SOIL - MECHANICS-CH8-Consolidation - Sett Mtu

SOIL MECHANICS
LECTURES
FOR 3rd CLASS – CIVIL ENG. DEPT.
Consolidation of Soil
1
SOIL MECHANICS LECTURES – 3RD CLASS – CIVIL ENG.
DEPT.
CHAPTER EIGHT
CONSOLIDATION OF CLAY
2
SOIL MECHANICS- KCE3241
The main items in this lecture are:
ONE DIMENSIONAL CONSOLIDATION OF CLAY
Total Settlement Settlement vs Time
Sc
Average Degree of
eo Cons. At Depth
H Degree of
U
mv . Cons
av Sc Z
Cc Uav uo
Ce Tv ue
σο Cv Tv
σf
3
INTRODUCTION
When saturated clay soil is loaded undrained, the pore pressures
increase. Then, under site conditions, the excess pore pressures
dissipate and water leaves the soil, resulting in consolidation
settlement. This process takes time, and the rate of settlement
decreases over time. In sandy soils that are highly permeable, the
drainage caused by the increase in the pore water pressure is
completed immediately.
q
q
ΔH
’σi ’σi
us us + u e σi ’ + q
us
4
INTRODUCTION
So, the consolidation is the

gradual reduction in volume of a
fully saturated soil of low
coefficient of permeability due to
the dissipation of the excess
pore water pressure.
The amount of settlement which
occurs in a given time depends
on the
1. permeability of the soil
2. length of the drainage path
3. compressibility of the soil 5
ONE-DIMENSIONAL CONSOLIDATION (OEDOMETER TEST)
THEOR
Y
A simple one-dimensional
consolidation model consists of
rectilinear element of soil subject to
vertical changes in loading and
through which vertical (only)
seepage flow is taking place.
There are three variables:

1. the excess pore pressure (ue)
2. the depth of the element in the layer (z)
3. the time elapsed since application of the loading (t)
6
THEOR
Y
Main assumptions of the theory: -
• The total stress on the element is assumed to remain
constant.
• The coefficient of volume compressibility (mv) is assumed
to be constant.
• The coefficient of permeability (k) for vertical flow is
assumed to be constant.
7
THE OEDOMETER TEST
Vertical static load increments

are applied at regular time
intervals (e.g. 12, 24, 48 hr.). The
load is doubled with each
increment up to the required
maximum (e.g. 25, 50, 100, 200,
400, 800 kPa). During each load
stage thickness changes are
recorded against time.
8
THE OEDOMETER TEST
A plot of settlement ΔH1 σ’3

against time for each
Settlement
stage of the test, the ΔH2
σ’2
rate of settlement may

ΔH3 σ’1
be predicted, as in
Figure below.
Time
9
THE OEDOMETER TEST

A relationship between (e & σ’), measured at the end of each (24) hours
when (u) is assumed to be zero, as in Figures below
10
THE OEDOMETER TEST
:Coefficient of Compressibility (av)
from typical plot of (e-σ’): av in (cm2/kg)

Coefficient of Volume Change (mv):
mv is volume change per unit volume per

unit increase in σ’ (m2/kN).
11
THE OEDOMETER TEST
Compression Index (Cc):
from e - log(s’) : -
Expansion Index (Ce) or Unloading

Index (Cr):
Notes: -
• The empirical correlation between (L.L. & Cc),
Cc = 0.009 (L.L.-10)
• The empirical correlation between (Cc & Cr), Cr = 0.1 Cc
12
TOTAL CONSOLIDATION
At end of the consolidation (dissipation of SETLEMENT
the water from pores), the reduction in volume per
unit volume of clay: -
Assuming the condition of no lateral strain, Δσ = Δσ’ dZ dSc

