BRIDGE ENGINEERING

Prepared by: Engr. Diana De La Cruz

Faculty Member, College of Engineering
Manuel S. Enverga University Foundation
References:
Tonias, D. E., Zhao, J. J. (2017). Bridge
Engineering (4th Ed.). USA: McGraw-Hill Education.
References:
Tonias, D. E., Zhao, J. J. (2017). Bridge
Engineering (4th Ed.). USA: McGraw-Hill Education.

Barker, R. M., Puckett, J. A. (2013). Design of

HighwayBridges (3rd Ed.). Hoboken,
New Jersey: John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
References:
Tonias, D. E., Zhao, J. J. (2017). Bridge
Engineering (4th Ed.). USA: McGraw-Hill Education.

Barker, R. M., Puckett, J. A. (2013). Design of

HighwayBridges (3rd Ed.). Hoboken, New Jersey:
John Wiley &Sons, Inc.

American Association of State Highway and

Transportation Officials. AASHTO LRFD Bridge
DesignSpecifications (AASHTO 2012).
Washington, DC: AASHTO.
References:
Tonias, D. E., Zhao, J. J. (2017). Bridge
Engineering (4th Ed.). USA: McGraw-Hill Education.

Barker, R. M., Puckett, J. A. (2013). Design of

Highway Bridges (3rd Ed.). Hoboken, New Jersey:
John Wiley &Sons, Inc

American Association of State Highway and

Transportation Officials. AASHTO LRFD Bridge
Design Specifications (AASHTO 2012). Washington,
DC: AASHTO.

Department of Public Works and Highways

Bureau of Design. Design Guidelines, Criteria
and Standards (DGCS Vol. 5 Bridge Design
2015). Philippines: DPWH.
Summary of Previous Discussion
Five Principal Categories of Fund Source
User Fees Special Benefit Fees Debt Financing
Nonuser Fees Private Financing
Types of Design Standards
General Specifications Material-Related Design Codes
Why do we conduct Site Inspection?
For the construction of a new bridge structure
To observe and determine the present condition of an existing bridge and site and to
fulfill standardrequirements such as from National Bridge Inspection Standards
(NBIS)
For the rehabilitation or replacement of a structure from an existing bridge and site
Why do we conduct Site Survey?
→to create a model of topographic features
→to create a model of planimetric features
→to create a model of structural features
Why do we conduct Physical Testing?
to supply needed information concerning the adequacy of materials used in the
construction of the bridge.
Methods of Physical Testing
Coring Testing for Cover
Delamination Testing Measuring Steel Thickness
Detecting Fatigue Cracks
Module 3: Superstructure
Intended Learning Outcomes for this Discussion:
At the end of the discussion, the students will be able to:
1. Explain the different types of superstructures and how they are being classified;
2. State the different types of secondary members;
3. State the different types of decks.
Superstructure Types
Criteria in Selecting Type of Superstructure
→bridge span length
→material function and availability
→construction cost
→speed of construction and constructability
→design complexity
→maintenance costs and life expectancy
→environmental concerns
→aesthetics

Superstructures generally vary by support type (simply supported or continuous),

design type (slab-on-girder, arch, truss, etc.), and material type (steel, concrete,
timber, etc.). Obviously, there are a variety of combinations
of the above. For example, a designer could choose to use a slab-on-girder
superstructure with either steel or concrete girders. This superstructure could be
simply supported or continuous, and so on
Steel Superstructures
Advantages
→lighter weight compared to concrete
→more rapid construction compared to concrete
→prefabrication reduces the amount of field labor for operations (e.g., bolting,
welding)
→recent advancements in fabrication methods and materials
→automated element assembly and welding

