UNIT 2- DRONE DESIGN, FABRICATION AND

PROGRAMMING

Classifications of the UAV -Overview of the main drone

parts- Technical characteristics of the parts -Function of the
component parts -Assembling a drone- The energy sources-
Level of autonomy- Drones configurations -The methods of
programming drone- Download program Install program
CLASSIFICATIONS OF THE UAV

1. CLASSIFICATION BASED ON SIZE

The size of UAVs is one of the most crucial factors in identifying them.
UAVs today exist in various sizes and are used for a range of tasks. At one extreme, they are
as small as insects, while at the other, they are as big as enormous aircraft. UAVs that are so
tiny they could be handled by one individual. They can potentially be as big as a bird or a big
insect, says [1, 2], such as Ultra small UAV, Small UAV, Medium UAV, Large UAV. Table
6.1 shows the summary of size-based classification.
2. BASED ON RANGE, ENDURANCE, AND ALTITUDE
This classification of UAV performance based on range, endurance and
altitude. One of the most crucial characteristics is range; that is working with different
parameters. Range is especially depending on weight of the payload. It detects how far a
UAV can fly away from its ground control station. Another crucial parameter is endurance,
which measures how long a UAV can operate without refueling or charging. Depending on
the job, a UAV’s endurance ranges from 1 to more than 46 hours. Endurance and efficiency
is affecting by volume and mass of the fuel or battery load of the UAV. Classification of
UAVs based on range and endurance developed by US military. They classified into five
categories are Very close range UAVs, Tethered UAS, Close range UAV, Short-range UAVs,
Mid-range UAVs and Endurance UAVs.
3. BASED ON WEIGHT

The main purpose of weight-based UAV developed for safety of missions;

they correspond to the anticipated kinetic energy generated during impact. UAV classified
into 10 categories based on weight; they are nano UAVs, micro UAVs, mini UAV, light
small UAV, tactical UAV, MALE UAV, and HALE UAV, heavy UAV and super heavy
UAV. Ravn X is considered one of the heaviest UAV in worlds, which weighs is 24,950 kg.

4. BASED OF ENGINE TYPES

According to this classification UAVs are available in a variety of shapes,
dimensions, and performance levels. As the UAV’s load increases, so does the size of its
engine. The range and endurance of a UAV might be affected by its engine configuration.
Chemical engines and electrical engines are the two basic types into which engines can be
divided. The most popular forms of engines are electric and piston engines. Although piston
engines are typically utilized with large UAVs that must handle massive payloads, electric
engines are typically employed with light and small UAVs.

5. BASED ON CONFIGURATION
Configuration is most important part of UAVs. These configurations are
depending on their missions. There are classified into four classes are horizontal take-off,
landing (HTOL), vertical takeoff and landing (VTOL), hybrid UAVs, and unconventional
UAVs.

6. CLASSIFICATION BASED ON MECHANICAL DESIGN AND ANALYSIS

UAV design is an iterative procedure that involves careful preparation; there are various
designs for UAVs. There are classified into seven classes are conceptual design, preliminary
design, detailed design, structural Analysis, Vibration Analysis and Computational Fluid
Dynamics Analysis.

UNCONVENTIONAL CATEGORIES OF DRONES

OVERVIEW OF THE MAIN DRONE PARTS

 Frame
 Propellers
 Remote control
 Brushless Motors
 Landing Gear
 Electronic Speed Controllers [ESC]
 Sensors
 Flight Controller
 Receiver
 Transmitter
 GPS Module
 Battery
 Camera
  Gimbal

CHARACTERISTICS OF DRONE PARTS AND FUNCTION OF PARTS

1. FRAMES
The frame is the main body of the drone and holds all the other
components together. It is typically made of lightweight and durable materials
such as carbon fiber or plastic.
Material: Typically made from lightweight and strong materials such as carbon
fiber, plastic, or nylon.
Size: Varies depending on the size and payload capacity of the drone.
Weight: As light as possible to maximize flight time and efficiency.

