or written questions with a choice of answers, devised for the purpose of a

survey or statistical study. Questionnaires are commonly used to gather first-hand

information from a large audience, in the form of a survey. There are different types of

questionnaires in practice and the type of questionnaire to be used usually depends on the

purpose of the survey and the type of data that has to be collected.

Questionnaires are highly practical and can be carried out by any number of people, and

the results can be quickly quantified as well. Over the years, this form of conducting

research has also been proven to be more scientifically accurate, as compared to other

quantitative research tools.

The use of questionnaire is very common in the social sciences, including education. In most

cases questionnaires are employed as the only method of data collection. questionnaire

consists of a list of questions or statements relating to the aims of the study, the hypotheses

and research questions to be verified and answered, to which the respondent is required to

answer by writing.
Forms of Questionnaire

The Close -Ended Form

Questionnaires that call for short, check-mark (list) responses are known as restricted,

structured or close-ended type. Here you mark a Yes or No, rank alternatives provided based

on how one feels about the issue, check an item from a list of suggested responses or scale

responses.

The following is an example that illustrates a close-ended question.

How would you rate the adequacy of textbooks in your school library?

Excellent

Good

Fair

Poor

Other - please specify

The open – Ended Form or the unstructured or unrestricted

This type calls for a free response in the respondents' own words.

Example: What is the textbook situation in your school library? The open form generally

provides for greater depth of response. The respondents reveal their frame of reference and

possibly the reasons for their responses. But because they require greater effort on the part of the

respondents, returns are often meager. Also, an open-ended item can sometimes be difficult to

interpret, tabulate and summarise in the research report. Many questionnaires include both open

and close-ended type items.

Advantages and Disadvantages of Questionnaire

Questionnaire as a method of data collection has strengths and weaknesses and thus

advantages and disadvantages that the researcher must be aware of.

Strengths and weaknesses are factors that have a significant impact on a researcher's

decision about whether or not to use questionnaires in the study. The advantages and

limitations, which most researchers and writers consider as significant are listed below.

Economy

Questionnaires are less expensive than other methods - interview and observation. It can be

sent through mail interview and observation cannot hence the expenses and time involved in

training interviewers and observers as well as time spent on interviewing and observation are

not involved in the use of questionnaire.

Reachability

The use of questionnaires promises a wider coverage since researchers can approach

respondents more easily than other methods. They are not affected by problems of no-

contacts.

Uniformity in Questions

Questions are a stable consistent and uniform measure; without variation can be completed

at the respondent's convenience they offer greater assurance of anonymity.

Limitations

Limitation to Literate Population

The questionnaire as a tool for data collection cannot be used/ administered on illiterates,

and people who are too young to read and write.

Motivation of the Respondents

The use of questionnaire does not offer opportunities for motivating the respondent to

participate in the survey or to answer the questions.

Sampling

The characteristics of non-response associated with questionnaire especially the mail-

questionnaire is likely to affect the representativeness of the sample. This may result in a

biased final sample.

Lack of opportunity to collect additional information

Questionnaires do not provide an opportunity to collect additional information through

observation, probing, prompting and clarification of questions while they are being

completed.

Interview

An interview is a type of data collection instrument which is characteristics with the

use of verbal questioning as its principal technique of data collection. It involves posing

questions to respondents for answer face-to-face situation. It also represents direct

attempt by the researcher to obtain reliable and valid measures of characteristics behaviours,

attitudes, etc. in the form of verbal responses from one or more respondents.
Types of Interviews
There are many types of interviews, each of which differs from the others in structure, purpose,

role of the interviewer, number of respondents involved in each interview, and form and

frequency of administration. These types, however, fall under two main categories. These are

structured and unstructured.

Structured interviews are interviews in which the specific questions to be asked and the order

of the questions are predetermined and set by the researcher. They are based on a strict procedure

and a highly structured interview guide, which is no different from questionnaire. A structured

interview is in reality a questionnaire read by the interviewer as prescribed by the researcher. The

r i gi d structure determines the operations of this research instrument and allows no freedom to

make adjustment to any of its elements, such as contents, wording or order of questions. The

instrument of predetermined questions is known as an interview schedule. The interview is based

on this schedule, and strict adherence to the questions and the instructions is paramount. The

process of interviewing, using this type of interview, is referred to as scheduled interview.

Unstructured Interview

Unstructured interviews, in contrast, have no strict procedures to follow of the kind described above.

There are no restrictions in the wording, of the question, the order of question or the interview

schedule. Thus, the interviewers have the discretion to form questions on the spot, probe into

issues and in some cases follow the order dictated by the situation. The structure of these

interviews is flexible and the restrictions minimal. An instrument used in such an interview is

called an interview guide. The guide is not as detailed as the schedule. It merely outlines the kind

of information required
 Individual versus Group Interview
When individual interviews are employed the researcher interviews one respondent at a time. This

is the most common form of interviewing. The interviewer asks the various types of interview

questions, - direct and follow up questions, probing questions, structuring and interpreting

questions, - to the individual/one respondent who in turn answers these questions.

In group interviews, more than one respondent is involved in the interview situation. They are

also addressed by the interviewer simultaneously. In a small-scale group two people are

interviewed concurrently. On a large scale a group of about 20 persons might be

interviewed. For example, a husband and a wife might be interviewed together on a small

scale whiles a class of students might be interviewed together on a large scale.

Procedure for contacting respondents and introducing the study

Recording the Responses

The answers to questions asked during the interview can be secured against the time the results

will be analysed in three modes/ways namely a by making a mental note of the answers by

making a written record of the answers by making a tape or video tape recording of the

interview.

Mental Note: This is the process where research workers rely on the power of their memory for

storing the information obtained during an interview.

Written Records: Nwana (1992) identified two forms of written records that can be made for

the responses. In the first form, to which he referred to as data-blank, the questions to be asked

are listed on paper with blank spaces provided for the answers to be written in by the investigator

or interviewer whiles the interview is in progress.

In the second form of recording which he referred to as checklist, the questions are listed on

paper and alongside each question, a set of most probable responses are supplied. The

interviewer records the responses of the respondent merely by ticking off the appropriate

responses as they are made.

