| CHAPTER Introduction to Anatomy | 1 and Physiology |INTRODUCTION ‘Welcome to the study of anatomy and physiology, Anatomy is the study of the parts of the body. The study of anatomy includes the names of the parts of the body aad where they are located. For example, you will learn the names for the different parts of the heart and where they arc located in the heart. Physiology is the study of the furetion, or purpose, of body parts. For example, in this book, you will learn how blood travels through the heart and how each part of the heart works to make blood move. ‘The human body is an amazing machine with many parts that work together to keep you alive and healthy. In this chapter, you will learn about the body's building blocks: molecules, cells, tissues, organs, and organ systems. You will also lean about homeostasis, the way your body maintains balance. THE BUILDING BLOCKS OF THE BODY There are five basic building blocks of the body. Going from smallest to largest they are: molecules, cells, tissues, organs, and organ systems. Each building block forms the next Molecules form cells. Cells form tissues. Tissues form organs and organs form organ systems. ‘Theses Got Cormanes vit Figure 1.1 The building blocks of the body similar to the building blocks of an outfit (a set ofclothes) Molecules and Cells ‘Molecules are the basic building block of all things, living and nonliving. Everything on Earth is comprised of molecules: paper, air, trees, soil, food, water, and the human body ‘Sugar, fat, water, oxygen, and carbon dioxide are all examples of molecules found in the body.Cells are found in all living things. Nonliving things do not contain cells. Cells are comprised of groups of molecules. Most cells are too small for you to see with just your ‘eyes; you need a microscope to see cells. ‘There are many different kinds of cells in the body: fat cells, muscle cells, blood cells, bone cells. What makes one cell different from another is that they are made of different ‘kinds of molecules_arranged in unique ways, Even though these cells have different functions in the body and look different from each other under a microscope, they all ‘contain the same parts. All cells are filled with cytoplasm, a jelly-like material, Cytoplasm holds many small cell parts, or organelles. All cells take in nutrients, such as sugar and oxygen and give off ‘wastes; such as earbon dioxide, All nutrients and wastes pass easily through the cell membrane, the "skin" of the cell. When it is easy for things to pass through a membrane, that membrane is called permeable, Finally, each cell, except for a red blood cell, has a nucleus. The nucleus controls the cell, It is like the cell's brain. Molecules called DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) are located in the nucleus. DNA contains information that tells the cell how to do its job, such as ‘breaking apart a sugar or storing fat. DNA is also the genetic material that makes one person different from another. In effect, DNA is the cell's instruction book. Remember that a cell is the basic unit of all living organisms, and that each type of cell has a different job to do within the body. Figure 1.4 Diagram of acell and its partCOMPREHENSION CHECK i 4 Answer the questions below. Then compare your answers with those of a partner. 1. Where do you find molecules? 2, Where DON'T you find cells? 3. What do you use to see cells? 4. What is the function of cytoplasm? 5. What does the word permeable mean? 6. Does a red blood cell have a nucleus? 7. Where do you find DNA? 8. What is DNA? II Match the terms with their definitions by writing the letters in the correet blanks. Then compare your answers with those of a partner. 1. cell __2. cytoplasm ___3.DNA _ 4. membrane __5. molecule ___ 6. nucleus ____ 7. organelles ____8. permeable a. the basic building block of all living and nonliving things b. the "skin" ofa cell ¢. the cell's "brain" 4. a basic building block of all living things ¢. cell pans ff the jelly-like material which holds cell parts in place &. easy to pass through h. the cell's instruction book located inside the nucleus Tissues, Organs, and Organ Systems Cells that look alike and have the same function join together to form a tissue. For example, muscle cells comprise muscle tissue. Other examples of tissues include fat tissue, blood tissue, nerve tissue, and bone tissue. When a group of different tissues join together to carry out a specific function within the body, they form an organ. The heart is an organ comprised of muscle tissue, connective tissue, blood tissue, and epithelial tissue. These tissues join together to carry out the function of pumping blood. The small intestine is another organ. It is comprised of epithelial tissue, connective tissue, nerve tissue, and muscle tissue. Its function is to absorb nutrients from food. Just as a group of tissues join together to comprise an ‘organ, a group of organs join together to comprise an Figure41-5 Smooth muscle tissueorgan system. An organ system is a group of different organs that perform related functions in the body. For example, the heart and blood vessels comprise the circulatory system. Likewise, the mouth, stomach, and intestines are parts of the digestive system Figure.6 The heart is an organ Figure 1.7 The circulatory system COMPREHENSION CHECK 2 1. Read the questions and then scan the text for the answers. When you find the answers, underline them. Then work with a partner and take turns asking and answering the questions, Try to remember the answers without looking back at the lexi. 1. What are tissues comprised of? 2, Name three different types of tissue. 