TOPIC 01: STARTING POINTS FOR THE UNDERSTANDING OG CULTURE, SOCIETY AND POLITICS

A. Sharing of Social and Cultural Backgrounds of Students as Acting Subjects or Social Actors, Agents,
Persons

Gender - is the range of characteristics pertaining to, and differentiating between, masculinity and
femininity.

Socioeconomic status (SES) - an economic and sociological combined total measure of a person's work
experience and of an individual's or family's economic and social position in relation to others, based on
income, education and occupation.

Ethnicity - refers to cultural traits that are shared by a category of people such as language, religion, or
national origin. When people integrate ethnicity as part of their identity and create a specific cultural,
religious or national community, they self-consciously constitute an ethnic group.

Religion - "unified system of beliefs and practices related to sacred things, that is to say, things set apart
and forbidden - beliefs and practices which unite into one single moral community.

Identity - refers to distinctive characteristics that define an individual or are shared by those belonging
to a particular group.

B. Observations about Social, Political and Cultural Behavior and Phenomena

Food Taboos

- One of the food taboos among Muslims, for instance, is the eating of pork.

- Understand their culture rather than regarding them as "weird." (slay madam)

Istambays

- Usually regarded as unruly, often suspected as thefts, and of other misdemeanors.

- Many of them are people who have difficulty in finding jobs because of inadequate opportunities in the
Philippines.

- there should be:

• Holistic knowledge and understanding of the characteristics and overall identities of oneself, of
other people, and of different groups.

• Constant dialogue and interaction with each other

C. Political Dynasties

- refer to groups whose members are involved in politics

D. Election

- a formal decision-making process by which a population chooses an individual to hold public office.

- have been the usual mechanism by which modern representative democracy has operated since the
17th century

- may fill offices in the legislature, sometimes in the executive and judiciary, and for regional and local
government.

E. Observations on Social, Political and Cultural Change

Social change - refers to transformations that alter the roles and status of people as well as the
structure and organization of society and its institutions.

Political Change - occurs when there is an alteration in the way power and authority are exercised in a
particular state.

Example:

• Texting

• Transnational Families

• Local public services

• Youth volunteerism

D. Definition of Anthropology, Political Science and Sociology

A. Anthropology

- is the systematic study of the biological, cultural, and social aspects of man.

- It is derived from two Greek words, anthropos, which means “man," and logos, which means "study" or
"inquiry."

Social Anthropology - studies how social patterns and practices and cultural variations develop across
different societies.

Cultural Anthropology - studies cultural variation across different societies and examines the need to
understand each culture in its own context.

Linguistic Anthropology - studies language and discourse and how they reflect and shape different
aspects of human society and culture.

Biological or Cultural Anthropological - studies the origins of humans as well as the interplay between
social factors and the processes of human evolution, adaptation, and variation over time.

B. Political Science
- the systematic study of politics, which Andrew Heywood describes as "the activity through which
people make, preserve and amend the general rules under which they live

- It focuses on the fundamental values of equality, freedom and justice and its processes are linked to
the dynamics of conflict, resolution, and cooperation.

C. Sociology

- defined by Anthony Giddens as "the study of human social life, groups, and society."

- it is an academic discipline that attempts to provide a deeper assessment of individual and group
behavior, as well as the phenomena, by examining the interplay between economic, political and social
factors.

TOPIC 02: DEFINING CULTURE AND SOCIETY FROM THE PERSPECTIVES OF ANTHROPOLOGY AND
SOCIOLOGY

Society

- a group of individuals sharing a common culture, geographical location, and government.

- A society is characterized by the presence of the following elements:

• A. social solidarity, whereby members of the community live together for mutual benefit

• B. shared identity and culture among members that serve as basis for their patterns of action
and behavior;

• C. a common language

• D. a large population and the ability to sustain succeeding generations of members;

• E. definite geographical area

• F. political, economic and social organization

B. Definition of Culture

Culture

- is one of the important bases that define and influence a society.

- It refers to the set of beliefs, ideas, values, practices, knowledge, history and shared experiences,
attitudes, as well as material objects and possessions accumulated over time and shared by the
members of society.