Tape Recording

This may be sound tape recording which employs a conventional tape recorder to record on

magnetic tape only the sounds i.e. the questions posed by the investigator and the answers given

by the respondent.

It could also be videotape recording which records on magnetic tape both sounds and the pictures

of the interview.

It must be noted that the respondent needs to be informed during the time of familiarization that

you intend to record the conversation between you and him/her and his/her permission sought for

doing so. The mode of recording should also be made known to the respondent.

Advantages of Interviews

The popularity of interview is often justified in terms of several of its qualities which give it an

advantage over other methods of data collection. The advantages of interviewing include the

following:

Flexibility - interviews can be adjusted to meet many diverse situations

High response rate - interviewing attracts a relatively high response rate.

Easy administration - interviews do not require respondents to have the ability to read.

Opportunity to observe non-verbal behaviour - such opportunities is obviously not available

when questionnaires are used.

Capacity for correcting misunderstanding by respondents, more complex questions, can be 4

used because the presence of the interviewer can assist in correcting any misunderstanding as

well as assisting answering the questions.

Limitations/Disadvantages of interviews

Despite its advantages, interviewing is limited by a number of factors. The following are the

most important:

1. Interviews are more costly and time consuming than other methods such as questionnaires.

2. They are attacked for the "interviewer factor" and the possible bias associated with it.

3. They are more inconvenient than other methods such as using questionnaires.

4. It is less effective than other methods when sensitive issues are discussed. For example,

many people prefer to write about sensitive issues than to talk about them.

5. It offers less anonymity than other methods since the interviewer knows the identity,

residence, type of housing, etc.

Preparation and Organization of Data

In research we have to collect data and the data collected must be analysed to enable us

solve a problem or explain and describe a phenomenon under consideration. As

researchers, whatever decision we reach after analysing data should have conclusion

validity. Conclusion validity is the degree to which conclusions you reach about

relationships and patterns in your data are reasonable (Trochim, 2001). Conclusion validity

is important because in a study such as the relationship between two variables, a researcher

can conclude that there is no relationship when in fact there is or he/she can conclude that

there is a relationship when in fact there is not.

The problem of a researcher concluding that there is no relationship when in fact there is of

concern to researchers. In order to avoid error in our conclusions, that is, to achieve

conclusion validity, there is the need to take appropriate steps to analyze and interpret our data

and the results.

Preparation and Organization of Data (Data Analysis Plan)

The data collected in a study must be prepared before it is analysed. Data preparation

involves editing, scoring, coding and entering the data into the computer, if a computer will

be used to analyze the data. Even if the data will be analysed manually, it must be prepared

before it is analysed.

The Process or Activities Involved in Data preparation and organization.

Editing: Editing of research data involves (a) correcting mistakes in the data if possible

and (b) deciding whether some of the data collected should be deleted from or kept for data

analysis later.

Editing of data is intended to detect and as far as possible eliminate errors in the data to

ensure conclusion validity.

For instance, data collected using questionnaires may be incomplete. They may contain

inaccurate information which you the researcher must examine before proceeding to

analyze it. It is at the editing stage that you do this examination. Similarly, the best

interviewers are liable to make errors, omit to ask certain questions or to record answers to

some questions. Thus, interview responses must be edited before proceeding with the

analysis of the data. Such editing can be done by the interviewers immediately after they

have completed each interview.

In the same vein, before the completed questionnaires can be regarded as ready for coding,

tabulation and analysis, they should be checked for completeness, accuracy and uniformity.

For completeness, you must check and ensure that there is an answer to every question.

Sometimes, you have to fill the gap, if any, by deducing from other data on the

questionnaire. With regard to accuracy, you must try to check whether the answers are

accurate. You must look for inconsistencies.

Inaccuracy may be due to carelessness or to a conscious attempt to give misleading answers

by respondents or even the interviewer. Remember that some of the ways of data collection

are self-report procedures. .

You also have to edit your data in terms of uniformity. This process helps you as a researcher

to find out whether in interviewing, for example, questions and instructions have been followed

uniformly, if different people administered the instruments.

Scoring: The next activity in data preparation is scoring, when a study is quantitative in

nature, all instruments administered should be scored accurately and consistently. For self-

developed instruments such as questionnaires, you must develop a scoring procedure to guide

you. Steps for scoring each item and for arriving at a total score must be delineated and

carefully followed. For instance, if a study uses an attitudinal scale, the negative and positive

statements should be stored properly. For example, when "strongly agree" to the statement "I

enjoy school work" is scored 5 on a five-point scale the statement "I find school work

boring" should be scored 1, if an individual "strongly agree" with it. Scoring is usually not

applicable to qualitative data.

Coding: Coding is one other activity at the data preparation stage. Coding does not mean the

same thing in qualitative and quantitative research.

In qualitative research, coding refers to the process of categorizing data. That is, coding in

qualitative research means the process by which the researcher makes sense out of text data,

divides it into text or image segments, labels the segments, examines codes for overlap and

collapses these codes into themes. The codes are just labels to describe a segment of text.

Examples are "poor learners", "problem children", "disruptions during the class", "students

talking to each other',', Teach (1990) and Creswell (1994) recommend the following steps in

coding qualitative data.

Read through all of the transcriptions carefully and jot down in the margins some ideas based

on the text

Pick one document (e.g., one interview) and go through it, asking the question "what it is

about?" Write down in the margin in two or three words and draw a box around it.

Begin the process of coding the document by identifying text segments, placing a bracket

around them and assigning a code word or phrase that accurately describes the meaning of text

segment.

After coding an entire text, make a list of code words. Cluster together similar codes and

look for redundant codes. The objective is to reduce a long list of codes to a smaller, more

manageable number.

Take this list and go back to the data and circle specific quotes from participants that support

the codes
Reduce the list of codes to get 5 to 7 themes or descriptions of the setting or participants.

Themes are similar codes aggregated together to form a major idea in the database.

From the coding and the themes, construct a narrative description and possibly a visual

display of the findings for your research report.

 UNIT FIVE

PROCESS FOUR IN CONDUCTING ACTION RESEARCH

Approaches to data analysis (quantitative and qualitative); steps for analysing data; software

tools for quantitative and qualitative analysis, interpretation and discussion are covered in this

unit.

