FACULTY OF ADMINISTRATIVE SCIENCE & POLICY STUDIES

BACHELOR OF ADMINISTRATIVE SCIENCE (HONS)

ADS560: SOUTHEAST ASIAN AFFAIRS

WRITTEN ASSIGNMENT:
INDONESIAN MALAYSIAN CONFRONTATION DURING COLD-WAR

GROUP 1
(AM2285F)

PREPARED BY:

GROUP MEMBERS STUDENT ID

IYLIA SUHAILAH BINTI AZMI 2021609834

MUHAMMAD HAKIMI BIN OTHMAN 2022859428

MUHAMMAD SYAKIR IMAN BIN MOHD SAIFUL BAHRI 2022868482

NIK MUHAMMAD NAIM SYAHMI BIN NIK MOHD 2022819808

NAJIUB

NUR KAMILLIA BINTI MUZAIYIN 2021870542

ZUR ASYRA ZALFEERA BINTI MOHD ZAKI 2021461442

PREPARED FOR:

DR. AMER FAWWAZ BIN MOHAMAD YASID

ISSUES 2

● Geopolitical conflicts over land ownership: 2

● Sentiment opposing colonialism and imperialism: 3
● Nationalism and the dominance of a certain region: 4
● External Influence mainly the United States 5
IMPACTS 7

● Military and Economic Impact: 7

● Political Instability: 7
● Formation of ASEAN: 8
● Social Impact: 9
CONCLUSION 11

APPENDIX 14
INTRODUCTION

The Indonesian-Malaysian Confrontation was an undeclared conflict that took place between

1963 and 1966. It was a territorial dispute between Indonesia and Malaysia over the creation

of the Federation of Malaysia, which Indonesia opposed (Daud et al., 2021, 136). The decision

by the Federation of Malaya to establish a new Federation of Malaysia on September 16, 1963,

which included the 10 states of Malaya as well as the states of Sabah, Sarawak, Brunei, and

Singapore in north Borneo, was the direct outcome of the Confrontation (Hj Ab Ghani & Paidi,

2013, 130). The conflict was an episode of the Cold War in Asia. According to Mohd Noor

Yazid (2000) with Indonesia receiving indirect support from the Soviet Union and China, while

Malaysia was supported by the Commonwealth of Nations, including the United Kingdom,

Australia, New Zealand, and Canada (As cited in Daud et al., 2021, 137). The conflict was

mainly fought in the border area between Indonesia and East Malaysia on the island of Borneo,

known as Kalimantan in Indonesia (Omar, 2008). The conflict resulted in a Commonwealth

victory, with Indonesia accepting the formation of Malaysia. The conflict also led to the

replacement of Sukarno by Suharto following the coup attempt (Yazid, 2016, 193). The conflict

resulted in a total of 590 deaths and 222 wounded on the Commonwealth side, while Indonesia

suffered 114 military deaths and 181 wounded, and 36 civilian deaths and 53 wounded (Paret

et al., 1986, 806).

1
ISSUES

The Indonesia-Malaysia Confrontation, or Konfrontasi, was a notable confrontation that

occurred in Southeast Asia during the Cold War. The conflict took place between 1963 and

1966, chiefly involving Indonesia, under the leadership of President Sukarno, and Malaysia,

which gained independence in 1963. The core of this dispute revolved around Indonesia's

resistance to the establishment of Malaysia as a new sovereign entity. The following are the

primary factors and other details regarding the causes that contributed to the Indonesia-

Malaysia Confrontation:

● Geopolitical conflicts over land ownership:

The Malaysia-Indonesia clash during the cold war was mainly driven by geopolitical

considerations and tensions between the two countries. While ideology has an impact,

especially in this confrontational setting, land ownership and control over resources are

important underlying factors that drive conflict. The geopolitical conflict between Malaysia

and Indonesia arose due to a number of factors, namely disagreements over the ownership of

Borneo and aspirations to establish control over the Malay Peninsula. The Borneo dispute arose

because of conflicting territorial claims (Phillips, 2019). Both Indonesia and Malaysia assert

historic territorial rights over several areas in Borneo. Indonesia considers North Borneo, now

under British sovereignty and known as Sabah, as well as Sarawak, as part of the Indonesian

archipelago (Phillips, 2019). This assertion stems from the impact of Majapahit and the

historical context of other Malay sultanates in the area (Phillips, 2019). Furthermore, the

Borneo Region has good resources (Reuters, 2011). Borneo has abundant natural resources,

including timber, oil, and minerals (Reuters, 2011). The main driving force for both sides in

this conflict is the desire to control these resources. Another factor is the aspiration to establish