- Components of Culture:

• Technology - The combination of objects and rules

2. Symbols - Anything that represents something else; the very basis of human culture

3. Language - The organization of written or spoken symbols into a standardized system

 4. Values - Are shared beliefs about what is good or bad; the type of values held by a
group determines their character

5. Norms - a. Folkways b. Mores

C. Aspects of Culture

• Dynamic, flexible, and adaptive

• b. Shared and contested (given the reality of social differentiation)

• c. Learned through socialization or enculturation

• d. Patterned social interactions

• e. Integrated and at times unstable

• f. Transmitted through socialization/enculturation

• g. Requires language and other forms of communication

- Culture is varied, diverse and at the same time hold similarities.

- Cultural universals are common traits or elements among cultures.

- Cultural particulars are different ways developed to express universals.

- Subculture is a part of the dominant group but differs from it in some important aspects. (e.g. China
town, youth groups, circus people, military, police, lawyers, etc.)

- Counterculture is a subculture deliberately and consciously opposed to certain central beliefs of the
dominant culture. (e.g. goth, punk, prison counterculture, gangs)

Culture is learned through enculturation & socialization

Enculturation - The process of acquiring and internalizing culture

Socialization - the process of learning and accepting social behavior, values, beliefs, norms, and
language.

Society Functions and maintain social order through social interaction

1. Exchange

2. Cooperation

3. Competition

4. Coercion

5. Conflict
D. Ethnocentrism and Cultural Relativism as Orientations in Viewing Other Cultures (Response to
Variations)

Ethnocentrism - diminishes or invalidates "other" ways of life and creates a distorted view of one's own.
As a result, this could affect individual behavior and relationships with other cultures.

Extreme forms of ethnocentrism have led to wars or colonization.

- William Howard Taft, for example, once referred to the Filipinos as the Americans' "little brown
brothers" who needed to be supervised by the United States of America in establishing a society and
government that approximates "Anglo American standards."

Cultural Relativism

- recognizes and accepts the cultural differences between societies.

- This view believes that every aspect of a culture can be justified by the context in which the culture has
been formed.

- Interaction between members of different societies is more likely to succeed if everybody is aware and
is respectful of cultural diversity.

TOPIC 03: LOOKING BACK AT BIOCULTURAL AND SOCIAL EVOLUTION

Human Bio cultural and Social Evolution

A. Stages of Human Evolution

• 1. Hominid (Manlike Primates)

• 2. Homo Habilis ("Handy Man")

• 3. Homo Erectus ("Upright Man")

• 4. Homo Sapien ("Wise Man")

1. Hominid (Manlike Primates)

• There have been various relics of hominids which could be described as manlike primates:

a. "Ramapithecus"

• believed to have lived 14 million years; remains could be found in Siwalik Hills of India

• could stand upright and used stones and sticks to frighten enemies

• was found by Mrs. Mary Leaky at the volcanic ash of Laetolil, Tanzania, East Africa in
1975

b. "Lucy"

 discovered by American archaeologist, Donald C. Johnson

 was a whole skeleton of a teenage girl, at Hadar, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia
c. "Australopithecus"

 was believed to live in Africa about 5 million years ago

 had small brain but could walk straight and use simple tools

2. Homo Habilis ("Handy Man")

 The apelike men used stone tools as weapons and protection from their enemies.

a. "Zinjanthropus"

 was about 4 feet; could walk upright with small brain; believed to have lived about 1.75 mil.
years ago
 used crude stone as weapons for protection against predators
 was discovered by Louis S.B. Leakey in Olduva Gorge, Tanzania, East Africa in 1999

b. "Lake Turkana" ("1470 man")

 was about 5 ft tall and walked upright; had a brain double the size of a chimpanzee's brain
 used more refined tools
 was excavated in Lake Turkana, Kenya East Africa by Dr. Richard Leakey (son of the Leakeys) in
1972; remains consisted of a shattered skull and leg bones

