REVIEWER FOR ZOOLOGY LAB
It is
(FINALS)
MODULE 9: DIGESTIVE SYSTEM
The digestive organs are usually divided
into two main groups.
1. Gastrointestinal tract or the
alimentary tract is a continuous tube
running from the mouth to anus.
This is composed of the mouth,
pharynx,
esophagus, stomach, small
intestine, and large intestine.
2. Accessory organs such as the
teeth, t ongue, liver, gallbladder,
and
pancreas.
Maxillary teeth - these are a row of small
teeth along the margin of the upper jaw.
Sulcus marginalis- this is a pair of
grooves on the inner side of the maxillary
teeth that receives the lower jaw when the
mouth is closed.
Median subrostral foss- it is a
prominent depression of the sulcus
marginalis at the anterior tip of the upper
jaw.
Lateral subrostral fossa- it is a pair of
depressions of the sulcus marginalis lateral
to the pulvinars.
Pulvinar rostrale- it is a pair of low
elevations on each side of the median
subrostral fossa.
Internal/posterior nares or choanae.
a pair of slit-like openings above the
eyeballs leading to the external nares.
Eyeball (orbital) prominence. These are
two large rounded bulges of the eyeball.
Vomerine teeth. These are fine teeth
projecting from the vomers in between the
internal nares.
Opening of Eustachian tube. It is a pair
of slit-like openings found medial to the
angles of the jaw. The eustachian tube
leads to
the cavity of the middle ear.
Prelingual fossa. These are two shallow
depressions on each side of tuberculum
prelinguale.
Tuberculum prelinguale. It is a prominent
median elevation at the tip of the lower jaw.
This fits into the median subrostral
fossa when the mouth is closed.
Tongue. It is a forked muscular organ
attached to the anterior tip of the lower
jaw.
Opening of vocal sac. This is a pair of
slit-like openings on the floor of the mouth
close to the angle of the jaw; found only in
male frogs.
Opening of esophagus. It is a large
transverse slit, posterior to the laryngeal
prominence.
Laryngeal prominence. Circular
elevation anterior to the esophageal
opening.
Glottis. It is a short vertical slit like
opening at the center of the laryngeal
prominence.

Pharynx. It is the posterior portion of the
buccal cavity that opens into the
esophagus.
Esophagus. It is a very short tube that
connects the pharynx to the stomach.
Stomach. A large whitish organ with either
a “U” or ”J” shaped enlarged portion of the
digestive tube. Its anterior or cardiac end is
smaller than its posterior or pyloric end; it
curves more on the outer side (the greater
curvature) than on the inner side (the lesser
curvature); this organ is suspended from the
dorsal body wall by a mesentery known as
the mesogaster.
Pylorus. This is a constriction at
the posterior end of the stomach.
Spleen. This is a dark red organ located on
the left lateral side of the stomach. It is
considered part of the lymphatic system.
Gallbladder. This is a small greenish sac
located at the ventral part of the median
lobe of the liver.
Small intestine. This is slender and the
longest portion of the tube is irregularly
coiled; the more anterior portion is the
duodenum which is wider but shorter. And
the more posterior, narrower and longer
coiled division of the small intestine is the
ileum. The small intestine is suspended
from the dorsal body wall by the
mesenterium.
Large intestine. This is a short dilated tube
at the terminal end of the ileum. It is
suspended by the mesorectum, where a
rounded reddish spleen is also suspended.
Cloaca. This is the posterior dilated end of
the large intestine located within the pelvic
girdle. Different urogenital organs (i.e.
urinary bladder, mesonephric ducts, and
ovisac) are also open to this area.
Anus. It is a small opening at the posterior
end of the cloaca
Digestive Glands

Liver. This is a large reddish-brown organ

on the anterior portion of the
pleuro-peritoneal cavity; it is the largest
organ that partly covers the stomach; this is
divided into left, median, and right lobes
which are suspended from the body wall by
a ventral ligament. At the ventral side of the
median lobe is the gallbladder. The bile is
secreted by the liver and stored in the
gallbladder by way of two fused ducts, the
hepatic ducts coming from the left and right
lobes of the liver and a cystic duct which is
a tiny duct connected to the neck of the
gallbladder. The large duct formed by the
cystic, hepatic and pancreatic ducts is the
common bile duct – this is surrounded by
the tissues of the pancreas and this duct
enters the duodenum, emptying its
contents on this part of the digestive tube

Pancreas. This is a small elongated and

irregularly shaped gland located between
the stomach and the duodenum; a
pancreatic duct conducts the pancreatic
juice to the duodenum.