PROPELLER
The propellers of quadcopters
are normally seen in the front. In terms of size and materials, propellers come in
a wide range of sizes and materials. Many of them, especially the smaller ones,
are constructed of plastic, while the more costly ones are made of carbon fiber.
Propellers are continually being created, and technical research to generate
more effective propellers for both tiny and large drones is currently underway.
The drone’s orientation and movements are controlled by its propellers. As a
result, before taking your drone out for a flight; make sure that each of the
propellers is in good working order.
Material: Typically made from plastic or nylon.
Size and pitch: Affect the thrust, efficiency, and noise level of the drone.
Number: Most drones have 2, 3, or 4 propellers.

REMOTE CONTROL
The remote controller is used by the
pilot to control the drone's movement. It
typically has joysticks or other controls that send signals to the flight controller.

BRUSHLESS MOTORS
Brushless motors, as opposed to brushed motors, are used in all new drones. The
motor’s design is just as crucial as the drone’s. This is due to a more efficient motor that will
allow you to save money on both the buy and operational maintenance of the machine.
Additionally, you will preserve battery life, allowing you to fly your drone for extended
periods of time. The drone motor design manufacturing sector is now rather dynamic, as
businesses compete to build the most efficient and well-designed motors
 Type: Brushless DC motors are most common, offering high efficiency and power.
 Size: Varies depending on the drone's size and thrust requirements.
 KV Rating: Indicates the number of revolutions per minute (RPM) per volt. Higher
KV ratings result in faster propellers but lower torque, and vice versa.

LANDING GEAR
Drones are equipped with landing gear that resembles that of a
helicopter. Drones that require a lot of ground clearance during landing will
need to have their landing gear modified to land safely. Moreover, delivery
drones carrying goods or things may require a large landing gear due to the area
needed to hold the objects when they strike the ground. However, the landing
gear is not required for all drones. Some smaller drones can fly without landing
gear and land safely on their stomachs once they contact the ground. Most
drones with longer flight times and larger ranges feature fixed landing gear.

ELECTRONIC SPEED CONTROLLERS [ESC]

It is an electronic circuit whose primary function is to monitor and
alter the drone’s speed while in flight. It is also in charge of the drone’s flight
direction and variations in braking. The ESC is also in charge of converting DC
battery power to AC power, which is used to power brushless motors. For all of
their flight demands and performance, modern drones rely totally on the ESC
Function: Control the speed and direction of each motor, receiving signals from
the flight controller.
BEC (Battery Eliminator Circuit): Provides power to the flight controller and
other electronics from the main battery.
Current Rating: Determines the maximum amount of current the ESC can
handle, which should be compatible with the motor's requirements.

SENSORS
Additional sensors like gyroscopes, accelerometers, and barometers can provide more

precise data for flight control and stability, especially in challenging environments .

FLIGHT CONTROLLER
 The flight controller serves as the drone’s motherboard. It is in response to all the
commands that the pilot delivers to the drone. It decrypts data from the receiver, GPS
module, battery monitor, and onboard sensors. The flight controller is also in charge of
regulating motor speeds via the ESC and controlling the drone’s direction. The flight
controller is in charge of all commands, including camera triggering, autopilot mode control,
and other autonomous operations.
 The flight controller is the brain of the drone. It is responsible for controlling the
motors, sensors, and other electronics.
 The flight controller typically includes a gyroscope, accelerometer, and
magnetometer. These sensors help the flight controller to maintain the drone's
orientation and position.
 The flight controller may also include a GPS receiver. This allows the drone to
know its location and fly autonomously.

RECEIVER
The receiver is the component in charge of collecting radio signals delivered to the drone via
the controller. The minimum number of channels required to operate a drone is generally
four. It is recommended, however, that a maximum of five channels be made available. There
are numerous types of receivers available on the market, and any of them may be utilized to
build a drone.

TRANSMITTER
The transmitter is in charge of transmitting radio signals from the controller to the drone in
order to give flight and navigational directives. The transmitter, like the receiver, needs to
have four channels for a drone, but five is commonly recommended. Drone manufacturers
can pick from a variety of receivers available on the market. To communicate with the drone
while being in flight, the receiver and transmitter must use a single radio signal.