2
the Malay Peninsula. Indonesian President Sukarno embraced Pan-Malaysian aspirations,

aiming to unite all Malays in one entity (Cobb, 2021). Indonesian President Sukarno's ideology

includes the territory of the Malay Peninsula, which Indonesia considers to be culturally and

ethnically linked to their own land (Cobb, 2021). Furthermore, their desire extends to control

the strategically important Straits of Malacca, an important maritime route, which serves as an

additional source of disagreement (Seyedi, 2022). Malaya expressed concern over Indonesia's

communist tendencies during the Confrontation due to possible economic disruption and

regional security implications (Seyedi, 2022).

● Sentiment opposing colonialism and imperialism:

The main reason for the conflict between Malaysia and Indonesia during the Cold War was the

prevailing attitude against colonialism and imperialism. Obviously, this applies to both

countries. There are two different views held by these two countries. Indonesia intends to unite

all Malays into one nation, thus challenging the legacy of colonial history that has divided the

area (Omar, 2008). President Sukarno from Indonesia considered the British control over

several areas in Borneo and Malaya as a remnant of imperialism and aimed to liberate these

regions (Omar, 2008). Furthermore, it is evident that the Indonesian Communist Party (PKI)

supported Sukarno's anti-colonial rhetoric and saw the Confrontation as a way to weaken

Western dominance in the area (Hauswedell, 1973). The author outlined the need for self-

determination for the colonial population and expressed criticism of both the British and

Malayan administrations (Hauswedell, 1973). Indonesian media and propaganda during the

Confrontation often portrayed the conflict as a battle against colonialism and imperialism

(Portal Anzac, 2021). This story is in line with the declaration of "Ganyang Malaysia" by

Indonesian President Sukarno (Portal Anzac, 2021). From Malaysia's point of view, they have

3
concerns about Indonesia's expansion. When achieving independence from Britain in 1957,

Malaya had concerns about Indonesia's intentions during the Confrontation (Omar, 2008).

According to Omar (2008), some Malaysians see Sukarno's Pan-Malaysianism as a secret effort

to control the area. These individuals see the struggle as a way to protect against neo-colonial

principles. Furthermore, there is an inherent communist threat. The Malayan administration

used the Confrontation as a rationale for implementing heightened internal security measures

in response to the Malayan Communist Party (MCP) (Sutter, 1966). The MCP was seen as

allied with Indonesia, and the conflict was framed as a battle against both external and internal

communist dangers (Sutter, 1966).

● Nationalism and the dominance of a certain region:

Beyond the political stage, Yaakop (2010) highlights the military dimensions of the conflict,

detailing the covert operations, border skirmishes, and internal security measures undertaken

by both Indonesia and Malaysia. Sukarno aimed to establish Indonesia as the dominant power

in Southeast Asia. He aspired to assume a leadership role in the process of decolonization and

wield influence over adjacent nations. The establishment of Malaysia posed a significant

obstacle to Indonesia's ambitions in the region, hence fuelling the confrontation. President

Sukarno of Indonesia supported Pan-Malayanism, the idea of a single Malay region that

encompasses all of Southeast Asia. Sukarno's motivations for Konfrontasi were more complex

than mere opposition to Malaysia, highlighting the influence of domestic political struggles

and Cold War tensions (Poulgrain, 2014). Because it saw the Federation as a challenge to its

own regional stature and an obstacle to Pan-Malayan goals, this ideology motivated Indonesia's

hostility to it. Jakarta was further troubled by memories of colonial subjection and a desire to

reaffirm Indonesian leadership in the region (Andaya, 1982). Nationalism, which was already

on the verge of exploding, was fueled by the worry that a federation led by Malaysia would

4
surpass Indonesia's influence in politics and the economy. A different path was taken by Malay

worries across the Straits of Malacca. Fears of political discrimination and cultural absorption

were sparked by the possibility of joining a larger organisation that was dominated by Indonesia

. The proposed union is surrounded by a long shadow of historical conflict and anxieties about

losing economic sovereignty (Andaya, 1982). Many Malay people saw the Federation more as

a means of Indonesian expansionism than as a means of achieving regional unification.

Nonetheless, there is still hope in the tale of nationalism and regional supremacy in the

Indonesian-Malaysian Conflict. Changes in leadership and a practical reordering of priorities

ultimately led to the conflict's resolution, demonstrating the viability of negotiation and

compromise. Even while there are still scars from the past, attempts to promote improved

relations, cultural interchange, and economic cooperation offer hope for a day when regional

identities can coexist and grow without fear of dominance in the future.