Data analysis is a process of inspecting cleaning, transforming and modeling data with the goal

of highlighting useful information, suggesting conclusions, and supporting decision making. It

has multiple facets and approaches encompassing diverse techniques.

Approaches to data analysis

i) Organize your data

ii) Read the content

iii) Highlight relevant sections and aspects of the data

iv) Develop categories to sort evidence

v) Code your data

vi) Review and narrow the codes

vii) Interpret your findings

viii) Validate the findings

Preparation and Organization of Data

In research we have to collect data and the data collected must be analysed to enable us

solve a problem or explain and describe a phenomenon under consideration. As

researchers, whatever decision we reach after analysing data should have conclusion

validity. Conclusion validity is the degree to which conclusions you reach about

relationships and patterns in your data are reasonable (Trochim, 2001).

Conclusion validity is important because in a study such as the relationship between two

variables, a researcher can conclude that there is no relationship when in fact there is or

he/she can conclude that there is a relationship when in fact there is not. The problem of a

researcher concluding that there is no relationship when in fact there is concern to researchers.

In order to avoid error in our conclusions, that is, to achieve conclusion validity, there is the

need to take appropriate steps to analyze and interpret our data and the results.

Preparation and Organization of Data

From the earlier sections of this text, it is clear that you can use several tools to collect data

for your project work or research. You may use a questionnaire, an interview guide or

observation guide or schedule. The data collected in a study must be prepared before it is

analysed. Data preparation involves editing, scoring, coding and entering the data into the

computer, if a computer will be used to analyze the data. Even if the data will be analysed

manually, it must be prepared before it is analysed. We now proceed to discuss the process

or activities involved in data preparation and organization.

Editing: Editing of research data involves (a) correcting mistakes in the data if possible

and (b) deciding whether some of the data collected should be deleted from or kept for data

analysis later.

Editing of data is intended to detect and as far as possible eliminate errors in the data to

ensure conclusion validity.

For instance, data collected using questionnaires may be incomplete. They may contain

inaccurate information which you the researcher must examine before proceeding to

analyze it. It is at the editing stage that you do this examination. Similarly, the best

interviewers are liable to make errors, omit to ask certain questions or to record answers to

some questions.
Thus, interview responses must be edited before proceeding with the analysis of the data.

Such editing can be done by the interviewers immediately after they have completed each

interview. In the same vein, before the completed questionnaires can be regarded as ready

for coding, tabulation and analysis, they should be checked for completeness, accuracy and

uniformity.

For completeness, you must check and ensure that there is an answer to every question.

Sometimes, you have to fill the gap, if any, by deducing from other data on the

questionnaire. With regard to accuracy, you must try to check whether the answers are

accurate. You must look for inconsistencies.

Inaccuracy may be due to carelessness or to a conscious attempt to give misleading answers

by respondents or even the interviewer. Remember that some of the ways of data collection

are self-report procedures. .

You also have to edit your data in terms of uniformity. This process helps you as a researcher

to find out whether in interviewing, for example, questions and instructions have been followed

uniformly, if different people administered the instruments.

Scoring: The next activity in data preparation is scoring, when a study is quantitative in

nature, all instruments administered should be scored accurately and consistently. For self-

developed instruments such as questionnaires, you must develop a scoring procedure to guide

you. Steps for scoring each item and for arriving at a total score must be delineated and

carefully followed. For instance, if a study uses an attitudinal scale, the negative and positive

statements should be scored properly. For example, when "strongly agree" to the statement "I

enjoy school work" is scored 5 on a five-point scale the statement "I find school work

boring" should be scored 1, if an individual "strongly agree" with it. Scoring is usually not

applicable to qualitative data.

Coding: Coding is one other activity at the data preparation stage. Coding does not mean the

same thing in qualitative and quantitative research.

In qualitative research, coding refers to the process of categorizing data. That is, coding in

qualitative research means the process by which the researcher makes sense out of text data,

divides it into text or image segments, labels the segments, examines codes for overlap and

collapses these codes into themes. The codes are just labels to describe a segment of text.

Examples are "poor learners", "problem children", "disruptions during the class", "students

talking to each other',', Teach (1990) and Creswell (1994) recommend the following steps in

coding qualitative data.

Read through all of the transcriptions carefully and jot down in the margins some ideas based

on the text.

Pick one document (e.g., one interview) and go through it, asking the question "what it is

about?" Write down in the margin in two or three words and draw a box around it.

Begin the process of coding the document by identifying text segments, placing a bracket

around them and assigning a code word or phrase that accurately describes the meaning of text

segment.

After coding an entire text, make a list of code words. Cluster together similar codes and

look for redundant codes. The objective is to reduce a long list of codes to a smaller, more

manageable number.

Take this list and go back to the data and circle specific quotes from participants that support

the codes

Reduce the list of codes to get 5 to 7 themes or descriptions of the setting or participants.

Themes are similar codes aggregated together to form a major idea in the database.
From the coding and the themes, construct a narrative description and possibly a visual

display of the findings for your research report.

Quantitative and Qualitative data analyses

The methods of analysis employed in experiments are quantitative and qualitative

techniques. Quantitative analysis emphasises numbers, measurements, deductive logic,

statistical, control and objective whiles Qualitative focus on collecting data that is relational,

interpretive, subjective, and inductive. In contrast, qualitative data is often in the form of

language, while quantitative data typically involves numbers. Quantitative researchers require

large numbers of participants for validity, while qualitative researchers use a smaller number of

participants, and can even use one (Hatch, 2002). In the past, quantitative and qualitative

educational researchers rarely interacted, sometimes holding contempt for each other’s work;

and even published articles in separate journals based on having distinct theoretical orientations

in terms of data collection. Overall, there is a greater appreciation for both quantitative and

qualitative approaches, with scholars finding distinct value in each approach, yet in many circles

the debate continues over which approach is more beneficial for educational research and in

educational contexts.