Types of Steel Primary Members

Rolled Beam→ Steel girder that has been formed
by hot-rolling. The most common type of rolled
beam used as a primary member in highway
bridges is the wide-flange variety. The wide flange
W section beam differs from its I-beam
cousin American Standard S-section in that its
flanges are parallel rather than tapered. As the
name would indicate, the flange width on a wide
flange stringer is greater than that of an S-beam.
The S-beam, however, has a thicker web.
Steel Superstructures
Advantages
→lighter weight compared to concrete
→more rapid construction compared to concrete
→prefabrication reduces the amount of field labor for operations (e.g., bolting,
welding)
→recent advancements in fabrication methods and materials
→automated element assembly and welding

Types of Steel Primary Members

Rolled Beam with Cover Plate→ To maintain an
economy of material, rolled beams are sometimes
equipped with a rectangular plate, or cover plate,
at the bottom flange. The cover plate increases
the ability of the stringer to resist flexure without
having to use a larger rolled beam or plate girder.
However, the cover plate also increases the
potential for fatigue cracks by introducing welds
and stress concentrations at the ends of the plate;
therefore, its application is no longer allowed by
most bridge owners.
Steel Superstructures
Advantages
→lighter weight compared to concrete
→more rapid construction compared to concrete
→prefabrication reduces the amount of field labor for operations (e.g., bolting,
welding)
→recent advancements in fabrication methods and materials
→automated element assembly and welding

Types of Steel Primary Members

Plate Girder→ A plate girder, like a rolled beam,
has an I-shaped cross section. Rather than being
hot-rolled in one piece, however, the girder is
constructed from steel plate elements that
are connected with welds, bolts, or rivets. Since
the designer is specifying the section properties
of the girder (i.e., flange width and thickness,
web depth, etc.) a greater economy of materials
results. To further reduce the amount of steel used, plate girder
flange thicknesses may be varied in segments to accommodate
bending moments at various regions. Sometimes plate girders
can also be varied in depth, or haunched, to accommodate
regions of low and high moment and/or shear. Plate girders gain
an advantage over rolled beams as span lengths become large.
Steel Superstructures
Advantages
→lighter weight compared to concrete
→more rapid construction compared to concrete
→prefabrication reduces the amount of field labor
for operations (e.g., bolting, welding)
→recent advancements in fabrication methods
and materials
→automated element assembly and welding

Types of Steel Primary Members

Box Girder→ In reality, the box girder is a form of plate
girder that combines two girders into a single unit.
Unlike open-box girders, closed-box girders possess
excellent torsional stiffness, so they usually do not
require secondary members to provide bracing.
Although the box girder provides an aesthetically
pleasing structure, the amount of steel required,
especially for closed-box girders, can sometimes
Exceed that for a standard I cross-sectional plate
girder. Box girders usually have higher fabrication
costs than plate girders, so most of them are
designed for curved bridges to take advantage
of their strong torsional rigidity
Steel Superstructures
Advantages
→lighter weight compared to concrete
→more rapid construction compared to concrete
→prefabrication reduces the amount of field labor for operations (e.g., bolting,
welding)
→recent advancements in fabrication methods and materials
→automated element assembly and welding
Types of Steel Primary Members
Steel Rigid Strut Frame→ A steel bridge with integral
steel supporting legs is another form of structure
that utilizes steel as its principal component. In such
a configuration, not only is the superstructure made
of steel, but the substructure as well.

