CHAPTER 7 t HIGH-SPEED IMPACT MILLS

FIG 7.6 – Dual Atrita mill where the coal flows through the hammer and attrition
mills using the same horizontal shaft (image courtesy Glenn Schumacher, AGL).

FIG 7.7 – Dual Atrita mill with product size distribution from each section of the mill (image courtesy Glenn Schumacher, AGL).

hammers is estimated to be 52 m/s and the tip velocity of the grinding clips on the
attrition wheel is calculated at 100 m/s. The coal passes through the hammer mill
VHFWLRQWKHQWKURXJKWKHÀUVWDQGVHFRQGDWWULWLRQVHFWLRQVDQGHPHUJHVDVSXOYHULVHG
fuel from the fan section.

BEATER WHEEL MILLS

Lignite (or brown coal) is widely used in power plants, with an annual worldwide use
of 1000 Mt. Germany is the largest producer and Australia is third with 120 Mt. Beater
wheel mills are used for pulverising lignite and brown coal, which typically contain a

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 CHAPTER 7 t HIGH-SPEED IMPACT MILLS

very high moisture content up to  per cent and tend to be Àbrous in nature. High-
speed beater mills fall into two categories:
. a beater wheel mill in which the comminution element consists of a high-speed
armoured beater wheel alone
2. a hammerbeater wheel mill with a primary hammer section in front of the beater
wheel section.
A beater wheel in effect is an armoured impellor that both impacts directly with the raw
coal feed as well as propelling the coal against the armoured mill casing. These actions both
bring about comminution of the feed and also allow the mi[ing of hot gases with the coal
to dry it. At the same time the beater wheel acts as a fan to provide the means of drawing
hot gas from the boiler furnace, which enters the mill with the feed, and propelling the
pulverised mill product pulverised fuel ² PF and associated carrier gas to the site of
combustion in the boiler furnace. Most have a ¶bo[ classiÀer· if any classiÀer is present
at all , which is actually an inertia-type static classiÀer in which separation occurs by a
change in Áow direction. In nearly all major lignite-Àred power plants, the crude lignite is
dried and pulverised in beater wheel mills.
The high moisture load of these coals requires signiÀcant drying to occur in the mill. The
use of hot gases from the boiler furnace results in very large boiler plant and comple[ burner
arrangements to handle the vapour load and circulating gases. To achieve the necessary
drying, mills pulverising lignite brown coal run very hot with gas temperatures around
2²ƒ&. :ith such high moisture loads the mills are required to handle very large gas
volumes as the moisture is converted in water vapour plus the drying boiler furnace
gases and the conditions within the mill are such that corrosion-erosion mechanisms can
occur in these machines. :hilst the coal is generally ¶soft·, the high speeds, high volumes
of material being processed and resulting high velocities when coincidental with some
contaminants in the coal, such as silica, mean that high wear rates can be encountered.

FIG 7.8 – Beater wheel pulveriser at AGL Loy Yang A Power Station,
Victoria, Australia (image courtesy Glenn Schumacher, AGL).

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 CHAPTER 7 t HIGH-SPEED IMPACT MILLS

The beater wheel shown in Figure . stands  m high, weighs 2 t, spins at appro[-
imately  revmin within the mill and operates in temperatures around 2²ƒ&.
The pulverised coal is classiÀed and the Àne particles are blown into the boiler to fuel
the furnace Àre. 6ilica in the lignite is abrasive and the beater wheels must be changed
regularly. The largest beater wheel offered by Alstom is  mm high.
The Deutsche Babcock combined hammer and beater wheel mills at the Hazelwood
power station in 9ictoria, Australia each has a  k: motor and  th capacity. There
are  in all ² a signiÀcant amount of comminution devices in one place.

BIBLIOGRAPHY
Worley, -, 6chumacher, * and -uniper, /, 2. (ffects of coal properties upon mill life and
performance, in Proceedings Tenth Australian Coal Science Conference, Brisbane, ² November
Australian Institute of (nergy: Melbourne .