The goal of qualitative data collection is to build a complex and nuanced description of social or

human problems from multiple perspectives. The flexibility and ability to use a variety of data

collection techniques encompasses a distinct stance on research. Qualitative researchers are able

to capture conversations and everyday language, as well as situational attitudes and beliefs.

Qualitative data collection is able to be fitted to the study, with the goal of collecting the most

authentic data, not necessarily the most objective.

To researchers who strictly use quantitative methods, qualitative methods may seem wholly

unstructured, eclectic, and idiosyncratic; however, for qualitative researchers these

characteristics are advantageous to their purpose.Quantitative research depends upon structure

and is bounded to find relationship among variables and units of measurement. Quantitative

research helps make sense of large amounts of data. Both quantitative and qualitative research

help us address education challenges by better identifying what is happening, with the goal of

identifying why it is happening, and how we can address it.

Most educator-researchers who engage in research projects in schools and classrooms utilize

qualitative methodologies for their data collection. Educator-researchers also use mixed methods

that focus on qualitative methods, but also use quantitative methods, such as surveys, to provide

a multidimensional approach to inquiring about their topic. While qualitative methods may feel

more comfortable, there is a methodological rationale for using quantitative research.

Research methodologists use two distinct forms of logic to describe research: induction and

deduction. Inductive approaches are focused on developing new or emerging theories, by

explaining the accumulation of evidence that provides meaning to similar circumstances.

Deductive approaches move in the opposite direction, and create meaning about a particular

situation by reasoning from a general idea or theory about the particular circumstances. While

qualitative approaches are inductive – observe and then generate theories, for example –

qualitative researchers will typically initiate studies with some preconceived notions of potential

theories to support their work.

Software tools for quantitative and qualitative data analysis

There is a whole range of software packages and tools for data analyses and visualization. These

tools are designed to simplify and optimize the creation of data-driven business intelligence to

deliver accuracy and efficiency.

From access or excel to dedicated packages, such as SPSS, Microsoft Excel, Tableau, SQL,

Python, Stata and R for statistical analysis of quantitative data, Nvivo for qualitative (textual and

audio-visual) data analysis (QDA) or ArcGIS for analysing geospatial data.

Data analysis and interpretation

Data analysis and interpretation is the process of assigning meaning to the collected information

and determining the conclusions, significance, and implications of the findings. The steps

involved in data analysis are a function of the type of information collected, however, returning

to the purpose of the assessment and the assessment questions will provide a structure for the

organization of the data and a focus for the analysis.

The analysis of NUMERICAL (QUANTITATIVE) DATA is represented in mathematical terms.

The most common statistical terms include:

 Mean – The mean score represents a numerical average for a set of responses.

 Standard deviation – The standard deviation represents the distribution of the responses

around the mean. It indicates the degree of consistency among the responses. The

standard deviation, in conjunction with the mean, provides a better understanding of the

data. For example, if the mean is 3.3 with a standard deviation (StD) of 0.4, then two-

thirds of the responses lie between 2.9 (3.3 – 0.4) and 3.7 (3.3 + 0.4).

 Frequency distribution – Frequency distribution indicates the frequency of each response.

For example, if respondents answer a question using an agree/disagree scale, the

percentage of respondents who selected each response on the scale would be indicated.

The frequency distribution provides additional information beyond the mean, since it

allows for examining the level of consensus among the data.

Higher levels of statistical analysis (e.g., t-test, factor analysis, regression, ANOVA) can be

conducted on the data, but these are not frequently used in most program/project assessments.

The analysis of NARRATIVE (QUALITATIVE) DATA is conducted by organizing the data into

common themes or categories. It is often more difficult to interpret narrative data since it lacks

the built-in structure found in numerical data. Initially, the narrative data appears to be a

collection of random, unconnected statements. The assessment purpose and questions can help

direct the focus of the data organization. The following strategies may also be helpful when

analyzing narrative data.

Focus groups and Interviews:

 Read and organize the data from each question separately. This approach permits

focusing on one question at a time (e.g., experiences with tutoring services,

characteristics of tutor, student responsibility in the tutoring process).

 Group the comments by themes, topics, or categories. This approach allows for focusing

on one area at a time (e.g., characteristics of tutor – level of preparation, knowledge of

content area, availability).

Documents

 Code content and characteristics of documents into various categories (e.g., training

manual – policies and procedures, communication, responsibilities).

Observations

 Code patterns from the focus of the observation (e.g., behavioral patterns – amount of

time engaged/not engaged in activity, type of engagement, communication, interpersonal

skills).
The analysis of the data via statistical measures and/or narrative themes should provide answers

to the assessment questions. Interpreting the analyzed data from the appropriate perspective

allows for determination of the significance and implications of the assessment.

Also, Interpretation of data is a process that involves answering a series of questions about it. We

suggest the following steps: 1) Review and interpret the data "in-house" to develop preliminary

findings, conclusions, and recommendations.

2) Review the data and your interpretation of it with an advisory group or technical committee.

This group should involve local, regional, and state resource people who are familiar with

monitoring and with your river. They can verify, add to, or correct your interpretation of the

results.

3) Review the data and your interpretation of it with the people who will use your data -- for

example, the public, river users, and government officials. Ultimately, your interpretation of the

data relates back to the questions your monitoring program is trying to answer. For example,

does the river met state water quality standards? Following are examples of questions you might

answer at each step, in order to develop findings and conclusions that relate to your study

questions.

There are four steps to data interpretation:

1) assemble the information you'll need,

2) develop findings,

3) develop conclusions, and

4) Develop recommendations.

The interpretation of results is more focused on what your analyses mean and how reliable or

valid they are.

However, the discussion part uses those interpretations to answer your research questions and

compare these findings with what other scholars have found (if applicable).

Results interpretation is statistical, specific and constrained. The discussion section explains
the statistical findings in the context of the research hypothesis presented and any other related research
that it either supports or refutes.
The point of a discussion, in my view, is to transcend 'just the facts,' and engage in productive
speculation," he says.
That means going back to the literature and grappling with what your findings mean, including

how they fit in with previous work. If your results differ from others' findings, you should try to

explain why, says Nolen-Hoeksema. Then, launch into "bigger picture" issues. For example, a

clinical study might discuss how psychologists might apply the findings in a clinical setting or a

social psychology project might talk about political implications.