after complete consolidation, this will cause a reduction
dSc: -
13
TOTAL CONSOLIDATION
SETLEMENT
If mv and Δσ’ assumed constant with depth, then: -
OR
OR Where σf = σo + Δσ
14
TOTAL CONSOLIDATION
SETLEMENT
Example 1: if the initial void ratio of a clay is e o = 0.9 at initial
pressure σ o=95.8 kN/m2, and the compression index of that soil is
equal (Cc)=0.052, H=4 m thick, L.L.=42 %. If the clay layer is loaded
with infinite load of Δσ=287.5 kN/m 2, calculate the amount of total
settlement of the clay.
15
TOTAL CONSOLIDATION
SETLEMENT
Example 2: for the soil profile shown in the figure, fill was applied on the natural
ground level. Find the total consolidation settlement.
γ = 15 kN/m3 , H = 3.5 m
1m Sand, γ=14 kN/m 3 W.T.
3m Sand
γ=17 kN/m 3
Clay
3.5 γ=19.5 kN/m3 , eo=0.9, Cc=0.2,
m Cr=0.02, Cv=0.5 m 2 /year
Sand
16
TOTAL CONSOLIDATION
PRECONSOLIDATION PRESSURE (σc or Pc)
SETLEMENT
A soil in the field at some depth has been subjected to a certain maximum
effective past pressure in its geologic history. This maximum effective past pressure may
be more, equal to or less than the existing effective overburden pressure at that time of
sampling.
Cassagrande proposed an empirical construction to obtain from the (e – log σ’)
curve for an over-consolidation clay, the maximum effective vertical stress that has been
acted on the clay in past referred to as the pre-consolidation pressure (σ’ c ), and the
overburden pressure (σ’ o) is the vertical effective stress acting at any specific point in the
present time.
: Normally Consolidated Clay (N.C.)
: Pre-consolidated Clay (Over-Consolidated, O.C.)
Under Consolidation:
Rc = OCR = … Over-Consolidation Ratio

17
TOTAL CONSOLIDATION
SETLEMENT
FINDING 4
e 2
to find the σ’c follow 3
the below steps, from 1
the graph of e-log
σ’: -
σ’ o σ’ c Log σ'
18
TOTAL CONSOLIDATION
SETLEMENT
General Cases of Settlement Calculation with
Pc: -
1. when
19
TOTAL CONSOLIDATION
SETLEMENT
Pc: -
2. when
there are two cases: -

a. when
20
TOTAL CONSOLIDATION
SETLEMENT
Pc: -
b. when
21
TOTAL CONSOLIDATION
SETLEMENT
Ex: 3- for the same Ex. 2, find the total settlement if the clay had been
pre-consolidated to an average pressure of 300 kN/m2.
σo =
σc = 300 kN/m2
σc σo
22
EX: In the other case, if the external load change to square footing with
side length of 3 m and q=200 kN/m2, find the total consolidation
settlement.
23
DEGREE OF CONSOLIDATION (TIME-RATE)
The equations of total consolidation settlement do not provide any

information regarding the rate of primary consolidation. Terzaghi (1925)
proposed the first theory to consider the rate of one-dimensional consolidation
for saturated clay soils.
The mathematical derivations are based on the following six assumptions:
1. the clay-water system is homogeneous,
2. saturation is complete,
3. compressibility of water is negligible,
4. compressibility of soil grains is negligible (but soil grains rearrange),
5. the flow of water is in one direction only (that is, in the direction of
compression), and
6. Darcy's law is valid.
24
The process of consolidation (or
swell) for one dimensional Combining the second
consolidation is governed by: - and third equations: -
1. the equations of equilibrium for an
element,
Suppose that the total vertical stress

in the soil at a depth (z) is
increase from (s o ) to (s 1 ) and But, ht = he + u/gw = he
there is no lateral strain. + 1/gw (uss + ue )
2. Stress – Strain relations for the Where: -
mineral skeleton,
he : elevation head,
uss: steady state pore
3. A continuity equation for the fluid pressure (static state),
flow
ue : excess pore pressure.
25
But the pore water Where, Cv: Coefficient of
pressure and elevation Consolidation.
varies linearly with depth, i. We can express the
e.,: - effective stress in terms of
pore pressure and total
stress, and: -
steady state (no change with

time)
Basic Consolidation Equation
26
The solution will be for uniform initial excess pore pressure. It is the
simplest case of consolidation is the one – dimensional problem in
which: -
1. The total stress is constant with time ,
2. The initial excess pore pressure is uniform with depth
3. There is a drainage at both the top and bottom of the consolidating layer .
For an element of soil at a particular depth (z) in the clay layer, the
progress of consolidation process under a particular total stress
increment can be expressed in terms of voids ratio.
where: -
Uz : the degree of consolidation at a particular instant of time at depth (z),
e o: void ratio before the start of consolidation,
e 1: void ratio after the start of consolidation,
e: void ratio at any specific time.
27
If (e – s’) curve is assumed

to be linear over the stress
range in question as
shown in figure: -
28
Terzaghi's Solution
The general solution is obtained for an
overall (average) degree of consolidation
(Uav) using non-dimensional factors.
Average Degree of Consolidation