Large Structures→ Steel is also an excellent material

for large structures requiring spans of significant
length. The arch, truss, cable-stayed, and suspension
structures all provide solutions for this class of bridge.
Concrete Superstructures
Types of Concrete Primary Members
Prestressed Concrete Girder → A general axiom
for concrete performance is that it handles
compression very well but performs poorly
under tension. For steel bars, the converse
holds true. The combination of steel with
concrete, with one material taking up the
deficiencies of the other, is the basic principle
behind reinforced concrete. Prestressed
concrete takes this characteristic feature one
step further by application of a tensile force to
reinforcing tendons. This has the effect of
increasing internal compression in the
concrete beam where tension is anticipated
under loading, and thus reducing or
eliminating concrete tensile stresses once
the beam is loaded. The prestressing force may
be applied after the concrete is cast in situ
(i.e., poured in the field) or before the beam is precast.
Concrete Superstructures
Types of Concrete Primary Members
Prestressed Concrete Girder → A general axiom
for concrete performance is that it handles
compression very well but performs poorly
under tension. For steel bars, the converse
holds true. The combination of steel with
concrete, with one material taking up the
deficiencies of the other, is the basic principle
behind reinforced concrete. Prestressed
concrete takes this characteristic feature one
step further by application of a tensile force to
reinforcing tendons. This has the effect of
increasing internal compression in the concrete
beam where tension is anticipated under
loading, and thus reducing or eliminating
concrete tensile stresses once the beam is
loaded. The prestressing force may be applied
after the concrete is cast in situ (i.e., poured in
the field) or before the beam is precast.
Prestressing Systems
Pretensioning
→tensioning the tendon prior to casting the section
→normally performed at precasting plants, where
a precasting stressing bed of a long reinforced
concrete slab is cast on the ground with vertical
anchor bulkheads or walls at its ends.
→can be accomplished by prestressing individual
strands, or all the strands at one jacking operation.
→for harped tendon profiles, the prestressing bed is
provided with hold-down devices as shown.
Prestressing Systems
Post-tensioning

→tensioning the tendon after the

concrete has been cast and has achieved
the major portion of its strength.

→the tendons of strands should not be

bonded or grouted prior to full prestressing.
Concrete Superstructures
Types of Concrete Primary Members
Prestressed Concrete Girder → A general axiom
for concrete performance is that it handles
compression very well but performs poorly
under tension. For steel bars, the converse
holds true. The combination of steel with
concrete, with one material taking up the
deficiencies of the other, is the basic principle
behind reinforced concrete. Prestressed
concrete takes this characteristic feature one
step further by application of a tensile force to
reinforcing tendons. This has the effect of
increasing internal compression in the concrete
beam where tension is anticipated under
loading, and thus reducing or eliminating
concrete tensile stresses once the beam is
loaded. The prestressing force may be applied
after the concrete is cast in situ (i.e., poured in
the field) or before the beam is precast.
Concrete Superstructures
Types of Concrete Primary Members
Concrete Box Girder → Box girders are a form of prestressed concrete girder.
Like their steel cousins, box girders are good at resisting the effects of torsion and
typically do not require the introduction of bracing elements. Box girders can be
built in segments, can be precast or cast in place, and can have variable sections.
Because of these characteristics, concrete box girders are well suited for large span
lengths.
Typical Construction Methods for Concrete Box Girder Bridges
Bay by Bay→ For medium-span
bridges, they can be built bay by bay,
one span at a time, or in a group of
bays. Before post-tensioning force is
applied, the superstructure concrete is
supported by a temporary supporting
system such as scaffoldings, movable
erecting beams, movable launching
beams, or movable centering system.
Once concrete reaches its strength and
is post-tensioned, the temporary
supporting system can be removed
and may be reused at another bay
Concrete Superstructures
Types of Concrete Primary Members
Concrete Box Girder → Box girders are a form of prestressed concrete girder. Like their
steel cousins, box girders are good at resisting the effects of torsion and typically do not require
the introduction of bracing elements. Box girders can be built in segments, can be precast or
cast in place, and can have variable sections.
Because of these characteristics, concrete box girders are well suited for large span lengths.
Typical Construction Methods for Concrete Box Girder Bridges
Balanced Cantilever Method→ For long-span bridges
where temporary supporting systems are not practical,
concrete box girder bridges are usually built using the
balanced cantilever method. The cantilever segments
start from piers and work toward midspan where
cantilevers from both piers meet. The concrete segments
can be precast or cast-in-place. The post-tensioning steel
has to be designed to resist cantilever action under
construction loading during construction, and bridge
load combinations when the bridge is completed. To
improve design efficiency, sometimes temporary external
post-tension tendons are used for construction loads that
can be removed after the superstructure is completed.
Concrete Superstructures
Types of Concrete Primary Members
Concrete Box Girder → Box girders are a form of prestressed concrete girder.
Like their steel cousins, box girders are good at resisting the effects of torsion and
typically do not require the introduction of bracing elements. Box girders can be
built in segments, can be precast or cast in place, and can have variable sections.
Because of these characteristics, concrete box girders are well suited for large span
lengths.
Typical Construction Methods for Concrete Box Girder Bridges
Incremental Launching→ In this method,
bridge piers are built first. The superstructure
is cast and launched incrementally from one
pier to another, with the help of a launching
nose and sometimes temporary support
between the piers. Like the cantilever method,
post-tension reinforcement is designed to
resist cantilever construction loads during
each step of launching and for the final design
loads once launching is completed.
Concrete Superstructures
Types of Concrete Primary Members
Concrete Slab → A slab bridge is one in which the
structuraldeck slab itself represents the primary load
bearingmember(i.e., there are no supporting girders
underneath).Conventionally reinforced concrete slab
bridges arecommon for short spans up to 40 ft (12 m)
in length.
Adjacent Prestressed Slab → Adjacent prestressed
concrete slab units can be used for short spans up to 60
ft (18 m). A 3 to 4 in (75 to 100 mm) concrete overlay
with reinforcement is usually cast over the slab units.
Slab units are transversely post-tensioned prior to
placement of overlay to form a single bridge deck.
Longitudinal shear keys are provided between units so
that adjacent slabs can act as a whole unit under live
load. The advantages of this type of bridge are rapid
construction, low initial cost, and low maintenance
costs, which make it very popular for short-span bridges.
.
Concrete Superstructures
Types of Concrete Primary Members
Concrete Rigid Frame → A concrete rigid frame,
like the steel rigid frame, incorporates the
superstructure and substructure into a single
integrated unit. A conventionalrigid frame has a
deck slab integrated with abutment walls.
This type of structure is usually for very short
spans. A box can be considered as a concrete rigid
frame structure.