By exploring those kinds of implications, students address what Scholl considers the most

important-and often overlooked-purpose of the discussion: to directly explain why others should

care about your findings.

"You can't and shouldn't rely on others to intuitively appreciate the beauty and importance of

your work," he says.

Sounds simple, right? In fact, choosing what to include can be overwhelming.

"It is easy to get caught up in the desire to be extremely comprehensive and to bring up every

potential issue, flaw, future direction and tangentially related concept. "However, this will make

your project seem like it has raised more questions than it answers." Limit your discussion to a

handful of the most important points

DO: Emphasize the positive. DON'T: Exaggerate.

One of the biggest errors, students make in their discussion is exaggeration, say experts.

Speculation is fine as long as you acknowledge that you're speculating and you don't stray too far

from your data, say experts. That includes avoiding language that implies causality when your

study can only make relational conclusions.

"If your study was not a true experiment, replace verbs that imply causation with words and

phrases such as 'correlated with,' 'was associated with' and 'related to,' (APA, 2006).

"The moral here is to try to find a balance where you set a tone that indeed celebrates interesting

findings without too many leaps, while at the same time reporting limitations without being

unnecessarily negative.

Indeed, every discussion should include a "humility" section that addresses the study's

limitations, avoid beginning the discussion with a long list of study limitations.

The discussion section is the place to leave your mark. So instead of simply summarizing your

data and suggesting a few obvious follow-up studies, think about presenting your data in a novel

way, showing how the work might resolve an existing controversy in the literature or explaining

how it connects to an entirely different literature.

 UNIT 6.

PROCESS FIVE IN CONDUCTING ACTION RESEARCH

Summary of findings

Due to clarity demand, summary of findings must contain each specific question under the

statement of the problem and must be written first to be followed by the findings that would

answer it. The findings should be textual generalizations, that is, a summary of the important

data consisting of text and numbers.

Conclusions

The Conclusions section sums up the key points of your discussion, the essential features of your

design, or the significant outcomes of your investigation. As its function is to round off the story

of your project, it should:

 be written to relate directly to the aims of the project as stated in the Introduction

 indicate the extent to which the aims have been achieved

 summarize the key findings, outcomes or information in your report

 acknowledge limitations and make recommendations for future work (where applicable)

 Highlight the significance or usefulness of your work.

 The conclusions should relate to the aims of the work:

Limitations and Recommendations

The limitations of the study

The limitations of the study are those characteristics of design or methodology that

impacted or influenced the interpretation of the findings from your research.

They are the constraints on generalizability, applications to practice, and/or utility of findings

that are the result of the ways in which you initially chose to design the study or the method

used to establish internal and external validity or the result of unanticipated challenges that

emerged during the study.

Recommendations

Recommendations are based on the results of your research and indicate the specific measures or

directions that can be taken. For example, a study might have implications for learner centred

research and might recommend against the use of a particular teaching method.

Example of recommendation in research paper can be defined as a critical suggestion regarding

the best course of action in a certain situation. The whole idea of a recommendation is to provide

a beneficial guide that will not only resolve certain issues, but result in a beneficial outcome.

Suggested area for further research

Your dissertation or research project needs to include suggestions for future research. Suggested

area for further research plays an important role in discovering new treatments, and making sure

that we use existing treatments in the best possible ways. Research can find answers to things

that are unknown, filling gaps in knowledge and changing the way that professionals work.

You will need to propose 4-5 suggestions for future studies and these can include the following:

 Building upon findings of your research.

 Addressing limitations of your research.

 Constructing the same research in a new context, location and/or culture.

 Re-assessing and expanding theory, framework or model you have addressed in

your research.
 UNIT 7

CRITICAL ISSUES IN ACTION RESEARCH

Role of the Action Researcher

George and Mensah (2014) posit that the main role played by the action researcher focuses on
nurturing local leaders to the point where the leaders can take responsibility for the process. This
point is reached when the local leaders understand the methods and are able to carry on when the
initiating researcher leaves.

In many action research situations, hired researchers are engaged to play a primary role of
facilitating dialogue and fostering reflective analysis among the participants and providing them
with periodic reports; and eventually the final report when the researcher’s involvement has
ended (George & Mensah, 2014). These scholars also hold the view that the action researcher’s
role is to implement the action research method in such a manner as to produce a mutually
agreeable outcome for all participants, with the process being maintained by them afterwards. To
accomplish this, the adoption of many different roles at various stages of the action research
process is vital, including those of:

 Planner
 Catalyzer
 Teacher
 Listener
 Synthesizer
 Leader
 Facilitator
 Designer and Reporter
Ethical Considerations in Action Research

Ethics is a branch of philosophy that deals with the conduct of people and guide their norms or
standards of behaviour as well as how they relate with each other (Blumberg et al, 2005, as cited
in Kour, 2015). The central focus of research ethics has to do with giving due consideration
regarding how to deal and relate with the human subjects that participate in the research process
(Akaranga & Makau, 2016). This suggests that the ethical rights of a participant must be
respected throughout the study.

Although action research is conducted by practitioners in their own practice, it is still considered
research and should be monitored and conducted by following specific ethical guidelines. The
researcher should ensure the safety, confidentiality, and well-being of those being studied or
those who may be affected by the study. Ethical consideration of research participants and
should constitute key elements of any action research study (Mertler, 2012). In planning an
action research inquiry, the researcher needs to consider a number of issues as they relate to the
action research. The issues include the following:

1. Obtaining Permission to Conduct the Study:

Samaras (2011) shares the opinion that the researcher must get in touch with the appropriate
“gatekeepers” (e.g., teachers or administrators) and obtain permission to conduct the study and
collect data. Furthermore, the researcher would have to get the approval of your administrators
even if the inquiry is to be carried out his/her own classroom. As proof or evidence of observing
this ethic, the action researcher must ensure that he/she documents the exchange of messages
giving granting permission for the conduct of the study in the chosen setting (school, classroom
etc). In some cases, depending on the school policy and the nature of the study, the researcher
will need to obtain parents’ permission as well.