&atalogues for the high-speed impact mills referred to in this chapter are available on the internet.
The companies are:
• Alstom Beater :heel Mills
• Atrita mills
• Magotteau[ MA*·Impact® 9ertical 6haft Impact &rusher
• Metso Barmac 9ertical 6haft Impact &rusher
• 5iley Power
• 6andvik Hammer Mills
• 6chutte Buffalo Hammermill //&.

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Chapter 8

STIRRED MILLS
Udo Enderle, Katie Barns,
Joe Pease and Bodo Furchner

INTRODUCTION
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 CHAPTER 8 t STIRRED MILLS

applications, some ores are dry ground and combusted before leaching (for example,
treating some Nevada gold ores) while grinding coal for combustion. It is possible for a
wet-grinding process to be employed and the product subsequently dewatered and dried.
This will depend on the relative energy and complexity of milling and drying. As the
slurries in the wet mills are highly concentrated, up to 75 per cent solid content, an energy-
efÀcient drying of the slurry is possible. 6een from the aspect of energy consumption, there
may be an advantage for wet grinding including drying compared to dry processing.
2nly about two to  per cent of the energy expended in grinding is efÀciently used
for the generation of new surfaces; most is converted to heat or lost through ineffective
impacts and loads. This emphasises the necessity to improve all grinding practices,
particularly Àne grinding, which is so energy intensive.
Tumbling mills were found to be particularly inefÀcient for Àne grinding because the
slow speed of rotation led to low power intensity and a low rate of ball collisions. In 1928
a stationary grinding chamber was proposed in which spherical grinding media were
moved by a slowly rotating agitator (.wade and 6chwedes 1997). 0ill performance
could be controlled by increasing the agitator speed and using Àner balls.
In 1948 the du Pont Company built a high-speed mill for grinding pigment using
this concept. It was referred to as a ‘sand mill’ because the grinding media originally
consisted of Àne-grained sand fractions. This is why high speed mills are still referred
to as ‘sandmills’ in the 86, although they now use ceramic media si]ed between .1 and
8 mm. The initial stirrer was a vertical cantilevered shaft with solid discs that operated
at speeds of 600 to 800 rev/min (8–11 m/s). The discs were concentric in alignment with
slurry entering from the bottom of the mill and exiting at the top.

COMMINUTION IN STIRRED MILLS

Hans Rumpf divided comminution processes into grinding and fracturing according to
the particle si]e of the feed stocN. 'ifferent machines should be used as the particle si]e
becomes Àner, as shown in )igure 8.1.

FIG 8.1 – Particle size of the feed stock showing the size range where agitator bead mills fit in. The
coarse end of this range is populated by slow-speed stirred mills, the finer end by high-speed stirred mills.
Bead mills are used to disperse both colloidal and coarser particles (image courtesy Hans Rumpf).

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FIG 8.2 – Attachments to a shaft to create agitation (image courtesy Udo Enderle).

Stress energy, stress rate and specific energy

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 CHAPTER 8 t STIRRED MILLS

JULQGLQJ DSSOLFDWLRQ WKH VSHFLÀF HQHUJ\ UHTXLUHG FDQ RIWHQ EH UHGXFHG VXEVWDQWLDOO\
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FIG 8.3 – Crushing a solid block with a hammer (image courtesy Dr Stefan Mende).

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Classifier wheel and air jet mill

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FIG 8.4 – Classifier wheel showing the hub (bottom disk), the cover
plate (top disk) and the vanes (image courtesy Udo Enderle).

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FIG 8.5 – Hosokawa Alpine Air jet mill and wheel classifier (image courtesy Hosokawa Alpine).

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Superheated steam jet mills

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FIG 8.6 – Nanometre scale where 1 mm = 1000 μm, 1 μm = 1000 nm (image courtesy Udo Enderle).

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VERTICAL STIRRED MILLS

Tower mills
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FIG 8.7 – Eirich TowerMill (image courtesy Eirich). (A) TowerMill, (B) material flow, (C) components.

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FIG 8.8 – Vertimill showing mill component (left) and mixing auger (right) (images courtesy Metso).