Concrete Strut Frame → A strut-frame type has

Integrated legs or struts extending from the
superstructure at angles. These structures are useful
when underpass width is an important concern and
placement of a substructure element
in the middle of the underpass is impossible.

Concrete Arch → Since arches convert most loading

Into compressive forces, concrete, with its excellent
Compressive strength, is an ideal material for these
types of structures. Concrete arches can range from
short- to long-span bridges.
Timber Superstructures
Types of Timber Primary Members
Glulam Timber → A glulam (Glued Laminated)
Timber member is created by gluing together two
or more pieces of lumber, no more than 2 in (50 mm)
in thickness. In older timber structures, elements
like bridge decks utilized a similar approach with
nail-laminated lumber. As heavier loads were
introduced on these bridges, however, nail
laminated assemblies would begin to loosen. Also,
prior to theintroduction of glulam timber, member
sizes were somewhat limited due to the scarcity ,
individual timbers

Stress-Laminated Timber Deck → Stressed-laminated

timberdeck bridges are composed of 2 in (50 mm) thick
and 8 to 12 in (200 to 305 mm) height strips that are
Transversely stressed with prestressing steel bars.
This type of bridge is similar to the concrete slab bridge
where the deck is the primary load-carrying member.
The timber deck is normally covered by a waterproofing
membrane and paved with asphalt pavement as a
wearing surface.
Timber Superstructures
Types of Timber Primary Members
Trestle → A trestle is a set of timber stringers integrated with
a pile or frame bent. Stringers usually have a rectangular
cross section, although glulam I-beam stringers are also used.
Previously, nail-laminated timber decks were used. Recently,
prefabricated glulam deck panels that are placed transverse
to the primary members have been utilized.