● External Influence mainly the United States

The role of the United States in this confrontation was multifaceted and emblematic of the

broader Cold War dynamics in Southeast Asia. One of the key roles played by the United States

was its support for Malaysia as part of its Cold War containment strategy. The U.S. viewed

Southeast Asia as a battleground in the global struggle against communism, and the spread of

communism was a significant concern during this period. The US involvement, while primarily

focused on containing communism, also contributed to the professionalisation of the Malaysian

military and fostered a stronger sense of national identity (Grey, 2005). Malaysia was seen as

an ally in this anti-communist struggle. The U.S. offered diplomatic and political backing to

Malaysia to prevent the further spread of communism in the region. The Indonesian-Malaysian

confrontation, which occurred during the Cold War, marked a significant period of tension in

Southeast Asia. One crucial aspect of this conflict was the involvement of external powers,

5
particularly the United States, whose actions had a profound impact on the dynamics of the

region. During the Cold War era, Southeast Asia was a battleground for ideological and

geopolitical struggles. The establishment of the Federation of Malaysia in 1963 triggered a

hostile response from Indonesia, which viewed the federation as a neocolonial entity (Omar,

2008). This led to a period of intense hostility and sporadic military clashes between the two

nations. The United States' involvement in the confrontation was part of its broader strategy to

counter the spread of communism in the region. The U.S. saw Indonesia's aggressive stance as

a potential threat to the stability of Southeast Asia and aimed to prevent the domino effect of

communist expansion in the region (Dijk, 2021). The involvement of the United States in the

Indonesian-Malaysian confrontation had a lasting impact on regional relations. It exacerbated

existing tensions between Indonesia and the United States, and strained relations between

Indonesia and Malaysia. The long-term implications of this involvement reshaped the

geopolitical landscape of Southeast Asia, influencing alliances and power dynamics in the

region for years to come. The US involvement, while primarily focused on containing

communism, also contributed to the professionalisation of the Malaysian military and fostered

a stronger sense of national identity (Grey, 2005).

6
IMPACTS

● Military and Economic Impact:

The confrontation resulted in a military and economic drain on both Indonesia and Malaysia.

Military resources were diverted towards the conflict, impacting the economies of both

countries. This had long-term implications for their development and international relations. It

might be argued that this conflict does not fit the conventional definition of an open war. The

confrontation between Indonesia and Malaysia is a result of limited military incursions along

the border, publicity campaigns, threats of military force, and diplomatic pressure (Sunarti,

2017, 230). However, there is never open, large-scale fighting in the battle, and military conflict

only happens on a small scale. This conflict declaration came before war demonstrations that

focused more on political issues, and it continued on a smaller scale with economic and military

issues as well. On the economic side, Indonesia has lost its export income. In 1962, about 30

percent of Indonesia’s total export trade of $674 million was shipped to Malaysia. However,

during and after the confrontation, the exports in Malaysia have been as high as 50 percent

(Central Intelligence Agency, 1963). This showed that the confrontation has affected both of

their military power and mostly on their economic side.

● Political Instability:

The conflict led to a period of political instability. It strained diplomatic relations between

Indonesia and Malaysia and affected the stability of the broader Southeast Asian region. This

instability had implications for the political development of both countries and their

neighbouring nations. Internationally, the dispute between the two nations is extremely

concerning because it started when the political tension in the world arose from the Cold War,

which started in Southeast Asia and was characterised by the rise of Chinese Communist forces

and the start of the Vietnam War. There is concern that the confrontation between Indonesia
7
and Malaysia may exacerbate tensions and bring political instability to the area (Brackman,

1966, as cited in Sunarti, 2017, 230). The issue between Indonesia and Malaysia would not be

this serious if it were not because of other parties' involvement. It is shown that the Indonesia-

Malaysia confrontation during the Cold War resulted in political instability between Indonesia

and Malaysia itself.

● Formation of ASEAN:

The conflict highlighted the importance of regional collaboration and conflict resolution in

Southeast Asia. It helped to form the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) in

1967. ASEAN was formed in part in response to regional tensions, to promote regional stability

and collaboration. Murphy (2002) contends that the formation of ASEAN resulted from the

resolution of tensions stemming from the formation of Malaysia. The decision to include

Singapore and the Borneo territories of Brunei, Sabah, and Sarawak into the Malayan

Federation in the early 1960s sparked a series of regional conflicts. Empirical evidence supports

this explanation for ASEAN's emergence. Deep disputes arose in the first half of the 1960s

between Indonesia and Malaysia, and between Malaysia and the Philippines, respectively

(Amer, 1998). Furthermore, the then-existing Southeast Asian sub-regional organisation was

the Association of Southeast Asia (ASA) founded in 1961 with Malaysia, the Philippines, and

Thailand as members, and Maphilindo founded in 1963 with Malaysia, the Philippines, and

Indonesia as members as it failed to contain the two conflict situations (Amer, 1998). The first

conflict arose as a result of Indonesian opposition to the formation of Malaysia in 1963, which

brought together Malaya and the former British territories of Sabah, Sarawak, and Singapore.

