CHAPTER I

SIMPLE STRESS ANALYSIS

Objectives:

At the end of this chapter, the students should be able to: Classify simple stress; and solve
worded problems relating to the classification of simple stress, torsion and thin-walled pressure
vessel.

INTRODUCTION

This chapter provides a very useful introduction to the concepts of various types of stresses
as encountered by the mechanical engineering students. In engineering practice, the machine parts
are subjected to various forces. The different forces acting on a machine part produces various
types of stresses, which will be discussed in detail. Factors of safety are introduced, examined and
their importance is explored with sample calculations included.

DEFINITIONS:

Stress – considered as the internal resistance of the material to the action of external force.

Ultimate Stress – stress that would cause failure.

Yield Stress – maximum stress without causing deformation.

Ductile Materials – is one whose resistance of sliding is smaller than its resistance to separation.
Failure takes place by yielding (bending or stretching). It will withstand large strains
before the specimen ruptures. Steel and Aluminum, copper, tungsten are usually fall in the
class of ductile material.

Brittle Materials – is one whose resistance to separation is less than its resistance to sliding. Failure
takes place by fracture. Fracture at much lower strains and it fail suddenly without much
warning. Glass, cast iron, and ceramics fall in the class of brittle materials.

Strength – ability of a material to withstand lad without failure

Yield Strength – maximum stress that can be applied without permanent deformation of the test
specimen

Ultimate Strength (Tensile Strength)- is the maximum stress value obtained on a stress-strain
curve.Maximum tensile stress that a material can withstand before rupture.

Design Stress – stress used in the determining the size of a member (Allowable stress or less).

Yield Strength – maximum stress that can be applied without permanent deformation of the test
specimen

Ultimate Strength (Tensile Strength)- is the maximum stress value obtained on a stress-strain
curve.

Modulus of Elasticity/ Young’s Modulus - The ratio of stress to strain during elastic deformation
when material is under uniaxial tension. In terms of the stress-strain diagram, the modulus
of elasticity is the slope of the stress-strain curve in the range of linear proportionality of
stress to strain. Also known as Young's modulus.

Stiffness – ability to resist deformation. (difficult to bend)

Toughness – ability to withstand shock load without breaking. (strong and not brittle)

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 CLASSIFICATION OF SIMPLE STRESS

A. Normal Stress – develops when a force is applied perpendicular to the cross-sectional area
of the material.

Two Types of Normal Stress

1. Tensile Stress – if the force is going to pull the material. One that causes an increase
in length of the bodies.

St = Tensile stress

𝐹
= MPa; PSI or KSI
𝐴𝑡

The units for stress are a\ways force per unit area. Common units in the U.S. Customary
system and the Sl metric systein follow.

U.S. Customarry Units SI Metric Units

lb/in2 = psi N/m2 = pascal = Pa
kips/in2- = ksi N/mm2 = megapascal = 106 Pa = MPa
Note: 1.0 kip - 10001b
- contraction of kilo-lbs
Example:
1.0 ksi = 1000 psi

For Design Calculation:

St = Sdt = Design Tensile Stress

**For Ductile Materials, Sdt May be Based on the Yield Strength or Ultimate Strength

Based on the Yield Strength;

𝑆𝑦𝑡
Sdt = where: Syt = yield strength for tensile
𝑁𝑠𝑦
Nsy = Factor of Safety based on yield strength
Based on the Ultimate Strength;
𝑆𝑢𝑡
Sdt = where: Sut = ultimate strength for tensile
𝑁𝑠𝑢
Nsu = Factor of Safety based on ultimate strength

Sy = yield strength from page 566-582 from the book

Design of Machine Elements 4th Edition by Virgil
Su = ultimate strength Moring Faires

For Nsy and Nsu (Factor of Safety Based on Ultimate Strength)

- Depending on the nature of loading refer to Table 1.1

TABLE 1.1
FACTORS OF SAFETY (DESIGN FACTORS)
STEEL, CAST IRON,
TIMBER
Ductile materials Brittle metals
KIND OF LOAD Based on
Based on yield
Ultimate Based on Ultimate Strength
Strength
Strength
Dead Load, N = 3-4 1.5-2 5-6 7
Repeated, one direction, gradual (mild 6 3 7-8 10
shock),*, N =
Repeated, reversed, gradual (mild shock), * N 8 4 10-12 15
=
Shock, * N = 10-15 5-7 15-20 20
The factors of safety marked with * are primarily for beginners’ use, although they are traditional values. They should not be used when
a detailed accounting is made of the variable loading, stress concentration. Acceptable for use with typical strengths.

2
**For Brittle Materials, Sdt can be only based on the Ultimate Strength, have no Yield Strength
(Based on Table 1.1pg 20,Design of Machine elements by Faires)

Based on the Ultimate Strength;

𝑆𝑢𝑡
Sdt = where: Sut = ultimate strength for tensile
𝑁𝑠𝑢
Nsu = Factor of Safety based on ultimate strength
Sdt = design tensile stress

2. Compressive Stress – develops when the material is being compressed by two

opposing forces. It is one that causes a decrease in the length of a body.