HIGmill
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A B C

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FIG 8.9 – Outotec HIGmill (images courtesy Outotec). (A) External view, (B) grinding discs, (C) typical feed and product sizings.

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TABLE 8.1
Feed and product sizings for Outotec’s HIGmill.
Grind classification Feed (F80 μm) Product (P80 μm)
Coarse 100–300 50–100
Fine 50–100 20–60
Ultra-fine <70 <20

Energy-intensive stirred agitator (EiSA) mill

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 CHAPTER 8 t STIRRED MILLS

FIG 8.10 – Netzsch EiSA mill (images courtesy Netzsch).

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TABLE 8.2
Netzsch EiSA mill.
Chamber volume (L) Power (kW) Throughput (t/h solids) Throughput (t/h water equivalent)
0–3150 90–1000 3000–35 000 3–35

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FIG 8.11 – Stirred media detritor (images courtesy Metso).

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TABLE 8.3
Vertical stirred mills.
Manufacturer Motor power (kW) Feed size (mm) Product size (<μm)
TowerMill (Nissan Ehrich) 0.4–1120 10 15
Vertimill (Metso) 11–2237 6 15
Stirred Media Detritor (Metso) 185, 355, 1100 200 5
HIGmill (Outotec) 144–5500 500 20
EiSA mill (Netzsch) 90–710 250 10

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HORIZONTAL STIRRED MILLS

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FIG 8.12 – IsaMill™ layout (image courtesy Glencore).

FIG 8.13 – How the IsaMill operates (image courtesy Glencore).

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Energy intensity
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HOSOKAWA ALPINE FINE-GRINDING MILLS

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TABLE 8.4
Comparative energy intensity of grinding technologies.
Mill type Installed power (kW) Mill volume (m³) Power intensity (kW/m³)
Autogenous mill 6400 353 18
Primary ball mill 2600 126 21
Regrind ball mill 740 39 19
Tower mill 1000 12 42
HIGmill 4378 27 160
IsaMill™ 3000 10 300

TABLE 8.5
Comparison of media size for different grinding methods.
Mill type Media size (mm) Number of media/m³ Media surface area (m2/m3)
Ball 20 177 000 222
Tower 12 818 000 370
IsaMill 2 176 500 000 2200

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 CHAPTER 8 t STIRRED MILLS

TABLE 8.6
Horizontal stirred mill – IsaMill.
Volume Power Capacity Feed size range Product size Power intensity
(L) (kW) (t/h) (mm) range (μm) (kW/m3)
100 75 8 <1 5–50 750
500 200 25 <1 5–50 400
1000 500 50 <1 5–50 500
5000 1500 150 <1 5–80 300
10 000 3000 300 <1 5–100 300
50 000 8000 800 <1 30–150 160

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 CHAPTER 8 t STIRRED MILLS

FIG 8.14 – Horizontal stirred wet AHM mill and stirrer (images courtesy Hosokawa Alpine).

TABLE 8.7
Horizontal stirred Hosokawa Alpine AHM ball mill.
Chamber volume (L) Power (kW) Throughput (t/h)
5 7.5 0.01–0.05
17 22 0.04–0.2
65 45 0.08–0.4
132 75 0.15–0.8
221 110 0.2–1
516 200 0.4–2
1056 316 0.6–3

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122 Comminution Handbook | Spectrum Series 21

 CHAPTER 8 t STIRRED MILLS

FIG 8.15 – Wet agitated ball mill ANR – schematic and production scale mill (images courtesy Hosokawa Alpine).

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Comminution Handbook | Spectrum Series 21 123