3. Homo Erectus ("Upright Man")

 was believed to be the first manlike creature that lived 500,000 years ago in Asia, Africa, and
Europe
 this manlike specie could walk straight; with brain almost the same as that of the modern man
 made refined tools for hunting and weapons for protection from the enemies (about 5 ft tall;
could walk erect; heavy and chinless jaw; hairy body)

b. "Sinanthropus Pekinensis" (Peking Man)

 was discovered at Choukoutien village, Beijing, China in 1929

 was about 5'2" tall; could walk upright; brain size almost as large as that of the modern man
 believed to have lived 500,000 years ago

Homo Sapiens ("Wise Man")

 Believed to be where modern man had directly descended from; lived about 250,000 years ago
 Had similar physical descriptions as the modern man
 Activities were largely dependent on hunting, fishing, and agriculture
 Buried their dead, used hand tools and had religion

a. Neanderthal Man

 was discovered in the cave of Neanderthal valley near Dusseldorf, Germany in 1856
 was believed to have lived in the high temperate zones in Asia and Europe about 70,000 years
ago
 heavily built with powerful jaws; brutish and primitively intelligent
  usually lived in caves and dependent in hunting and fishing
 had religious beliefs and more advanced than homo erectus

b. Cro Magnon Man

 was more stronger homo sapien than the neanderthal which was discovered by French
archaeologist Louis Lartet in the Cro Magnon Cave at Ley Eyzies in Southern France
 was believed to live in Europe, Asia and Africa
 their remains had been found in western Asia including Italy, Spain, France and Russia and all
over Africa
 about 5 ft 11 inches with more developed brain than their predecessor
 as prehistoric men, they had stone implements, art objects, and consistent hunting skills

B. The Evolution of the Primitive

Men

1. Paleolithic Period (Old Stone Age: 3 million years to 8,000 B.C.)

2. Neolithic Period (New Stone Age: 8,000 - 4,000 B.C.)

3. Age of Metals (4,000 В.С. - 1,500 B.C.)

1. Paleolithic Period

 Common primitive men identified in this period were the homo erectus such as the Java
Man and Peking Man; the homo sapiens such as the Neanderthal and Cro Magnon Man

a. Rough stone tools were used as main weapons and tools such as chisels, knives

b. Lived in hunting, fishing, and gathering fruits available

c. Used fire; lived in caves and later learned to build primitive shelter

d. Learned to develop primitive arts, personal ornaments, and other art forms

2. Neolithic Period

 Started in the disappearance of the Cro-Magnon and new people which were
considered as modern men

a. Development of refined stone tools and weapons

b. Made their own houses

c. Learned to domesticate animals such as horse, pigs, dogs, cattle, etc.

d. Learned to weave and use clothes as protection for their skin

e. Began to cut trees which was used as boat for means of transport
3. Age of Metals

 The use of metal such as bronze, copper and iron produced a new historical
development from the cradle civilization of Egypt, Mesopotamia, Persia, including India
and China
 More developed social, cultural, political and economic system which had spread in
Middle East, Asia and even South America
 Had already direct contacts through the tribes, kingdoms, empire and later on state
which the constant political activities were through conquest, wars and trade

B. Cultural and Sociopolitical Evolution

1. The Neolithic Revolution

• Agriculture and the Origins of Civilization

• Causes of the Agrarian Transformation

• The Domestication of Plants and Animals

• The Spread of the Neolithic Revolution

2. Early Civilization and the Rise of the State

a. Before the Rise of Civilization (Paleolithic Age)

- Raising of animals created strain on nomadic people to find large and reliable sources of foods

- Drawback: unusually aggressive; babies were greatly dependent for many years on adult care

- Early people were nomadic hunter-gatherers; lived off the land; pastoral society helped to further tie
groups to specific areas of land

- Homo sapiens evolved; evidence showed that they had belief in the afterlife; developed social
structures and hierarchies

- Cave paintings, burials, and tools are leftover relics of the period

b. Civilization Makes Its Debut (8000-3000 BC)

- When everyone did not have to farm anymore, people became artisans and craftsmen which brought
trade and a class of merchants.

- Neolithic means "new stone" though agriculture was the crowning achievement of the period

- Artisans contributed to the homogenization of culture

- Agriculture increasingly became widespread causing surplus of food and to stay and be rooted to
protect property causing social and cultural bonds to form.