2. Confidentiality of Data Collected

Whenever a researcher collects data for the purpose of a study, there is need to ensure the
confidentiality of the research findings. Regardless of the information collected — observations,
interviews, test scores, school records, etc, the rights of participants should be guaranteed. To
ensure confidentiality, the researcher must avoid identifying participants by name or providing
other identifying information about or others, such as colleagues or parents, and be sensitive to
people’s desire to remain anonymous.
You may use pseudonyms (a false or fictitious name, especially one used by an author.) or
general descriptions. Group data may be used, if possible, to protect individuals. For example,
report test scores for the class as a whole instead of scores for individual students. To protect
the anonymity of the study’s participants, names and other contact information need to be
removed from documents used in the study such as writing samples, surveys, and tests.
Additionally, with so much data currently stored in electronic formats, it must be ensured that
participants are protected in case the data are compromised inany way.

3. Informed Consent

Bouma and Ling (2004) state that in many studies, participants (or their parents or legal
guardians if they are minors) have to consent to participate in the study. As a researcher you
should therefore not assume that you can design any study or collect any data that you want just
because you are investigating in your own setting. Additionally, make sure you have the proper
permission to record or videotape the participants.

Unless the data you collect are part of your professional responsibilities, you have to notify the
participants about your action research and provide them with an opportunity to ask questions
about it. It is suggested that a letter of introduction be sent to the participants or to their parents
or guardians if they are minors. In the letter identify yourself and your role in the school,
describe the purpose of your study, and outline what the research participants’ involvement in
the study will entail.

Samaras (2011) explains that as a researcher, you should ensure the participants’ confidentiality
and privacy and create room for them to withdraw from the inquiry if they wish to, without any
negative consequences. This information may encourage the cooperation of the participants (or
their parents or guardians) and will allow them to make a thoughtful decision about whether to
sign the informed consent form (see a sample form of consent below)
 SAMPLE INFORMED CONSENT FORM
I give my consent to have my son/daughter ............................................................. participate in a
research project regarding the use of portfolio assessment in the science class. I understand that
if I give this consent, my son/daughter will be interviewed and observed during two sessions
ofscience lessons, and his/her portfolio on the topic will be read by the researcher.
I understand that participation in this study is voluntary; I can withdraw my son/daughter from
the study at any time during the study without any negative consequences.
I further understand that my child’s anonymity will be protected, and the name of the school or
the teachers will not be revealed when reporting the results of the study.
Please sign and return the form.
Your name (please print): …………………………………………………
Your child’s name: ……………………………………………………
Your signature: …………………………………………………….
Date: ……………………………………………
I understand the information above and AGREE to allow my son/daughter to participate
in the research project.

I understand the information above and DO NOT AGREE to my son/daughter’s

participation in the research project.

4. Accurate interpretation and Presentation of the data

The researcher should maintain the highest standards and be honest and accurate when gathering
and interpreting data for the study. While it may be tempting at times, the researcher should
resist this invitation and avoid overextending the findings and should not also report as
conclusive findings that cannot be confirmed with a high degree of certainty (Samaras, (2011).

Because action research is carried out in real world circumstances, and involves close and open
communication among the people involved, the researchers must pay close attention to ethical
considerations in the execution of action research (George & Mensah, 2014).
According to Winter (1989) the following ethical guidelines must be observed by researchers in
the conduct oftheir work:

 Make sure that the relevant persons, committees and authorities have been consulted, and
that the principles guiding the work are accepted in advance by all
 All participants must be allowed to influence the work, and the decisions of those who do
not wish to participate must be respected

 The development of the work must remain visible and open to suggestions from others
 Permission must be obtained before making observations or examining documents
produced for other purposes
 Description of others’ work and points of view must be negotiated with those concerned
before being published
 The researcher must accept responsibility for maintaining confidentiality

Strengths and Limitations of Action Research

Action research is intended to help teachers improve their teaching practices when they work
with a specific group of students. It aims at helping teachers deal with both everyday problems
and projects by introducing innovations. As our understanding of the school system develops,
action research should assist us achieve new goals which must focus on curriculum development
based on the school, teacher professional education strategy, and constituent development
planning for the school system reforms. All of these contribute to professionalization of the
teaching profession and introduction of the teacher as a researcher (McNiff & Whitehead, 2002).

In order to fulfill the vision of teachers’ lifelong education, learning and professional
development, it is necessary to educate teachers who can think critically, who are able to reflect
and evaluate, who can define and or meet the conditions for successful development of each
individual student and who can encourage and improve their own educational practice
(Whitehead, 2002)
Strengths of Action Research

Bunning (1995) has identified the following as some of the strengths of Action Research:

• it is related to practical problems,

• its cooperative nature makes it suitable for work in smaller groups, in which each participant
can take the initiative,

• it stimulates innovative solutions,

• it can be conducted with minimal costs,

• it instigates cooperation and team work

According to Pine and Little (1981) the strengths of Action Research rest on its ability to achieve
the following:

1. Focus on school issue, problem, or area of collective interest

The problem or issue under investigation through action research is usually one which has
something to do with a learning need or wider school environment. Resolving such an issue
improves practice on the part of both teachers and students. Research done with the teacher’s
students, in a setting with which the teacher is familiar, helps to bring about relevance and
validity to a disciplined study.

2. Form of teacher professional development

Research and reflection allow teachers to grow and gain confidence in their work. Action
research projects influence thinking skills, sense of efficacy, willingness to share and
communicate, and attitudes toward the process of change. Through action research, teachers
learn about themselves, their students, their colleagues, and can determine ways to continually
improve.

3. Collegial interactions

Isolation is one of the downsides of teaching. Teachers are often the sole adult in a room of
children, and have little or no time scheduled for professional conversations with others. Action
research in pairs or by teams of teachers allows time to talk with others about teaching and
teaching strategies.
By working on these teams, teachers must describe their own teaching styles and strategies and
share their thoughts with others. As a team they examine various instructional strategies, learning
activities, and curricular materials used in the classroom. Through these discussions with
colleagues, they develop stronger relationships. As the practice of action research becomes part
of the school culture, there would be increased sharing and collaboration across departments,
disciplines, grade levels, and schools.