3, What kinds of tissues comprise the heart? 4, Name three different organs. 5. What is the definition of an organ system?Hl, Number each of the body's building blocks I to 5 from smallest to largest. Compare yous answers with the class. i Call ____ organ system organ ___ molecule ___tissue IIL, Fill in the Blanks with the correct terms. Make sure to use the correct word form. lceastonie a LA is comprised of like cells. 2A group of, form an organ system. 3.An____is.a group of organs that work together to carry out a function, . HOMEOSTASIS Z we Your body works hard to keep itself in balance. In fact, one of the most amazing things about the human body is how it manages to work properly most of the time. Thankfully, most of us spend much more time feeling healthy than we do feeling sick. Homeostasis is the way the body keeps in balance. The body needs to keep constant levels of things like body temperature, water, and blood pressure. Homeo- means same and -stasis means condition. Therefore, the word homeostasis means to keep the sam condition. In the study of anatomy and physiology, you'll hear the phrase "maintain homeostasis; which is another way to say "keep in balance" or "maintain the same condition." An example of homeostasis is how your body wants to keep the same intemal temperature (98.6°F or 37°C) all the time. This "ideal" temperature is called the "set point." If your body gets too hot, what happens? You sweat. When you sweat, water leaves your body. As the sweat dries on your skin, it cools your body down to its proper temperature. Likewise, if your body gets too cold, you shiver. The shivering movement of your body produces heat. This heat causes your body temperature to rise until you reach the set point temperature (98.6°F or 37°C). COMPREHENSION CHECK 3 Read the questions and then scan the text for the answers. When you firid the answers, underline them. Then work with a parter and take turns asking and answering the questions. Try to remember the answers without looking back at the text. 1. What are three things that the body wants to keep constant? 2. Define the word homeostasis.3. What does the body do when it gets too hot? 4, Whatiis a set point? Maintaining Homeostasis: Negative Feedback and Reflexes Recall how your body keeps its temperature constant. You sweat when you are too hot and shiver when you are too cold. Homeostasis of body temperature is maintained by using a negative feedback process. The word negative means bad and the word feedback ‘means information. Your body also uses negative feedback when it senses other imbalances in your body. For example, when you exercise, your body might notice that you don't have enough oxygen to keep going. Not having sep enough oxygen is an example of negative feedback. When the body senses that it doesn't have enough of something, a homeostatic process occurs to improve the — swp2 situation. In the case of exercising, you start to breathe faster and your heart beats faster to provide your cells with more oxygen. Figure 1.8 Steps in areflex No matter what aspect of your body is being monitored, homeostasis is usually maintained by negative feedback in the form of a reflex. A reflex is a series of events in the body that help to maintain homeostasis. A reflex occurs when the body makes a change without your having to think about it. Reflexes are automatic. Let’s lock at how homeostasis is maintained by negative feedback and a reflex when your finger touches fire. Figure 1.8 shows the steps involved in this homeostatic process. 1. Sensors in your finger feel the pain and heat of fire. Too much heat and pain! This is a "negative condition” and the part of the body that can fix this problem must be notified. Homeostasis is maintained when the body corrects this negative condition. 