- Merchants caused Cultural Diffusion; human religion began to evolve

c. Democratization

- Democratization is the transition to a more democratic political regime. It may be the transition from
an authoritarian regime to a full democracy, a transition from an authoritarian political system to a
semi-democracy or transition from a semi-authoritarian political system to a democratic political
system.

Origins of Democracy

- Democracy means people-power or rule by the people.

- came from the ancient Greeks who combined the words demos (people) and krates (rule) to create the
term

- The term was coined during a period in Greek history when the city of Athens experimented with a
form of government in which all citizens, rather than one king or a small group of wealthy men, made
the laws of their state.

- Democracy is a system in which people decide matters as a group. The term is typically used in the
context of a form of government in which all the citizens have a vote. The principles of democracy are
also applicable to other bodies, such as universities, unions, companies or other organizations.

- In a democratic government, the people's views influence the laws and decisions made by the
government. The development of democracy can be traced back to ancient times, particularly to ancient
Greece.

⁃ Athens was the first city state to allow ordinary citizens access to government offices
and courts. In theory, all Athenian citizens were eligible to speak and vote in the Assembly which set the
laws of the city-state.

⁃ Understanding Culture, Sociely and Politics In reality, Athens was not a true democracy
as women were not included nor were foreigners, slaves or freed slaves.

⁃ Also, according to the rules of citizenship both parents must have been Athenian citizens
for a person to qualify to take part in the Assembly.

⁃ The democracy therefore, was only a very small minority of the people living in Athens.
It was, however, the closest any country had come to establishing a democratic society at this time.

Causes of Democratization:

• Wealth

• Social equality

• Culture

• Foreign intervention

• Education

• Foreign trade
 • International cooperation

• Dictatorship

• Democracy protests

• Threat of conflict

Types of human societies

1. Hunting and Food Gathering

Societies

- the earliest form of human society

- people survived by foraging for vegetable foods and small game, fishing, hunting larger wild animals
and collecting shellfish;

- subsisted from day to day on whatever was available;

- used tools made of stones, woods and bones.

2. Horticultural societies

- people learned to use human muscle power and handheld tool to cultivate fields;

- classified as subsistence farming and surplus farming.

SUBSISTENCE FARMING:

- involved producing enough to feed the group;

- settlements were small:

- neighborhood is solid;

- political organization was confined in the village;

- authority was based on position inherited by males through the kinship system.

SURPLUS FARMING:

- practiced in thickly populated and permanent settlements;

- there was occupational specialization with prestige differences;

- social stratification was well established;

- the community tended to be structured by kinship relations that were male dominate

3. Pastoral Societies

- relied on herding and domestication of animals for food and clothing to satisfy the greater needs of the
group
- most pastoralist were nomads who followed their herds in a never-ending quest for pasture and water

- was organized along male-centered kinship groups

- was usually united under strong political figures, centralized political leadership did not occur

4. Agricultural Societies

- societies were characterized by the use of the plow in farming

- creation of irrigation system provided farming enough surplus for the

community

- ever-growing populations came together in broad river-valley system

- those who controlled access to arable land and its use became rich and powerful since they could
demand the payment of taxes and political support

- by taxing the bulk of agriculture surplus, the political leaders could make bureaucracies implement
their plans and armies to protect their privileges

5. Industrial Societies

- characterized by more than just the use of mechanical means of production

- constitutes an entirely new form of society that requires an immense, mobile diversity specialized, high
skilled, and well-coordinated labor force

- creates a highly organized systems of exchange between suppliers of raw materials and industrial
manufacturers

- industrial societies are divided along class lines

- industrial has brought about a tremendous shift of populations

- kinship plays a smaller role in patterning public affairs are highly secularized

- predominant form of social and political organization in industrial societies is the bureaucracy.