MODULE 10: Respiratory and Urogenital
Systems
Respiratory System together with the
urogenital system, which in amphibians is
composed of common urinary and
reproductive organs, perform very
important functions. The respiratory
system delivers oxygen through the blood
and removes body wastes, in a form of
carbon dioxide, from the cells. It also plays
a significant role in controlling the pH.
Lungs, the lining of the mouth, and the skin.
All these structures have thin moist surfaces
and contain blood vessels. The frog uses its
lungs to meet most of its oxygen
requirements.
The roof of the mouth also serves as a
respiratory surface as its skin. This is
because of the thin moist surface, which
makes gas exchange possible. These
respiratory organs are important when the
frog remains underwater for long periods of
time. When the frog hibernates, its body
metabolism is reduced and the skin
respiration alone meets its oxygen
requirement.
The anatomy and physiology that make this
happen vary greatly depending on:
● the size of the organism
● the environment in which it lives
● its evolutionary history.
External nares
Internal nares
Nasal or olfactory canal. It is a short
passageway between the external nares
and internal nares
Buccal cavity
Larynx. Posterior to the glottis is the larynx
or voice box.
Lungs. This is a pair of thin-walled,
spongy sacs on the anterolateral portion of
the pleuro-peritoneal cavity. Each is
covered by a double-walled membrane, the
pleura.
Epiglottis. It is a short vertical slit-
like opening at the center of the
laryngeal prominence.
Glottis. It is formed and supported by two
cartilaginous structures: a pair of the
arytenoid cartilage and cricoid cartilage
Arytenoid cartilage. It is valve-like and
guards the glottis and at the same time
forms the dorsal roof of the larynx
 Cricoid It is a ring-like cartilage that
surrounds and supports the arytenoids
Urogenital System, on the other hand, is
the excretion of nitrogenous wastes,
maintenance of the volume and composition
of body fluids, gamete formation, and
fertilization process.
Excretory System functions for the
elimination of the waste products of the
metabolism.
Reproductive system is for the production
of the gametes and secretion of sex
hormones.
FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM
Ovaries. These are paired, lobular,
saccular organ on the ventral wall of the
kidney which is suspended from the dorsal
wall by the mesovarium
Oviducts or Mullerian ducts. These are
convoluted, long white tubes on each side
of the ovary which lie close to the abdominal
wall and are suspended by mesotubarium.
Their anterior ends lie near the bases of the
esophagus and the lungs. Their anterior
funnel-shaped mouth, known as the ostium,
serves as the entrance of eggs which are
released from the ovary into the body
coelom. Its posterior portion enlarges into a
thin highly distensible sac, thus resulting in
uterine enlargement. This structure then
empties into the cloaca.
Corpora adiposa or fat bodies. These
are yellowish finger-like structures at the
anterior level of the kidney and attached to
the ovary, they store reserve food,
especially during the breeding season
MALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM
Testes. It is a pair of elongated, yellowish
structures on the ventral surface of the
kidney; attached to the kidney by a
mesochorium
Vas efferentia. These are very small
slender tubules lying on the mesochorium
Vasa deferentia or vas deferens. It is the
term given to the mesonephric duct which is
also used for the passage of sperm
 Vestigial oviducts. It is a pair of slender,
white, wavy tubes, one along each side of
the mesonephric duct which joins
posteriorly; this is non-functional.

Corpora adiposa or fat bodies. These are

attached to the anterior end of each testis.
URINARY SYSTEM

Kidneys. It is a pair of reddish,

elongated, and flattened organs which are
lined ventrally by the parietal peritoneum

Adrenal glands. It is a pair of

yellowish, irregularly-shaped glands
located on the ventral surface of the
kidney.

Mesonephric duct. It is a pair of

slender, straight white tubes on the
posterolateral edge of the kidney; that
conducts waste products from the
kidney to the cloaca.

Urinary bladder. It is a bilobed sac on

the ventral surface of the cloaca; serves
as temporary storage of urine.