Truss → A bridge can be constructed with a timber truss and

timber decking. It is also possible to utilize steel truss
components in conjunction with a timber deck. One form of
truss bridge, common to timber structures, is the pony truss.
A pony truss bridge is a through truss (i.e., the deck passes
through, not on top of, the truss) with no bracing on top. A
problem with through trusses like this is that they are prone
to impact damage from traffic.
Module 3: Superstructure
Intended Learning Outcomes for this Discussion:
At the end of the discussion, the students will be able to:
1. Explain the different types of superstructures and how they are being classified;
2. State the different types of secondary members;
3. State the different types of decks.
Secondary Members
→act as bracing for primary members. In general, secondary members are not load-
bearing elements but aredesigned to prevent cross-sectional deformation of the
superstructure frame. In addition, secondary membersprovide for vertical load
distribution among stringers by permitting the superstructure to work together to
share loads.
Types of Secondary Members
Diaphragms → A secondary member
attached between girders, in the
vertical plane, that acts to stiffen the
primary member and help distribute
vertical loads. When the primary
member in a steel superstructure is
exceedingly deep (approximately 48
in [1.2 m] or larger) or when curved
girders are used, a cross frame style
of diaphragm is desirable. Cross
frames are typically composed of
steel angles in a cross (X) or K
configuration.
Secondary Members
→act as bracing for primary members. In general, secondary members are not load-
bearing elements but aredesigned to prevent cross-sectional deformation of the
superstructure frame. In addition, secondary membersprovide for vertical load
distribution among stringers by permitting the superstructure to work together to
share loads.
Types of Secondary Members
Lateral Bracing → Bracing located at
either the top flange or the bottom
flange of a stringer to prevent lateral
deformation. The bracing is similar
in form to a cross frame (i.e., laid out
in an X- or K-shaped configuration
but in the horizontal plane). Lateral
bracing is not required at girder
flanges attached to a rigid element,
such as a concrete deck or between
box girders. Lateral bracing can also
add stability to the superstructure
during construction.
Secondary Members
→act as bracing for primary members. In general, secondary members are not load-
bearing elements but aredesigned to prevent cross-sectional deformation of the
superstructure frame. In addition, secondary membersprovide for vertical load
distribution among stringers by permitting the superstructure to work together to
share loads.
Types of Secondary Members
Portal and Sway Bracing → Transverse bracing
elements used in truss bridges. Both portal
bracing and sway bracing are located at the top
series of truss members called the top chord.
Portal bracing differs from sway bracing in that
it is located at the portal (i.e., entrance) of a
through-truss. Portal bracing is designed to
accommodate the total end reaction of the
lateral system located at the top chord of the
truss, and to transfer it to the substructure
components. Sway bracing is located at
intermediate panel points of the top chord in
either a cross or knee brace configuration to
provide lateral support for the truss top chords
Module 3: Superstructure
Intended Learning Outcomes for this Discussion:
At the end of the discussion, the students will be able to:
1. Explain the different types of superstructures and how they are being classified;
2. State the different types of secondary members;
3. State the different types of decks.
Deck Types
Types of Deck
Noncomposite and Composite Decks → When a
deck is physically connected to and working with a
superstructure load-bearing member in resisting
loads, it is said to be composite. If the deck is just
resting on top of the superstructure and has no
means of transferring longitudinal shear from
primary members to the deck, then it cannot assist
in the resistance of bending moments induced by
vehicle loading and is said to be noncomposite.
Advantages of Composite Construction
→A more efficient use of materials since
steel member size can be significantly
reduced due to the incorporation of the deck
into the resisting cross-sectional properties
→Greater vertical clearance by a reduction
in stringer depth
→An ability to sustain greater vehicle
loading and to reduce live load deflection
Deck Types
Types of Deck
Cast-in-Place Concrete Slab → By far, the
Predominant form of deck in use is the cast-in-place,
reinforced concrete deck slab. The conventional slab
can work with either steel or concrete superstructures.
When working in composite action, the slab essentially
becomes a load-resisting element in the superstructure
component. To protect the concrete slab, a deck overlay,
or a portion of the deck reserved, can be used to resist
the wear and tear of traffic.