6. Post- Industrial Societies

- depends on specialized knowledge to bring about continuing progress in technology

- characterized by the spread of computer industries

- knowledge and information are the hallmarks of this society

- resulted in the homogenization of social relations among individuals and the interaction between
humans and the natural environment
TOPIC 04: BECOMING A MEMBER OF SOCIETY

Enculturation

- describe the process of being socialized into a specific culture

- through this, individuals learn cultural symbols, norms, values, and language by observing and
interacting with family, friends, teachers and the rest of the society

- is the process of learning the culture of a particular group of people through experience, observation,
and instruction

Socialization

- refers to the lifelong process of social interaction through which people acquire their identities and
necessary survival skills in society

- social process wherein an individual is interacting with a society through which the individual acquire
personality and learn the way of that society

- it prepares new members of society and trains them to think, fell, and act in appropriate ways

- May be: Objective, Subjective

- is a continuous process through which personal identity is formed and the norms, values, and the social
skills appropriate to the individual’s social position/status and the roles associated with specific statuses
are learned

• Functions:

- Personality and role development

- skills development and training

- values formation

- social integration and adjustment

 - social control and stability

A. Identity Formation

- according to George Herbert Mead, “The self is something which has a development; it is not there at
birth, but arises in the process of social experience and activity, that it develops in the given individual as
a result of his or her relations to the process as a whole and to the individuals within that process (Mead
1934, p.135)

Individual Personality – is the important result of the process of socialization

Personality – individual’s stable pattern of thought, feeling, and action

B. Norms and Values

Norms – are informal understandings that govern the behavior of members of a society. It recognizes
smaller group units, such as a team or an office, may also endorse norms, separate or in addition to
cultural or societal expectations. In other words, norms are regarded to exist as collective
representations of acceptable group conduct as well as individual perceptions of particular group
conduct

Values – social values form to an important part of the culture of the society

C. Status and Roles

Status

- defined by Max Weber as the esteem or “social honor” given to certain individuals or groups

- refers the relative position of an individual in a society or a social group. And individual may have many
statuses. A status can be acquired or lost as an individual go through his/her life

- can be either ascribed or achieved

Ascribed Status

- is the social status that an individual has no control of. It is set by the circumstance of once birth.
Ascribed statuses include one’s socioeconomic status at birth age, and ethnicity, among others

Achieved Status

- social status that an individual voluntarily takes based on his/her own merits or capability
Roles

- refers to the characteristic way of behaving of an individual according to his/her status

- for instance, a woman, takes on many different roles like being a mother or a sister, a worker and a
team member

- when one displays a behavior that is against an individual role, it is called deviance

- the behavior expected of someone who holds a particular status

Role Set

- a number of roles attached to a single status

- ex. Status of mother (disciplinary, dietitian, etc.)

Socialization: Role Conflict

- when an individual is subjected to a scenario wherein the individual is required to do more than one
task based on his/her social role that cannot be done at the same time or the roles are incompatible
with each other

- occurs when the demands or expectations associated with two or more statuses are incompatible

Age

- is a measure of an individual’s age based on the calendar date on which he or she was born. It is
measured in days, months and years

Gender

- refers to a culturally imposed characteristics that define masculinity and femininity

Socialization: Context

- the context of socialization is concerned with the relationship of a person to his or her social
environment.

- it is used by social scientists to refer to the lifelong process that a person uses to learn the norms,
customs, and values necessary for interacting and developing relationships with other people
Enculturation: Context

- the context of enculturation is focused on cultural learning

- unlike socialization, it is specific to the culture where we live in

Socialization: Content

- socialization is the learning and mastering of social norms, values, and belief systems existing in a
society

Enculturation: Content

- in enculturation, the person learns the “control mechanisms that govern his or her behavior through
traditional activities and beliefs

Socialization: Processes

- the process of socialization mainly involves the internalization of rules and patterns of behaviors
observed from the members of the society

- the process of socialization begins at the first day of the life of a person

- According to John Berry, Ype Poortinga, and Janak Pandey, socialization occurs through different
means such as:

Enculturation: Processes

- There are 2 processes involved in enculturation: conscious and unconscious

- the process of enculturation involved an internalization of the customs, beliefs, and traditions of one’s
culture

• conscious process of enculturation:

- the conscious process of enculturation can be achieved via direct teaching from parents, peers,
and media

- it can also be achieved through observing and copying of the actions and behavior of the
people around us