Sc = Compressive stress
𝐹
= MPa; PSI or KSI
𝐴
For Design Calculation:

Sc = Sdc = Design Compressive Stress

For Ductile Materials, Sdc may be based on the Yield Strength or Ultimate Strength

Based on the Yield Strength;

𝑆𝑦𝑐
Sdc = where: Syc = yield strength for compressive
𝑁𝑠𝑦
Nsy = Factor of Safety based on yield strength

Based on the Ultimate Strength;

𝑆𝑢𝑐
Sdc =
𝑁𝑠𝑢

For Brittle Materials, Sdt can be only based on the Ultimate Strength, have no Yield
Strength (Based on Table 1.1)

Based on the Ultimate Strength;

𝑆𝑢𝑐
Sdc = where: Suc = ultimate strength for tensile
𝑁𝑠𝑢
Nsu = Factor of Safety based on ultimate strength

Deformation, 𝛿 – the total change of length in a uniform body caused by an axial load.
𝐹𝐿
𝛿= where: E = modulus of elasticity
𝐴𝐸
Relation between Elongation or Strain and Deformation
𝛿
𝜖= where: 𝛿 = deformation
𝐿
L = original Length
Also, Stress = Strain (Hookes Law)
Sd = Sdt = E 𝜖 where: E = modulus of elasticity

Deformation, 𝛿 – the total change of length in a uniform body caused by an axial load.
𝐹𝐿
𝛿= where: E = modulus of elasticity
𝐴𝐸

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 B. Shearing Stress – develops if the applied force is parallel to the resisting area. When a
body is subjected to two equal and opposite forces acting tangentially across the resisting
section, as a result of which the body tends to shear off the section, then the stress induced
is called shear stress.

a. Single Shear / Simple Shear F

F

𝑇𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 𝐹 𝜋
Ss = = where: As = 𝑑2
𝑅𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝐴𝑠 4
With 3 rivets:
𝐹
3
Ss =
𝐴𝑠

b. Double Shear F
F
F
𝐹
Ss = where: A = πr2
2𝐴

c. Punching shear (punching of hole)

𝐹
Ss = where:As = πDt D = dia ; t = thick
𝐴𝑠

For Design Calculation:

Ss = Sds = Design Shearing Stress

For Ductile Materials:

Based on the Yield Strength;

𝑆𝑦𝑠
Sds=
𝑁𝑠𝑦

Based on the Ultimate Strength;

𝑆𝑢𝑠
Sds = Note: Su = Ss(d) = 0.75Su (From Table AT 7)
𝑁𝑠𝑢

WORKING STRESS
When designing machine parts, it is desirable to keep the stress lower than the maximum
or ultimate stress at which failure of the material takes place. This stress is known as the working
stress or design stress. It is also known as safe or allowable stress.

Note: By failure it is not meant actual breaking of the material. Some machine parts are said to
fail when they have plastic deformation set in them, and they no more perform their function
satisfactory.

FACTOR OF SAFETY / DESIGN FACTOR, N

When designing a component or structure that will be under some form of stress, a Factor
of Safety has to be considered to make certain that the working stresses keep within safe limits. It
is defined, in general, as the ratio of the maximum stress to the working stress. Mathematically;

𝑀𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑐𝑎𝑢𝑠𝑒 𝑓𝑎𝑖𝑙𝑢𝑟𝑒

N= =
𝑊𝑜𝑟𝑘𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑜𝑟 𝐷𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑔𝑛 𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔

In case of ductile materials e.g. mild steel, where the yield point is clearly defined, the
factor of safety is based upon the yield point stress. In such cases,

𝑌𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑 𝑃𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡 𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠

Factor of safety, N =
𝑊𝑜𝑟𝑘𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑜𝑟 𝐷𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑔𝑛 𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠

4
 In case of brittle materials e.g. cast iron, the yield point is not well defined as for ductile
materials. Therefore, the factor of safety for brittle materials is based on ultimate stress.

𝑈𝑙𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠
∴ Factor of safety, N =
𝑊𝑜𝑟𝑘𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑜𝑟 𝐷𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑔𝑛 𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠

Note: This relation may also be used for ductile materials. The above relations for factor of
safety are for static loading.

Determining the Factor of Safety

The size of the factor of safety chosen depends on the range of conditions relating to the
function of the component or structure when in service, some of them are listed below.
1. Possible overloads 3. Deterioration due to wear, corrosion, etc
2. Possible defects in material 4. The amount of damage that might occur if there is failure

Steel Designation System

General Form of Designation AISI X X XX

Carbon content
Specific alloy in the group
Alloy group: indicates major
alloying element
AISI – American Iron and Steel Institute

Examples: AISI C1020

0.20% carbon
No other major alloying element besides carbon
Carbon steel
Method of manufacturing the carbon grade (B,C,D,E)

AISI 4340

0.40% carbon
Nickel and chromium added in specified concentration
Molybdenum alloy steel

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6
FLEXURAL STRESS / BENDING STRESS – caused by the bending moment or
stress caused by a moment or a couple.