As teachers get into action research, they develop a tendency to focus more on questions that
address school and district concerns rather than questions that affect the individual teacher. This
process creates new patterns of collegiality, communication, and sharing. Contributions to the
body of knowledge about teaching and learning may also result. Development of priorities for
school-wide planning and assessment efforts arise from inquiry with potential to motivate school
actors to work towards improvement or change for the better.

4. Reflection on own practice

Opportunities for teachers to evaluate themselves in schools are often few, and usually happen
only in an informal manner. Action research can avail practitioners the opportunity to really take
a look at their own teaching in a structured manner. While the focus of action research is usually
the students, educators can also investigate what effect their teaching is having on their students,
how they could work better with other teachers, or ways of changing the whole school for the
better.

Limitations of Action Research

The limitations of classroom Action Research can be divided in two groups: physical
limitations and methodological limitations (Iliev, 2010). In the physical limitations belong the
problem with consistence in critical action and the problem with keeping attention during the
whole action research. The pupils have physiological inability for critical thinking due to the age
and can`t focus their attention for a long period of duration of the action research.
The group of methodological limitations of practicing action research refers to the structuring of
the research instruments for data gathering, persistence of the ethical principles in realization of
the action research, producing the system of knowledge based on the results of the research,
complete dependence of the implementation of interventions on others (respondents).
Consideration in the process of changing the behaviour in the classroom, the changes in learning
and teaching and the development of productive reflexive practice.

 Limitations of classroom Action Research have also been identified by other scholars;
and these may be categorized as Physical limitations or Methodological limitations (see
the views of Iliev, 2010 above).

Coghlan and Brannik (2005), Dick (2006) are of the view that action research has limitations
including the following:

 The use of coercion or voluntary selection of the participants affects the honesty in the
answers given by the participants. This is due to the fear of repercussions that may arise
after the research. Consequently, it reduces the ability of action research to meet the
required needs as the picture presented may not be true of the situation that was
investigated.
 A practitioner may not give an accurate report owing to matters that may not be good for
the profession including a conclusion that may be critical of their methods of practice.
Lack of objectivity in writing the report is a problem, as the practitioner may not be able
to separate personal issues, and write the report in an objective manner as the issues or
findings touch on his /her profession.
 The results in action research cannot be generalized. The practitioner can however
generalize the results to only the portion of the population studied and the exact system.
 Action research is more difficult to conduct than conventional research as it requires the
involvement/participation of the researcher and there is a constant requirement to refine
the methodology as the research progresses.

Practical and Theoretical Matters of Action Research

Advocates of action research propose formalizing teacher inquiry to empower teachers to
leverage their “insider” knowledge to change classroom practice. Currently there is disagreement
between theorists who promote action research as practical or critical inquiry (Manfra, 2009).
Practical Action Research
Cochran-Smith and Lytle (1999) believe that action research theorized as practical inquiry is a
“way to generate or enhance practical knowledge. Proponents of practical action research argue
that inquiry can illuminate important issues of teachers and their students and, through reflection
on practice, generate new knowledge about teaching and learning (Gall, Gall, & Borg, 2005).
Within practical inquiry, teachers study and redefine their “professional knowledge landscapes”
(Clandinin & Connolly, 1995).
According to Cochran-Smith and Lytle (1999), "practical inquiry is more likely to respond to the
immediacy of the knowledge needs teachers confront in everyday practice and to be foundational
for formal research by providing new questions and concerns" (p. 19). Practical action research
can help pre-service and experienced teachers gain a sense of professionalism and improve their
practice (Levin & Rock, 2003). These views suggest that practical action research is more
relevant and authentic for teachers.
Critical Action Research
Action research envisioned as critical inquiry or “critical action research” departs from the
practical notions of classroom-based research. Rather than describing schools and classrooms,
the goals of critical action researchers involve changing educational structures and transforming
society. According to Cochran-Smith & Lytle (1999), “The emphasis is on transforming
educational theory and practice toward emancipatory ends and thus raising fundamental
questions about curriculum, teachers' roles, and the ends as well as the means of schooling" (p.
18). Proponents of critical action research encourage teachers to investigate the social, cultural,
and political contexts of schooling in the pursuit of more democratic schools and society (Carr &
Kemmis, 1986).
A Summary: Practical Action Research Compared to Critical Action Research

Practical Action Research: Critical Action Research:

• Concerned with practical knowledge • Concerned with social and cultural

factors that impact school
• Interest in day-to-day issues of teacher • Interest in democratic participation and
Practice emancipation
• May result in improved practice and • Seeks deep change and enlightenment
student within the classroom and wider school
performance but not social or cultural environment
change
• Implicit goal towards improving classroom • Implicit goal towards improving society

REFERENCING USING THE AMERICAN PSYCHOLOGICAL ASSOCIATION (APA)

STYLE
It has been observed that student-researchers write research report without relating it to a body of
knowledge consulted and without considering that a list of references is a vital element of a
report (Osuala, 2001). Such a list includes all relevant works which have been cited by the author
or the researcher, and which have been consulted in the introduction, review of literature,
research methodology, results and discussion sections of their research / project report or thesis.
A distinction should be made between a list of references and a bibliography. According to
Osuala (2001) a list of references refers to the list of materials cited in the research text, while
bibliography is a comprehensive coverage of materials in an area even though this may not have
been cited in the text.
WHAT IS A REFERENCE CITATION?
A reference citation is the documentation needed to make a paper acceptable for academic
purposes. It gives authoritative sources for the statements, helps the reader gain access to those
sources, and acknowledges the fact that the information used in a paper did not originate from
the writer (American Psychological Association, 2008).
THE AMERICAN PSYCHOLOGICAL ASSOCIATION (APA) STYLE OF
REFERENCING.
APA style uses the author/date method of citation in which the author's last name and the year of
the publication are inserted in the actual text of the paper. It is the style recommended by the
American Psychological Association and used in many of the social sciences.
ELEMENTS OF A REFERENCE
Volume one of the APA Guide (7th Ed.) identifies the key elements of reference and a set of
general guidelines researchers must follow in referencing their research reports. A good
reference should provide readers with information on the following:

Who
• Who authored the work?
• Individual/Multiple people/Group
When
 When was the work published/ created?
What
• What is the title of the work?