GPS MODULE
The GPS system is in charge of determining the drone’s longitude, latitude, and
elevation. It is a very huge component of the drone. Drones would not be as essential as they
are now if not for the GPS device. The components assist the drone in navigating greater
distances and capturing data of land areas.

BATTERY
The drone’s battery is the component that allows all motions and reactions. The drone
would not be able to fly without the battery because it would be powerless. The battery needs
for different drones vary. Due to their lower power requirements, smaller drones may require
smaller batteries. Larger drones, on the other hand, may need a larger battery with a greater
capability in order to power all of the drone operations.

 Capacity: The capacity of a battery is measured in milli ampere-hours (mAh). A

higher mAh rating means the battery will hold more charge and the drone will be able
to fly for longer.
 Voltage: The voltage of a battery is measured in volts (V). A higher voltage battery
will provide more power to the drone's motors and electronics.
 Chemistry: There are two main types of drone batteries: lithium-ion (Li-ion) and
lithium-polymer (LiPo). Li-ion batteries are more stable and have a longer
lifespan, but they are also more expensive. LiPo batteries are less expensive but have
a shorter lifespan and are more prone to damage.

CAMERA:
Many drones feature an installed camera, while others have a camera that can be removed.
The camera aids in the shooting of photographs and images from the air, which is a common
function of drones. There are a number of camera kinds and qualities to pick from on the
market.

ASSEMBLY OF DRONE:

Step 1: Assemble the frame. If you are making your own frame, you need to assemble
it. Depending on how sturdy you want your drone to be, you can use different materials,
such as metal, plastic, or wood.

Your frame needs to be in an X shape, and each propeller will go on each point of the 'X'.

Step 2: Construct your drone's motors and propellers.

If you build your frame, you will need to make holes for the motors and affix them to the
frame. If you have a premade frame, you may discover it came with mounts for your
motors.

Step 3: Mount your electronic speed controllers.

When you've attached your motors, you'll have to connect your ESCs to the bottom of
your drone's frame.

Step 4: Connect the battery connector to PDB.

Attach your PDB to the bottom of your drone, and connect the battery connectors.

Step 5: Attach the landing gear.

You'll need to have landing gear on your drone, to absorb the shock from landing on a
hard surface.

Make your landing material out of something both solid and flexible, as it will help you
avoid damaging your drone when setting it down.

Step 6: Choose and add your flight controller.

Mount your flight controller on your drone. Make sure that you add a sponge or some soft
material underneath the controller to reduce vibrations.

Then your drone should be able to stay stable in the air and make sense of shifts and
changes in the wind.

Step 7: Connect the drone to a GCS and calibrate sensors.

Make sure to check that everything works well. You can test this by using a GCS and
calibrating the different sensors on your drone.

Step 8: Double-check and test out.

Check and double-check everything is working and calibrated. Choose a safe location,
slowly throttle up your drone and fly at low altitude the first time you test out your drone.
Step 9: Prepare for take-off.

Now the only thing left is to figure out where you are allowed to fly your drone and make
sure that everything is in order before you go out there and fly your brand new drone.

THE ENERGY SOURCES IN DRONE:

The energy source used in a drone depends on the size, weight, and intended use
of the drone. Here are the most common types of energy sources used in drones:
 Batteries: The most common type of energy source for small and
medium-sized drones. Lithium-ion (Li-ion) and lithium-polymer (Li-Po)
batteries are the most popular choices due to their high energy density
and relatively lightweight design. However, they have a limited lifespan
and flight time.
 Gasoline or diesel engines: Used in larger drones that require longer
flight times or more power. They offer a longer range than batteries but
are heavier, noisier, and produce emissions.
 Hydrogen fuel cells: An emerging technology that offers long flight
times and zero emissions. However, hydrogen fuel cells are still
expensive and require a hydrogen infrastructure that is not yet widely
available.
 Solar power: Can be used to supplement batteries or even power small
drones entirely. However, they are limited by sunlight availability and
require clear weather conditions.
 In addition to the above, there are also a number of other energy sources
that are being explored for use in drones, such as super capacitors and
laser beams. However, these technologies are still in their early stages of
development and are not yet widely used.
LEVEL OF AUTONOMY