• unconscious process of enculturation:

 - happens every time a person socializes and observes activities held in the culture. It is affected
by the experiences of a person

Socialization: consequences

- Socialization affects the behavior and social relationships of a person

- it also shapes the perceptual, emotional, and cognitive functions and processes of a human being

Enculturation: consequences

- enculturation can result to competence in the language, values, and rituals of a culture

- it also makes a person a functional member of a society

• In summary

Conformity and Deviance

- Conformity: refers to the process of altering one’s thoughts and actions to adapt to the accepted
behavior within his or her group or society

- Deviance: is defined as a behavior that elicits a strong negative reaction from group members and
involves actions that violate commonly held social norms

Social Control
- defined as any systematic means and practices used to maintain norms, rules, and laws

- may be informal sanctions or formal sanctions

Forms of Deviance

- Ritualism, Retreatism, Rebellion, Innovation

Conformity

- involves the acceptance of the cultural goals and means of attaining those goals

- Innovation: involves the acceptance of the goals of a culture but the rejection of the traditional and
legitimate means of attaining those goals

- Ritualism: involves the rejection of cultural goals but the routinized acceptance of the means for
achieving the goals

- Retreatism: involves the rejection of both the cultural goals and the traditional means of achieving
those goals

- Rebellion: a special case wherein the individual rejects both the cultural goals and traditional means of
achieving them but actively attempts to replace both elements of the society with different goals and
means

Human Dignity, Rights, and the Common Good

- Human Dignity: refers to the idea that a person has the innate right to be valued, respected, and
treated well

- Human Rights: are legal, social, and ethical principles that consider the human person as deserving of
liberties and protections by virtue of his or her human dignity

Rights of Human Beings

Common Good

- aims to see the possibility of using politics, collective action, and active citizens in the realization of
freedom, autonomy, and self-government for the self-interest of the whole society

- can also be perceived to prioritize the “benefits and interest of all”

- the foundations of the common good are the human dignity and human rights

TOPIC 05: HOW SOCIETY IS ORGANIZED

SOCIETY

- is a social system that is composed of people assigned to perform definite tasks and functions in a
social system called social institution.

GROUP

- is composed of two or more persons who have something in common, are interacting with one
another, and are guided by a set or norms.

Three Requirements for a GROUP

• There must be two or more people.

• There must be interaction.

 • The members of the group must be together physically.

Other human cluster:

Aggregate

- unstructured group of people found in one place but do not interact with each other (important
characteristic is common physical location).

Social Category

- an agglomeration where members possess common identifying characteristics but do not interact
socially.

Collective

- crowds, masses, public and social movements are temporary groups; these are clusters of people
interacting with each other but the interaction is temporary or short-lived.

Importance of groups (Salcedo, 2002)

• The group is a transmitter of culture.

• The group is a means of social control.

• The group socializes the individual.

• The group is the source of ideas.

• The group trains the individual in communications.

Self Categoration Theory

- a relevant approach in understanding the characteristics of social groups.

- proposes that people’s appreciation of their group membership is influenced by their perception
towards people who are not members of their group.

Incorporation into a group both helps people to adapt to various social processes and attain their goals
in life, but may also encourage them to commit wrong doing or lead others to socially deviant practices.

I. Groups within society:

• Groups are the smaller units that compose society.

• It is a unit of interacting personalities with an interdependence of roles and statuses existing

between members (Cole, 1963)

• These have been responsible for the development and advancement of cultures, economics,
politics and other aspects of human civilization.

“Mas as a Social Animal”

• According to Plato, human being are naturally equipped with tools such as language and reason
that enable them to engage others in meaningful interaction.
Primary Group

• Small, intimate, and less specialized group whose members engage in face to face and emotion-
based interactions over an extended period of time.

• Interdependence amnong members is characterized by a deep and profound relationship with

each other.

• It is within these group that an individual establishes and defines his or her identity, values,
ideals, and aspirations.

• Examples include family, close friends, work related peers, classmates, and church groups.

Secondary Group

• Larger and less intimate, and more specialized groups where members engage in an impersonal
and objective oriented relationship for a limited time.