(Uav)
29
(Uav) versus time factor (Tv)

Uave, % 50 60 70 80 90
Tv 0.197 0.287 0.403 0.567 0.848
When Ut < 0.6, use Tv = (π/4).U2

When Ut > 0.6, use:
Tv = 1.781 – 0.933. Log (100 – U)
30
Time Factor (Tv):
1. An open layer, a permeable layer both above and below (d = H/2)

2. A half-closed layer, a permeable layer either above or below (d = H)
3. Vertical sand drains, horizontal drainage (d = L/2).
31
Example 4: for the information of Ex. 2, find the settlement six months
after fill application.
Total Sc=
Find U at six months use figure or equations
Tv = (Cv.t/d2 )
Tv = (0.5*0.5/1.752 ) =
From figure, U =
Sc6 months = U * Sctotal =
32
Example 5: A 5m thick saturated soil stratum has a compression index of
0.25 and coefficient of permeability 3.2x10 -3 mm/sec. if the void ration is 1.9 at
vertical stress of 0.15 N/mm2, compute the void ratio when the vertical stress is
increased to 0.2 N/mm2. Also calculate settlement due to above stress increase
and time required for 50% consolidation.
SOL. (Cc=(eo-e1)/(logσ1-logσo),
e1=1.869,
Sc=53.8mm,
Tv = 0.196,
mv=(eo-e1)/(1+eo).1/(σ1-σo)= 0.214 mm2/N,
Cv=k/(mv.γw) = 1524 mm2/sec,
t= 53.58 min.)
33
Example 6: A soil sample 20mm thick takes 20 minutes to reach

20% consolidation. Find the time taken for a clay layer 6m thick to
reach 40% consolidation. Assume double drainage in both cases.
SOL.
U=20%,
Tv=0.0314,
Cv=2.617x10-3 mm2/sec,
U=40%,
Tv=0.1257,
t=13 years 258.343 days)
34
For the cases of non

uniform initial excess pore
pressure, for finite loading,
the average degree of
consolidation is
determining from figure (3)
as shown below, each
curve represent some
cases of initial excess
pore pressure as in table
below.
35
Solution Using Parabolic

Isochrones
(Consolidation + Time + Depth)
The following non-dimensional factors are used in order to obtain a solution: -
Degree of consolidation at depth z
Time factor
Drainage path
ratio
36
37
2- For soil profile shown in figure below . A clay layer whose total consolidation settlement
under a given fill is expected to be 20 cm. Find the excess pore water pressure and effective
stress (due to fill) at points A,B,C and D for cases
i. Immediately after application of the fill.
ii. After 20 months of fill application .If the consolidation settlement after 2 months is 4
cm.
iii. After final consolidation was achieved.
38
Determination of Cv From Test Results
1- The Root-Time method
39
Determination of Cv From Test Results
2- The Log-Time method
40
EX: The final consolidation settlement of a layer of clay 5.0 m thick is calculated to be
280mm. The coefficient of consolidation for the loading range is 0.955 mm²/min. There is
two-way drainage, upward and downward. Calculate the time required for (a) 90%
consolidation settlement, (b) a settlement of 100 mm .
(a) Drainage path length, d = 5.0/2 = 2.50 m = 2500 mm