 CHAPTER 8 t STIRRED MILLS

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BIBLIOGRAPHY
Enderle, 8 :RRGDOO 3 'XII\ 0 DQG -RKQVRQ 1 :  6WLUUHG PLOO WHFKQRORJ\ IRU UHJULQGLQJ
0F$UWKXU 5LYHU DQG 0RXQW ,VD ]LQFOHDG RUHV LQ Proceedings XX International Mineral
Processing Congress $DFKHQ ² 6HSWHPEHU YROXPH  SS  *0'% *HUPDQ\ 
Hosokawa Alpine,  +andEooN oI PoZder and Particle Processing  S
Hosokawa Alpine,  )LQH LPSDFW PLOOV DQG FODVVLÀHU PLOOV >RQOLQH@ $YDLODEOH IURP KWWSV
ZZZKRVRNDZDDOSLQHFRPSRZGHUSDUWLFOHSURFHVVLQJPDFKLQHVÀQHLPSDFWPLOOVDQG
FODVVLÀHUPLOOV! >$FFHVVHG  -XQH @
Kwade, $ DQG 6FKZHGHV -  :HW FRPPLQXWLRQ LQ VWLUUHG PHGLD PLOOV .21$ PoZder and
Particle Journal ²
Pease, - ' <RXQJ 0 ) &XUU\ ' DQG -RKQVRQ 1 :  ,PSURYLQJ ÀQHV UHFRYHU\ E\ JULQGLQJ
ÀQHU LQ Proceedings MetPlant 2004 Conference SS ² 7KH $XVWUDODVLDQ ,QVWLWXWH RI 0LQLQJ
DQG 0HWDOOXUJ\ 0HOERXUQH 
Rule, & 0  6WLUUHG PLOOLQJ ² QHZ FRPPLQXWLRQ WHFKQRORJ\ LQ WKH 3*0 LQGXVWU\ The Journal
of the 6outhern $frican Institute of Mining and Metallurgy ²
Rumpf, +  3UREOHPV RI VFLHQWLÀF GHYHORSPHQW LQ SDUWLFOH WHFKQRORJ\ ORRNHG XSRQ IURP D
SUDFWLFDO SRLQW RI YLHZ PoZder Technology ²

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LQWHUQHW 7KH FRPSDQLHV DUH
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124 Comminution Handbook | Spectrum Series 21

 HOME

Chapter 9

MILL LINERS
Spike Taylor, Matthew Fitzsimons,
Cathy Hewett and John Russell

THE ROLE OF LINERS IN TUMBLING MILLS

Particle breakage occurs in a tumbling mill when the mass of solid particles and grinding
balls is detached by gravity from the rising shell of the rotating mill and tumbles onto
the toe of the charge.
Particles are broken down by impact, abrasion and attrition in the charge with the
majority of impact breakage in the toe area. The mill shell and mill ends are abraded if
they are unprotected and in extreme circumstances, this may lead to the destruction of
the mill as shown in Figure 9.1.

FIG 9.1 – Shell cracking that may develop with inadequate lining (image courtesy Metso).

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 CHAPTER 9 t MILL LINERS

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FIG 9.2 – The operating cost of liners relative to media and energy (image courtesy Metso).

VARIATIONS IN LINERS FOR ORE MILLS

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 CHAPTER 9 t MILL LINERS

This also allows the opportunity to reduce the number of bolts per liner. These designs
provide great cost beneÀts to the operation as lost operating time reduces production
and decreases revenue.
The four important process objectives in mill liner design are 5oyston, 200 :
1. providing the key between the mill charge and the mill shell for charge motion
2. maximising the rate of delivery of thrown grinding media at the toe of the charge to
gain the best milling action
3. avoiding liner and ball damage
4. providing an economic linerwear life.
Shell liner design has been driven in the past by practical operating experiences; for
example, variations of lifter heights, liner spacing and lifter angles all change variables such
as grinding ball trajectories and chargelifting rates, each of which affects mill performance.
Many types of liners are currently available, some of which are now discussed.