Where
• Where can it be found?
• Where do I go to retrieve it?

THE REFERENCE PAGE

 References start on a new page.

 References are ordered alphabetically by author’s surname
 Do not sort names WITHIN a reference
 Each reference has a hanging indent of .5 inch.
 In Microsoft Word see Paragraph - Indentation - Special – Hanging
 References ending with a DOI or URL do not have an ending period.

IN-TEXT CITATIONS

There are two types of in-text citations, parenthetical and narrative. Both supply the same
basic information, but are formatted differently (APA, 2020).

PARENTHETICAL IN-TEXT CITATIONS

Format
If author's name occurs in the text, follow it with year of publication in parentheses.
Example: Piaget (1970) compared reaction times...

Author unknown
If the author is unknown, the work title moves into the author position.
Format of the work title - italicized
If the work title is italicized in the reference list, italicize it within the in-text citation.
Capitalize the work title using title case

IN-TEXT EXAMPLE

Book with no author:

(Strategic Management, 2011)
Format of the work title - not
italicized

 If the work title is not italicized in the reference list, use double quotation marks around
the title.

 Capitalize the work title using title case.

IN-TEXT EXAMPLE
Magazine article with no author:
(“Foundations of Strategic Management”, 2007)

SPECIFIC PARTS OF A WORK

To provide greater specificity of what is being referenced, additional information can be added to
the end of the in-text citation. Examples include:
• Page numbers
• (Smith, 2015, pp.10-15)

NOTE: Page numbers should always be included within in-text citations when directly
quoting from a work.

LOCATION OF IN-TEXT CITATION

• A parenthetical citation may appear either:

1. Within a sentence
For example: A new framework (Nowak, 2015) has been devised to enhance the organization’s
understanding of its supply chain inefficiencies.

2. At the end of a sentence

For example: “There are five reasons why servant leadership can be a foundation for personal
and organizational excellence- contextual, anecdotal, empirical, philosophical, and cross-
cultural” (Sendjaya, 2015, p. 3).
NARRATIVE IN-TEXT CITATIONS
With narrative in-text citations, the information about the work is incorporated within a sentence.
Format
• Author name (publication year)
For example: Jones (2019)
In-text Example:
As Sendjaya (2015) points out, no individual is likely to possess all of the skills necessary for
today’s competitive market.

ABBREVIATIONS

If a group author name is well known, it can be abbreviated to enhance readability.

Abbreviation Guidelines
Provide the full name the first time the name is mentioned in the text, followed by the
abbreviation. For subsequent citations, the abbreviated format can be used.
NOTE: Do NOT abbreviate the group name in the reference list.
In-text Example:
a) Parenthetical citation - first appearance:
(American Medical Association [AMA], 2018)
b) Narrative citation - first appearance:
The American Medical Association (AMA, 2018) first addressed the topic...

PERSONAL COMMUNICATIONS
Works that cannot be recovered by readers are designated as personal communications.
Format
• Initials and surname of the person providing the communication (date of the communication)

In-text Example:

1. Parenthetical citation

(R. Mitchell, personal communication, January 21, 2018)

2. Narrative citation
J. L. Bennett (personal communication, May 2, 2016)

BOOK CITATION - GENERAL FORMAT

Author(s). (Year of publication). Title of book. Publisher Name. https://doi.org/xxxx

NOTE: When using a direct quote, add the source’s page number to the in-text citation.
Book - Single Author

Sendjaya, S. (2015). Personal and organizational excellence through servant leadership:

Learning to serve, serving to lead, leading to transform. Springer.

In-text example:
1. Parenthetical citation: (Sendjaya, 2015)
2. Narrative citation: Sendjaya (2015)

SECONDARY SOURCES: provide a reference for the secondary source.

 In the text of your paper, if you are unable to access and read the primary source, identify
the primary source, also citing the secondary source. In the references, only list the
secondary source.
 If the text of your paper, identify the primary source and then write, “as cited in” the
secondary source. Include the year of the primary source if known.

Secondary Source:

Calkins, L. (2015). A guide to the reading workshop: Primary grades. Heinemann.

In-text example:

Much of children’s reading happens without them consciously recognizing that they are
processing the print on the page and understanding the meaning of the content (Clay, 2001, as
cited in Calkins, 2015, p. 116).

JOURNAL ARTICLES
Journal article – 21 or more authors
When there are 21 or more authors, include the first 19 names, insert an ellipsis (but no
ampersand i.e. &) and then add the final author’s name.

Magazine article from a database

Zikmund, B. B., & Lummis, A. T. (1998, May 6). Women, men and styles of clergy leadership.
Christian Century, 115(14), 478
In-text example
1. Narrative citation: Zikmund and Lummis (2019)
2. Parenthetical citation: (Zikmund & Lummis, 2019)
Magazine article from the web

Schindler, J. (2019, January 7). Leading with ethics. Forbes. https://www.forbes.com/sites/

forbescoachescouncil/2019/01/07/leading-with-ethics/#15d2ad4568ad

Newspaper article from a database

Stockman, F. (2018, December 24). Anti-Semitism accusations roil women’s march. New York
Times, 168(58186), A1-A13.

Newspaper article from the web

Dvorak, P. (2020, January 20). Marching around with guns on your chest? That’s all about fear.
Washington Post. https://www.washingtonpost.com/local/marching-around-with-guns-
on-your-chest-thats-all-aboutfear/2020/01/20/077f3af0-3bc2-11ea
bacaeb7ace0a3455_story.html
 REFERENCES

Abrami, P. C., Cholmsky, P., & Gordon, R. (2001). Statistical analysis for the social sciences: An
interactive approach. Needham Heights, MA: Allyn & Bacon.
Action Perspective. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley. Action Research. Planning and Changing
41:249–73.
Akaranga, S. I. & Makau, B. K. (2016). Ethical Considerations and their Applications to
American Psychological Association (2020). Publication Guide, 7th Ed. Cardinal Stritch
University Library
American Psychological Association. (2008). Electronic resources. Retrieved June 17, 2008
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