2. To start to correct this condition, nerves in your finger send a message about the pain and heat to your spinal cord. 3. Your spinal cord interprets the message ("A finger is feeling pain and heat"). It makes the decision to move the finger away from the fire. 4. The spinal cord sends a message ("Make the finger move"). The message is carried along a nerve to the muscle that can cause the finger to move 5. Muscles receive the message ("Make the finger move"). They contract and the finger moves away from the fire,Homeostasis. is restored! Your finger moved away from the negative situation, All teflexes follow this five-step process automatically. Again, reflexes are one way that the body responds to negative feedback and maintains homeostasis. ‘The body also uses negative feedback to keep other things constant, such as amounts of autrients (sugar, oxygen, salts), amounts of hormones (insulin, growth hormone), blood pressure, heart rate, and breathing rate. ‘COMPREHENSION CHECK 4 I. Work with a partner to label each statement true (I) or false (F). If the statement is false, correct it so that itis true. ___ 1. A reflex takes a long time. __2. The spinat cord can make reflex decisions, __ 3. Nerves send messages to muscles so the muscles can move. __ 4. Homeostasis is usually maintained with positive feedback. __ 5. Sensors are the first part of a reflex. ____6. Negative feedback gives information thet something is not right. I. Complete the sentences using the words in the box. Take turns reading the correct sentences aloud with a I. A very fast homeostatic reaction is called 2. The isa par of the body that makes decisions. 3. A part of the body that receives neural messages and then moves is called « 4, When the body notices that there is a problem, occurs. 5. send messages. Homeostatic Messengers: ‘The body has two ways to send messages to correct negative situations. One of the two ways that the body can send messages is along a nerve. How did the body send a message to the finger to make it move away from the fire? It sent a message along nerves. Nerves are organs that quickly send messages to and from the spinal cord or the brain. The muscles received a neural message. The muscles moved the finger and then the negative situation of being burned was corrected. Thankfully, neural messages are very fast. The other way the body can send messages is in the form of hormones. Hormones are molecules produced by organs called endocrine glands. Endocrine glands secrete hormones into the bloodstream when the body notices a situation that can be balanced by hormones. Blood carries hormones to their destination.For example, when the body notices that there is too much sugar in the blood, the pancreas (an endocrine gland) secretes the hormone insulin into the bloodstream. Insulin corrects the sugar imbalance by causing sugar to ‘be taken out of the blood and stored in the liver. Thus, the two tools the body uses to maintain homeostasis are hormones and neural messages. Hormonal messages are not as fast as neural messages, but their effects last much longer. For example, when insulin is released into the bloodstream, the insulin \ doesn't just send a message and then disappear. Insulin } stays in the blood and continues to stimulate the liver and { other cells to store sugar for over an hour. Compare this il process to a neural message - its effect lasts less than a t second! | ‘We can compare the speed of neural and hormonal Fgure1:9 Endocrine glands messages to sending mail. Nerves are fast, like e-mail. Messages are received almost instantly, like when you feel heat and move your hand. away from fire, Hormonal messages are slow, like sénding a letter by ground mail. They get to where they need to go, but take a lot longer. COMPREHENSION CHECK 5 Circle the correct word(s) to complete each sentence. Take turns reading the correct sentences aloud with a partner. 1. A hormonal / neural message is faster. 2. The effects of'a hormonal / neural message last longer. 3. Endocrine glands secrete hormones / neural messages. 4, Hormones travel in the nerves / bloodstream. 5. If the situation is. an emergency, the messages will probably be sent by a hormone / herve. REVIEW Check Your Understanding 4. Answer the following questions about the building blocks of the body and homeostasis. 1, What does the word anatomy mean? 2, What does the word physiology mean? 3. What are the five basic building blocks of the body’?4, Which is larger, a cell or a molecule? An organ or a tissue? 5, Name two organs in your body. 6. What is the name of the process that maintains conditions in your body? 7. Give an example of a reflex that helps you to maintain homeostasis. 8. How does your body adjust if it gets too hot? 9, Name two ways that messages are sent in the body. II, Label the following figure with the terms provided. f 0 1 a » 4 5 JIT, Answer these typical anatomy and physiology quiz questions. 1. Tissues are made of many : a. organs b, molecules «. cells 4, bones 2, Water, sugar, and oxygen arc examples of. a. organs b. molecules c. cells 4d, tissues 3. Number each of the body's building blocks 1 to 5 from smallest to largest. __ organ systems ____ tissues ___eells organs ____ molecules 4, Describe the function of each of the following in a reflex: Sensors: 5. What are the two types of messengers that are used in maintaining homeostasis? ‘Which is the fastest? The longest lasting?Think More about It 1. Name as many different organ systems in the body as you can. 2, What parts of your body change when you exercise vigorously? Peers aurange interpret call ‘maintain comprise. ‘membrane control molecule: cytoplasm monitor secrete DNA ‘negative feedback SeNSOTS: endocrine glands nerves: set point form neural message sweat give off nucleus take in homeostasis organ tissue hormones organ system