COSMOLOGICAL PRINCIPLES ABOUT THE exponential expansion, known as cosmic

UNIVERSE inflation

*Homogenous – the same everywhere 3. Nucleosynthesis

*Isotropic – same in all directions
Assumptions:
1. The universe has no edges
2. The universe has no center
I. The BIGBANG Theory
A. Evidences:
1. Red shifting
A phenomenon in physics where the light or
electromagnetic radiation from an object is shifted
towards longer wavelengths, typically moving towards
the red end of the electromagnetic spectrum. This effect
is commonly observed in astronomical contexts and is a
consequence of the Doppler Effect.
From 3 minutes to 20 minutes
The temperature of the universe falls to the point
where atomic nuclei can begin to form as
protons and neutrons combine (about a billion
degrees) through nuclear fusion to form the nuclei of
the simple elements of hydrogen, helium and lithium
After about 20 minutes, the temperature
and density of the universe has fallen to the point
where nuclear fusion cannot continue.
*COSMOLOGICAL NUCLEOSYNTHESIS
The creation of new atomic nuclei, the centers of
atoms that are made up of protons and neutrons
First occurred within a few minutes of the Big
Bang

The Doppler Effect describes the change in *FORMATION OF ELEMENTS

frequency or wavelength of a wave in relation to an
observer moving relative to its source
2. Cosmic Microwave background
Faint, uniform glow of electromagnetic radiation
that fills the observable universe. It is a crucial element
in understanding the origin and evolution of the cosmos
3. Abundance of light elements
The abundance of light elements refers to the relative
proportions of light atomic nuclei in the observable
universe. These elements, primarily hydrogen and
helium, were formed during the early stages of the
universe, specifically in the first few minutes after
the Big Bang.
Protons fused with neutrons to form deuterium and
tritium nuclei
Deuterium and tritium nuclei fused to form Helium
*SYNTHESIS OF HEAVIER ELEMENTS
6 protons and 6 neutrons fuse, one nucleus of
carbon-12 (C-12 or 12C 6+) is formed
In stars more than twice the sun’s mass, a series
of fusion happened by four and multiples of four
Ex. O – with atomic mass of 16
Ne – with atomic mass 20

II. Events of the BIGBANG

1. Planck Epoch (Planck Era)
From zero to approximately 10-43 seconds
(1 Planck Time)
Closest that current physics can get to the
absolute beginning of time, and very little can be
known about this period
It is hypothesized that the four fundamental
forces (electromagnetism, weak nuclear
force, strong nuclear force and gravity) all have
the same strength, and are possibly even
unified into one fundamental force, held together
by a perfect symmetry which some have likened to
a sharpened pencil standing on its point

2. Inflationary Epoch Mg – with atomic mass of 24

 From 10–36 seconds to 10–32 seconds
 Triggered by the separation of the strong nuclear
force, the universe undergoes an extremely rapid
 The next event in happens when temperature reaches
3.5*109 Si(atomic mass of 28) and Fe(atomic mass of
56)
Some examples of iron-peak elements Ni (atomic
mass of 56) and Co (atomic mass of 56)

4. Recombination/Decoupling
From 240,000 to 300,000 years
As the temperature of the universe falls to around
3,000 degrees (about the same heat as the surface of the
Sun) and its density also continues to fall,
the universe finally becomes transparent to light,
making this the earliest epoch observable today

It releases the photons in the universe which have up

till this time been interacting with electrons and protons
(known as “decoupling”), and these photons (the same
ones we see in today’s cosmic background radiation) can
now travel freely.
By the end of this period, the universe consists
of a fog of about 75% hydrogen and 25% helium,
with just traces of lithium.

5. Dark Age (or Dark Era)

From 300,000 to 150 million years
The period after the formation of the
first atoms and before the first stars is
sometimes referred to as the Dark Age
Although photons exist, the universe at
this time is literally dark, with
no stars having formed to give off light.

6. Star and Galaxy Formation

300 - 500 million years onwards
Gravity amplifies slight irregularities
in the density of the primordial gas and
pockets of gas become more and more
dense, even as the universe continues to
expand rapidly.
These small, dense clouds of
cosmic gas start to collapse under their
own gravity, becoming hot enough to trigger nuclear
fusion reactions between hydrogen atoms, creating the
very first stars.

7. Solar System Formation

8.5 - 9 billion years
Our Sun is a late-generation star, incorporating
the debris from many generations of earlier stars, and it
and the Solar System around it form roughly 4.5 to 5
billion years ago (8.5 to 9 billion years after the Big
Bang).

Today, 13.7 billion years

The expansion of the universe and recycling
of star materials into new stars continues.