In response to the formation of Malaysia, Indonesia implemented a policy known as

Konfrontasi (confrontation) to openly resist the newly formed nation (Amer, 1998).

8
 ● Social Impact:

The Indonesian-Malaysian Confrontation (1963-1966) had significant social impacts, fostering

nationalism and shaping identities in both countries. It heightened patriotism in Malaysia,

promoting a sense of unity against external threats. In Indonesia, it contributed to a rise in anti-

Malaysian sentiments, impacting societal attitudes during the Cold War era. For instance,

according to Sulistyono et al. (2023), there was a refraction of Malay culture, which was

formerly used to demonstrate the two countries' peoples' proximity and connection. This is

reflected in the opinion of young people in both countries that cultural resemblance is no longer

regarded as a strategy for creating links between the two countries. The changing perception

of cultural resemblance among young people in both countries as a tool for developing relations

indicates a shift in societal attitudes. This shift may have an impact on the two countries' social

contacts, relationships, and cultural exchanges. It could have an impact on how individuals in

these nations see one another and engage in cross-cultural activities (Sulistyono et al., 2023).

Similarly, the print and electronic media, which function as information conduits, are not bound

(independent) to disseminate news in a balanced manner but rather choose for their commercial

interests. Other than that, the long-term relations between Malaysia and Indonesia. The conflict

has long-term consequences for Indonesia-Malaysia relations. While the war ended officially

in 1966, it left an impact of mistrust and bad ties between the two countries that took years to

repair. Eventually, both countries pursued mutual understanding and cooperation. Malaysia has

traditionally regarded Indonesia favourably in many ways. Early Malay nationalism, for

example, was motivated by Indonesian progress. Among those extremists were nationalist

figures such as Ahmad Boestamam, Dr Burhanuddin Al Helmy, Ibrahim Haji Yaacob, Othman

Abdullah, and Ishak Haji Muhammad. According to Firdaus Abdullah's statement, "they were

ardent supporters of Greater Indonesia concept, and that their political orientation was

Indonesian oriented." In terms of education, many Malaysian students were sent to Indonesian

9
universities such as Universitas Indonesia, Institut Teknologi Bandung (ITB), Universitas

Gajah Mada, Universitas Hassanudin, and many more in the 1960s and 1970s (Wan Hassan et

al., 2017).

10
CONCLUSION

To conclude, a period of tension and conflict between Indonesia and Malaysia during

the Cold War, roughly from 1963 to 1966, was known as the Indonesian-Malaysian

Confrontation, or Konfrontasi. We could see several issues have been impacted towards the

Malaysia and Indonesia institutions which is an undeclared conflict that took place between

1963 and 1966. Systemic factors contributed to the formation of the Malaysian Federation in

September 1963, given the bipolar nature of the Cold War. However, As a consequence of

internal political developments, specifically the Indonesian Coup of 1965, the bilateral

relationship between Indonesia and Malaysia transformed after April 1967. It contends that,

although the processes of national self-determination started by highlighting the Indo-Malay

fraternity, the political relationship between the two nations has been primarily characterised

by rivalry. Because of the similarities between Indonesia and Malaysia, both relationships

changed dramatically after the 1965 coup. Both countries share a common agenda, vision, and

mission as a result of the involvement of major powers in the Cold War arena. In contrast,

reforms, which had harmed Indonesia-Malaysia relations due to the lack of involvement of

major powers and the international situation, have changed. This is due to the similarities in

Suharto's leadership style and that of his Malaysian counterpart influenced the harmonious

relationship during the Presidency. The US in particular and other Western nations had a big

impact on Indonesia's internal political changes. The Indonesian government decided to

promote diplomatic ties with Malaysia on a foreign level. Lastly, the US's engagement in

Indonesia can be understood as a component of their plan to restrain communism in the region

of Southeast Asia. Therefore, Indonesian Malaysian Confrontation during the Cold War guides

how to handle modern disputes and stresses the significance of resolving grievances and

underlying causes in this new era.

11
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APPENDIX

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