Full-Depth Precast Concrete Panels → The panels

Are placed next to one another transverse to the stringers.
A grout-filled shear key is provided between adjacent
panels. The deck panels are typically protected by
Waterproofing membranes and asphalt pavement on top,
but concrete deck overlay may also be used. Precast
panels are useful alternatives in rehabilitation projects
because they allow for quick placement.
Deck Types
Types of Deck
Partial-Depth Precast Concrete Panels →
Span between girders, acting as stay-in-place forms
for the cast-in-place portion of the concrete deck. The
precast panels are typically prestressed to resist
positive bending moments at construction stage and
at the final stage. The negative bending moment
Over girders, at the final stage, is resisted by
Reinforcement in the cast-in-place portion of the
composite deck. Shear connectors are provided on
girder top flanges so that the final deck is composite
with the girders.

Steel Orthotropic Plate → A thin steel plate with

Closely spaced stiffeners attached underneath it. The
plate is stiffened in two directions: longitudinally
(rib systems) and transversely (floor beams). Since the
stiffness of the ribs varies from that of the floor beam,
the system is said to be anisotropic. The term
orthotropic is derived from the orthogonal (ortho)
placement of the stiffeners and the anisotropic (tropic)
behavior.
Deck Types
Types of Deck
Steel Grid → Utilizes a steel grid that can be left
open or filled with concrete. A steel grid flooring
system comes in panels that are welded to the
supporting superstructure. While an open steel grid
has less dead load than one filled with concrete, it
does not offer as good riding surface and can be
prone to poor skid resistance. An open steel grid
deck system is also susceptible to corrosion.

Timber → This decking can be used with or without a

wearing surface. Like open steel grids, when not equipped
with a wearing surface, timber decks offer poor skid
resistance. Glulam timber planks are placed transversely
to the superstructure stringers, as in precast prestressed
concrete panels. Stress-laminated panels are placed
longitudinally, and no stringers are used. To protect the
timber deck, a waterproofing membrane, which may be
installed between deck and asphalt, or between two
layers of asphalt pavement, is usually used.
Deck Types
Types of Deck
Corrugated Metal → For bridges on local roads, a
corrugated metal form filled with concrete or
asphalt can also be used. Such a system, while
reducing dead loads, requires close spacing of
primary members and can suffer from corrosion.

Fiber Reinforced Polymer (FRP) → The major

advantages of using FRP decks are light weight, rapid
installation, and resistance to corrosion (maintenance
free). Due to the high costs, FRP decks are currently
mainly used on rehabilitation projects where light
weight and rapid construction are key considerations.
Module 3: Superstructure
Intended Learning Outcomes for this Discussion:
At the end of the discussion, the students will be able to:
1. Explain the different types of superstructures and how they are being classified;
2. State the different types of secondary members;
3. State the different types of decks.
Summary of this Discussion
Superstructures generally vary by support type (simply supported or continuous), des
type (slab-on-girder, arch, truss, etc.), and material type (steel, concrete, timber, etc.).
Obviously, there are a variety of combinations of the above. For example, a designer co
choose to use a slab-on-girder superstructure with either steel or girders. This
superstructure could be simply supported or continuous, and so on.
Types of Steel Primary Members
Rolled Beam Steel Rigid Strut Frame Large Structures
Rolled Beam with Cover Plate Box Girder
Types of Concrete Primary Members
Prestressed Concrete Girder Concrete Slab Concrete Arch
Concrete Box Girder Adjacent Prestressed Slab
Concrete Strut Frame Concrete Rigid Frame
Types of Timber Primary Members
Glulam Timber Stress-Laminated Timber Deck
Trestle Truss
Types of Secondary Members
Diaphragms Lateral Bracing Portal and Sway Bracing
Types of Deck
Noncomposite and Composite Decks Cast-in-Place Concrete Slab
Full-Depth Precast Concrete Panels Partial-Depth Precast Concrete Panels
Steel Orthotropic Plate Steel Grid
Timber Corrugated Metal
Fiber Reinforced Polymer (FRP)
Thank You for Listening!