Sb = Sf = Sn = Bending stress = flexural stress

𝑀𝑐 𝑀 𝐼
Sb = = where: z=
𝐼 𝑧 𝑐

M = bending moment; N-mm; lb-in

c = distance from the neutral axis to the outermost fiber; mm; in.
I = centroidal moment of inertia/ moment of inertia; mm4; in4
𝑏ℎ3
= for rectangular section (Table AT 1 pg 563)
12
𝑀𝑐 𝑀
NOTE: ** Cast iron with symmetric section, Sf = 1.9Su = =
𝐼 𝑧

TORSION – twisting moment caused by twisting forces in a steel shaft.

𝑆𝑑 𝐽
T = = Sdz’
𝑐
Where:
T = torque; in-lb; in-kips; ft-lb
Sd = shearing (torsional stress); psi or ksi
J = polar moment of inertia
𝜋𝐷4
= for cicular area (solid), Table AT 1 pg. 563
32
c = distance from the neutral axis to the point where the stress is desired
Usually;
𝜋𝐷3
Z’ = for circular area
16
𝜋𝐷3
Therefore; T = Sd
16
For Solid Shaft:
16𝑇
Sd =
𝜋𝐷3
Also; For Hollow/ Solid Shaft:
𝑇𝐿
𝜃=
𝐽𝐺
𝜋
for hollow Shaft: J= (𝐷0 4 - 𝐷𝑖 4 )
32

𝜋𝐷4
for solid shaft: J=
32
where:
𝜃 = angle of twist; (rad)
T = torque
L = distance
J = polar moment of inertia
G = modulus of elasticity in shear/ modulus of rigidity/transverse modulus
= 11.5 x 106 psi for steel

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RELATION OF POWER, TORQUE, SPEED
P = 2ΠTn
Where:
P = power transmitted; KW; HP
T = torque; KN-m; ft-lb; in-lb
n = speed; rpm
𝑓𝑡−𝑙𝑏
1 HP = 33,000 = 0.746 KW
𝑚𝑖𝑛
Power in English:
𝑇𝑛
HP = where: T = in-lb n = rpm P=HP
63,025

Power in Metric:
𝑇𝑛
HP = where: T = N-mm n = rpm P=KW
9,550,000
For Design Calculation; Sd
𝑆𝑦𝑠 𝑆𝑢
Sd = = where Su = Ss(d) from Table AT 7 pg. 576
𝑁𝑦 𝑁𝑢
Sys = 0.6Sy From Table AT 7 pg.576

THIN-WALLED PRESSURE VESSEL – is one whose plate thickness is small compared

to the diameter of the vessel.

𝒕
**If the ratio of wall thickness to the inside diameter ( ) is less than 0.07 then the cylinder is
𝑫𝒊
consider thin wall.

For Tangential Stress ( Cicumferentially)/ Hoop Stress)

𝑝𝐷𝑖 𝑝𝐷𝑖
St = ; t=
2𝑡 2𝑆𝑡

For Joint Efficiency, 𝝁:

𝒎𝒊𝒏𝒊𝒎𝒖𝒎 𝒔𝒕𝒓𝒆𝒏𝒈𝒕𝒉 𝒐𝒇 𝒋𝒐𝒊𝒏𝒕 𝑝𝐷𝑖

𝝁= =
𝒔𝒕𝒓𝒆𝒏𝒈𝒕𝒉 𝒐𝒇 𝒔𝒐𝒍𝒊𝒅𝒆 𝒑𝒂𝒍𝒕𝒆 2𝜇𝑆𝑡

For Logitudinal Stress

𝑝𝐷𝑖 𝑝𝐷𝑖
SL = ; t=
4𝑡 4𝑆𝐿

Introducing Factor of Safety:

𝑆𝑡 𝑝𝐷
=
𝐹.𝑆. 2𝑡

Relationship of SL to St:

8
 St = 2SL
Where:

P = internal Pressure; pressure intensity

Di = inside diameter = Do – 2t where t = wall thickness
t = plate thickness
𝝁 = joint efficiency

THICK-WALLED PRESSURE VESSEL – the thick cylinder has a stress in the radial
direction as well as circumferential and longitudinal stress.

𝒕
**If the ratio of wall thickness to the inside diameter ( ) is greater than 0.07 then the cylinder
𝑫𝒊
is consider thick- wall.

➢ Using Lame’s Equation for internal pressure

𝐷 𝑆𝑡 +𝑃𝑖
t= [√ – 1]
2 𝑆𝑡 −𝑃𝑖
where:
t = wall thickness
D = inside diameter
St = tangential stress
Pi = internal pressure

REFERENCES

Books

Abdul Mubeen. (2005), Machine Design, 4th Edition. Khanna Publishers, New
Delhi.

Khurmi,R.S. & Gupta, J.K. (2005), A Textbook of Machine Design (SI Units).14th
Edition. Eurasia Publishing House (PVT) Ltd. New Delhi

Faires, Virgil Moring. (1969). Design of Machine Elements. 4th Edition.

McMillan Company New York.

Spotts, M.F. (1985), Design of Machine Elements, 6th Edition. New Jersey:
Prentice Hall, Inc.