Level 0 - No Drone Autonomy

Drones that operate at level 0 autonomy need a pilot in control of the
drone 100% of the time. Without a pilot, the drone will crash. Level 0 drones
lack the ability to understand or respond to obstacles. They are typically used
for recreational purposes such as racing.
Level 1 - Low Drone Autonomy
Level 1 drones operate with low autonomy, which can account for the
spatial limitations of an environment, such as walls or ceilings, allowing them to
safely operate within an enclosed space. These drones can remain in the air
without a pilot but must stay in the pilot’s Visual Line of Sight (VLOS). Level 1
drones are usually toy drones with six-axis gyro sensors to aid in stabilization
and sometimes include a “return home” button on the controller, which returns
the drone to its launch point when pressed.
Level 2 - Partial Drone Autonomy
 In level 2 drones, autonomous systems are more advanced, but the pilot is
still in complete control. Although these drones use a combination of sensors,
accelerometers, and GPS receivers, a pilot still operates its movements and
receives warnings when the drone approaches an obstacle so the pilot can steer
it to safety. Level 2 drones cannot detect and avoid or navigate, but they can
detect and warn. Like level 0 and level 1 drones, level 2 drones and operate in
the pilot’s VLOS.
Level 3 - Conditional Drone Autonomy
Level 3 drones operate with a high level of autonomy in that the pilot is
no longer flying the drone but is onsite as a backup in case of an emergency.
Most drone delivery operators currently function at a level 3 autonomy, where
pilots are in place only for emergencies. These drones are equipped with basic
detect and avoid systems that use radio and frequency sensors, which help them
avoid obstacles such as buildings or poles in the flight path. Level 3 drones can
also find safe spaces to land autonomously based on their awareness of the
environment.

Level 4 - High Autonomy

Level 4 drones have a high level of autonomy in that they use advanced
detect and avoid systems and detect and navigate systems without pilot action.
They can freely explore GPS-free and GPS-denied environments, navigate
harsh conditions, and identify people in need without needing a pilot on-site, as
pilots can monitor level 4 drones remotely. As FAA regulations loosen, one
pilot will be able to manage many BVLOS drones simultaneously.

Level 5 - Full Autonomy

 Level 5 drones are a long way off, but they will fly through any
environment in all conditions. These drones will be able to control themselves
under all circumstances with no expectation of human intervention. To reach
level 5 autonomy, the navigation performance must be comparable to when
drones rely on external systems. There are currently no level 5 drones in
production due to a developing regulatory base, the need for advanced systems
to manage various unmanned and human-crewed vehicles in the air at one time,
and the legwork required handling the massive volume of data the drone will
capture.

DRONES CONFIGURATIONS
The configuration of a drone refers to the specific arrangement of its components, which
include the airframe, motors, propellers, flight controller, battery, and payload. The
configuration you choose will depend on the intended use of the drone, as different
configurations offer different advantages and disadvantages.
Here are the most common drone configurations:
1. Multi-rotor drones:
 Tri-copter: This configuration has three rotors arranged in a triangular pattern. It is
simple and manoeuvrable, but it is also less stable than other configurations.
  Quad-copter: This is the most common drone configuration. It has four
rotors arranged in a square pattern. It is stable, manoeuvrable, and easy to
control, making it a good choice for beginners and recreational use.

Hexa-copter: This configuration

has six rotors arranged in a hexagonal
pattern. It is more stable and can carry heavier payloads than a quad-copter, but
it is also more complex and expensive.

Octo-copter: This configuration has eight

rotors arranged in an octagonal pattern. It is the most stable and can carry the
heaviest payloads, but it is also the most complex and expensive.
2. Fixed-wing drones:

These drones have wings that generate lift, similar to an airplane. They are more
efficient than multi-rotor drones and can fly for longer distances, but they
require more space to take off and land.

3. Hybrid VTOL drones

These drones combine the features of fixed-wing and multi-rotor drones. They
can take off and land vertically like a multi-rotor drone, but they can also fly
efficiently for long distances like a fixed-wing drone.