• Mutual benefit, rather than emotional affinity, becomes the driving force that compel
individuals to stay together in a secondary group.

Examples:

• Professional relationships between lawyers and clients

• A corporation that has hundreds or employees.

In-Groups

• A group to which one belongs and with which one feels a sense of identity

• Members displays positive attitudes and behavior toward their fellow members, while may
exhibit negative attitudes and views toward members of their out-groups.

• Members of such groups devise ways to distinguish themselves from nonmembers. This may
come in form of group titles, symbols, and even rituals required for membership.

Additional Info’s:

• Similarities and shared experiences foster unity and cooperation among group members

• It is a group that an individual identifies in positive direction

• It is a social group toward which a member feels respect and loyalty

• Differences with nonmembers could transform into feelings competition and even hostility

Examples:

• Sport teams

• Unions

• Sororities
Out-Group

• A group to which one does not belong and to which he or she may feel a sense of
competitiveness or hostility.

• A social groups toward which a person feels a sense of competition or opposition.

• A group that an individual indentifies in negative direction.

III. Reference group

• A group to which an individual compares himself or herself.

• It is a social group that serves as a point of reference in making evaluations and decisions
individual compares himself or herself.

• Such groups strongly influence an individual’s behavior and social attitudes whether he or she is
a member of these groups.

• Example of reference group include an individual’s primary group (family, work colleagues, etc.)
or his or her in-group (church, fellow club members, neighbors in the community, etc.)

• Members of this group provide models that shape their attitudes, beliefs and behavior.

• Individuals are provided with an opportunity for self-evaluation and identity formation by having
a reference group.

• It sets itself from other groups by molding people’s aspirations in life and inspire them to pursue
greater things.

• It’s not necessary for an individual to engage in face to face interaction with his or her reference
group. For example is one’s favorite rock band or sport’s team.

Some examples of types of groups:

Peer

• A peer group is a group with members of approximately the same age, social status, and
interests. Generally, people are relatively equal in terms of power when they interact with
peers.

Clique

• A group of people that have many of the same interests & commonly found in a High
School/College setting; most of the time they have a name & rules for themselves.

Club
 • A club is a group, which usually requires one to apply to become a member. Such clubs may be
dedicated to particular activities: sporting clubs, for example.

Cabal

• A cabal is a group of people united in some close design together, usually to promote their
private views or interests in a church, state, or other community, often by intrigue.

Household

• All individuals who live in the same home. Anglophone culture may include various models of
household, including the family, blended families, share housing, and group homes.

Community

• A community is a group of people with a community or sometimes a complex net of overlapping

commonalities, often but not always in proximity with one another with some degree of
continuity over time.

Gang

• A gang is usually an urban group that gathers in a particular area. It is a group of people that
often hang around each other. They can be like some clubs, but much less formal. They are
usually known in many countries to cause social unrest and also have negative influence on the
members and may be a target for the law enforcers in case of any social vices.

Mob

• A mob is usually a group of people that has taken the law into their hands. Mobs are usually
groups which gather temporarily for a particular reason.

Posse

• originally found in English common law. It is generally obsolete, and survives only in America,
where it is the law enforcement equivalent of summoning the militia for military purposes.
However, it can also refer to a street group.

Squad

• usually a small group, of around 3 to 15 people, who work as a team to accomplish their goals.

Dyad

• a social group with two members. Social interaction in a dyad is typically more intense than in
larger groups because neither member shares the other’s attention with anyone else.

Triad

• a social group with three members, which contains three relationships, each uniting two of the
three people. A triad is more stable than a dyad because one member can act as a mediator
should the relationship between the other two become strained.

Team
 • Similar to a squad, though a team may contain many more members. A team works in a similar
way to a squad.

IV. Networks

• Refers to the structure of relationships between social actors or and the larger social institutions
to which they all belong to.

• In the age of the internet, a good example of networks are those provided by social media
platforms such as Facebook, Twitter, or Instagram.

• In traditional societies, networks are exclusive, limited, and mostly defined by KINSHIP. Modern
societies feature more expensive, diverse, and overlapping social networking.