For U90 , T 90 = 0.848. Then
(b) For 100 mm settlement, U t = 100/280 = 0.357

and since Ut < 0.6, Tv = 0.357² x π/4 = 0.100
Then time for 100mm settlement
41
SECONDARY COMPRESSION OR CREEP
In some soils (especially recent

organic soils) one-dimensional
compression continues under
constant loading after all of the
excess pore pressure has
dissipated, i.e. after primary
consolidation has ceased - this is
called secondary compression or
creep.
42
QUESTIONS
1- A 20 mm thick soil sample requires 4 minute to reach 30% degree of consolidation

under two way drainage condition. What will be the time required (in months) to reach 50
% consolidation of 8m thick clay layer of the same properties under two way drainage
condition. (use equations
2 - A temporary fill of 200 kN/m2 were placed on the

surface of the soil shown in figure below. After final
consolidation was achieved, the fill removed and a
circular footing (5 m) in diameter was constructed at 2 m
below the ground surface. Estimate
i. Total consolidation settlement due to fill.
ii. Total consolidation settlement after 85 days of fill
application.
iii. Total heave of the soil surface after of the fill (fill were
removed).
iv. Total consolidation settlement due to footing when
uniform pressure of 100 kN/m 2 on the footing surface.
43
QUESTIONS
3- A saturated soil sample 20 mm thick was tested in an Oedometer (double drainage)
under a stress increment of 100 kn/m2 . the sample had compressed by 1.5 mm at t 90
which was 24 minutes after stressing. Calculate the coefficient of volume change (mv),
the coefficient of consolidation (cv).
4- A bed of sand 10m thick is underlain by a compressible layer of clay 3 m thick under
which lies sand. The water table is at a depth of 4 m below the ground surface. The total
unit weights of sand below and above the water table are 20.5 and 17.7 kN/m3
respectively. The clay has a natural water content of 42%, liquid limit 46% and specific
gravity 2.76. Assuming the clay to be normally consolidated, estimate the probable final
settlement under an average excess pressure of 100 kN/m2 .
44
QUESTIONS
5- For soil profile consists of three layers, top layer, sand soil with unit weight of
17 kN/m3, and thickness of 2 meters, mid layer, clay soil with unit weight of 19
kN/m3, eo=0.9, Cc=0.2, OCR=1.5, and thickness of 5 meters, bottom layer,
sand soil with unit weight of 17 kN/m3, and thickness of 6 meters. Water table
at one meter from surface level.
i. Estimate the total consolidation settlement, caused by application of
square footing of 3 meters each side, and q=200 kN/m 2.
ii. the change in total consolidation settlement if the water table level
lowered two meters,
iii. Estimate the time required, in months, to achieve 50% degree of
consolidation, what is the consolidation settlement?
45

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SOIL MECHANICS

Total Settlement Settlement vs Time

So, the consolidation is the

ONE-DIMENSIONAL CONSOLIDATION (OEDOMETER TEST)

There are three variables:

THE OEDOMETER TEST

Vertical static load increments

THE OEDOMETER TEST

A plot of settlement ΔH1 σ’3

rate of settlement may

THE OEDOMETER TEST

from typical plot of (e-σ’): av in (cm2/kg)

mv is volume change per unit volume per

Expansion Index (Ce) or Unloading

Assuming the condition of no lateral strain, Δσ = Δσ’ dZ dSc

1m Sand, γ=14 kN/m 3 W.T.

: Normally Consolidated Clay (N.C.)

: Pre-consolidated Clay (Over-Consolidated, O.C.)

Rc = OCR = … Over-Consolidation Ratio

there are two cases: -

DEGREE OF CONSOLIDATION (TIME-RATE)

The equations of total consolidation settlement do not provide any

Suppose that the total vertical stress

steady state (no change with

Basic Consolidation Equation

If (e – s’) curve is assumed

Average Degree of Consolidation

(Uav) versus time factor (Tv)

When Ut < 0.6, use Tv = (π/4).U2

Time Factor (Tv):

1. An open layer, a permeable layer both above and below (d = H/2)

Sc6 months = U * Sctotal =

Example 6: A soil sample 20mm thick takes 20 minutes to reach

For the cases of non

Solution Using Parabolic

Degree of consolidation at depth z

2- The Log-Time method

(a) Drainage path length, d = 5.0/2 = 2.50 m = 2500 mm

(b) For 100 mm settlement, U t = 100/280 = 0.357

SECONDARY COMPRESSION OR CREEP

In some soils (especially recent

1- A 20 mm thick soil sample requires 4 minute to reach 30% degree of consolidation

2 - A temporary fill of 200 kN/m2 were placed on the

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