MATERIALS OF CONSTRUCTION
The selection of material used for mill liners is dependent on the liner design and
application conditions such as ore type, size of the mill, corrosion environment, size of
balls or ore and mill speed. The most common materials used for mill liner construction
are pearliticchromium molybdenum steel, highchromium white iron, synthetic and
natural rubber and combinations of metallic and rubber materials. General properties
and corresponding applications for each of these are given.
Pearlitic-chromium molybdenum (Cr-Mo) steel has excellent wear characteristics with good
impactabrasion resistance and is generally used for semiautogenous grinding SAG
mill liners. The carbon content is at or slightly greater than the eutectoid composition on
the ironcarbon phase diagram, resulting in a microstructure of Ànegrained pearlite with
varying amounts of hypereutectoid carbides. Pearlitic &rMo steel reTuires controlled
cooling during heat treatment to avoid the formation of hard and brittle martensite or
bainite. Pearlitic &rMo steel work hardens slightly from impact in service, resulting
in a harder surface with a softer and tougher core of the casting. Pearlitic &rMo steel
can have a hardness from 300 to 400 %rinell hardness number %+1 due to variations
of carbon and chromium contents, which can be modiÀed to increase or decrease the
hardness and toughness. A lower carbon content is used when slightly greater impact
resistance is reTuired, such as for discharge grates. A higher carbon content is used for
thinner section liners and applications with less impact that reTuire a higher hardness
for abrasion resistance.
Steel liners have been used in ball mills since they became common in the late 19th
century. They are a medium cost and are the heaviest of all designs so they reTuire a
liner handler. An indication of the market size for these liners is that &,T,&+,& in &hina
has a dedicated factory to manufacture 50 000 t/a of chrome molybdenum steel liners.
High-chromium white iron is considered to have superior abrasion and corrosion
resistance, although it is considered a brittle material. +ighchromium white iron
has a microstructure consisting of iron and alloy carbides in a matrix of tempered
martensite. The hardness, abrasion resistance and fracture toughness depend on the
speciÀc chemical composition and heat treatment used in order to control the carbide
formation as well as the matrix structure and composition. +ighchromium white iron

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 CHAPTER 9 t MILL LINERS

generally has a hardness of 00 %+1 or greater resulting in superior abrasion resistance.
The excellent abrasion resistance results in a sacriÀce of toughness, so highchromium
white iron is generally used in autogenous grinding AG mills or ball mills where high
impact resistance is not reTuired.
Fabrication of steel mill liners is a broad subject that will not be covered in this book;
however, a few points concerning production processes will be mentioned because
they are necessary to ensure good Tuality liners. The mould designs are checked for
soundness of liner product using 3D modelling packages such as MAGMASOFT®,
which simulates both the Àlling of the mould plus the solidiÀcation pattern of the
molten metal. 8ltrasonic testing still needs to be used to conÀrm the absence of porosity
inside the liners. Chemical analyses are carried out as well as heat treatment to obtain
the correct microstructure and the best through hardness. Dimensional checks need to
be done to ensure ease of Àtment during the reline.
Rubber (elastomer) mill liners are lighter in weight than metal liners and are a wear
resistant alternative Figure 9.3a . 5ubber for a mill liner should have an elongation of
450 to 00 per cent, a tensile strength of around 1.5–20 MPa and a hardness of between
55 and 0 durometer on the A scale. The properties of rubber allow rubber mill liners to
process hard ore without cracking. The sound dampening effect results in the mill being
less noisy. Installation and the removal of rubber liners is considered easier and more
Áexible due to the weight of the liners. Attachment is done by using aluminium or steel
tracks moulded into the bottom of the lifter bars, which in turn clamp the plates into
place. Forged Tbolts speciÀc to the tracks bolt the rubber lifters to the mill shell. Design
of rubber mill liners can utilise the same methods and programs.
These type of liners were introduced in the late 1930s, and are the lightest of all designs
and have a relatively low to medium cost. They are used in small to mediumsized mills
and can be installed easily. Many improvements in rubber compounds have been made
over the years; nanotechnology research should further improve wear life in the future.
SpeciÀc formulations can be used for different applications, such as a chemicalresistant
rubber for mills that have diesel added to the pulp.
Composites utilising a steel insert achieve a combination of excellent overall toughness
with abrasion resistance in particular sections of the liner Figure 9.3b . These inserts can
be CrMo castings or Tuench and tempered plate, normally 5 mm thick. An increased
wear life for chromium molybdenum steel composite liners can be achieved using high
chromium white iron inserts in lowimpact areas. Metalfaced rubber liners with designs

A B

FIG 9.3 – Mills equipped with (A) rubber and (B) composite liners (image courtesy Metso).

128 Comminution Handbook | Spectrum Series 21