Cloaca. is a short simple tube receiving

at its inner end the genital and urinary
ducts, the rectum, and the allantoic
bladder.
MODULE 11: CIRCULATORY SYSTEM
Circulatory system
- transports substances in the body of
the organism supplying the needs
of its metabolism. This significant
organ system provides an effective
process of circulation by means of
the blood, heart, and blood vessels.
Pulmonary circuit. This circulation carries
blood between the heart and the lungs,
particularly its gas-exchanging tissues. In
pulmonary circulation, the blood passing
through the lung capillaries is returned to
the heart via the pulmonary veins. These
drains oxygenated blood into the left atrium
of the heart.
Systemic circuit. This circulation carries
blood between the heart and the other
parts of the body.
The circulation in the body functions
accordingly because of the following
organs or structures: the blood vessels,
which comprise the arteries and veins, and
the
heart, which pumps the blood to and
from the body.
The blood vessels, which give way to the
flow of blood, are made up of two systems:
the arterial system and the venous
system.
Arterial system. This system basically
includes the interconnecting of the arteries
of the circulatory system that supplies
blood. The ventral surface of the heart is the
site of the conus arteriosus. And from it
arises and bifurcates the two large blood
vessels, the truncus arteriosus or the ventral
aorta. Each has three branches: common
carotid artery, systemic arch, and
pulmocutaneous artery.
Common carotid artery. This is the
anterior branch of the truncus arteriosus
that supplies blood into the head. This
artery further divides into the external
carotid artery and internal carotid artery.
External carotid artery. This delivers blood
to the muscles of the tongue and the floor of
the mouth through its four major branches
such as the muscular artery, thyroid artery,
lingual artery, and sublingual artery.
Internal carotid artery. This supplies blood
to the upper jaw and cranium. This is further
divided into three major branches, which
are:
Cerebral artery. This is provided with
many branches supplying the choroid
plexus of the brain.
Lateral petrosal (stapedial) artery. It
supplies blood to the ear and extends its
branches to the eyelids as a temporal artery
and to the roof of the mouth as a
mandibular artery.
Ophthalmic artery. This branches out to
the eye, eye muscles, and eyelids.
(Note: these arteries may not be traced due
to their small size)
 Systemic arch. This extends
anterodorsally and posteromedially to unite
forming the dorsal aorta. This gives rise to
the following branches:
Subclavian artery. A branch of the
systemic arch at the level of the shoulder.
This further gives off small branches to the
muscles of the shoulder region. The artery
then proceeds to the forelimb as the
brachial artery.
Laryngeal artery. This supplies blood to
the larynx and muscles of the jaw.
Esophageal artery. This supplies blood
to the esophagus.
Occipito-vertebral artery. This
branches off into
Occipital artery. This is the anterior
branch that supplies blood into the
following: jaw, orbit, and nose.
Vertebral artery. This is the posterior
branch that supplies blood to the vertebral
column.
Branches of the dorsal aorta:
Coeliaco-mesenteric artery. This large
unpaired artery is derived just posterior to
the union of the systemic arches. It is further
divided into the coeliac artery and
mesenteric artery.
Coeliac artery. This is the anterior branch
that gives off smaller vessels such as the
left and right gastric artery, hepatic artery,
and pancreatic artery.
Anterior mesenteric artery. This
branches off into the duodenal artery,
intestinal artery, splenic artery, and
haemorrhoidal artery.
Renal arteries. These are small blood
vessels that supply the dorsal surface of the
kidneys. (Note: the ventral surface of the
kidney is supplied by the superficial renal
artery, which emerges from the posterior
oviducal artery just posterior to the kidney.)
Posterior mesenteric artery. This
delivers blood to the large intestine. This
unpaired artery specifically supplies the
posterior region of the rectum.
Oviducal arteries. These deliver blood to
the oviduct. The arteries are smaller in
males, which supply the Mullerian ducts.
Spermatic artery and ovarian
artery. These supply blood to the
testes and ovaries respectively.
Adiposal artery. This supplies blood to
the corpora adiposa.
Branches of the common iliac artery:
Epigastrico-vesical artery. This
originates from the ventral wall of the
common iliac artery. It further divides into
the anterior epigastric artery and posterior
recto-vesical artery.
Epigastric artery. This delivers blood to
the ventral abdominal wall.
Recto-vesical artery. This delivers blood
to the rectum and urinary bladder.
Femoral artery. It branches posterior to
the epigastric-vesicular artery. This extends
dorsally supplying the skin and muscles of
the anterior part of the thigh.
Sciatic artery. It is continuous with the
common iliac artery and is the major vessel
entering the hindlimb.
Pulmocutaneous artery. This is the
posterior branch of the truncus arteriosus.
It branches out into
Pulmonary artery. This delivers
deoxygenated blood to the lungs.
Cutaneous artery. This supplies the
skin on the dorsal and lateral body walls.
It branches off an auricular artery that
supplies the jaw muscles, hyoid muscles,
and tissues of the lower jaw.
The Venous System.
- this system concentrates on the
organization of the veins and all that
branches off from them. The veins
return blood from the capillary
network of the organs to the heart
through the sinus venosus. The
sinus venosus receives three major
systemic veins: the postcaval vein,
the paired precaval veins (ducts
of Cuvier), and the
lymphatic system.
Precaval veins. There are three
systemic veins of much importance that
enter the precaval veins. These are
External jugular veins. It is the most
anterior branch draining into the precava. It
is formed by the union of lingual and
mandibular veins.
Lingual vein drains blood from the tongue,
hyoid, and floor of the mouth.
Mandibular or maxillary vein drains blood
from the lower jaw and thyroid gland.
Innominate vein. This is the middle branch
of the vein, which is formed by the union of
the internal jugular vein, and subscapular
vein.
Internal jugular vein accepts many veins
draining the palate, brain, orbital, nasal, and
auditory regions. The vertebral vein collects
blood from the neck muscles and drains into
the internal jugular.
Subscapular vein collects the blood
coming from the shoulder and forelimbs.
Subclavian vein. This is the posterior
branch of the precava that collects blood
from the following veins:
Brachial vein that collects blood from the
forelimb.
Musculo-cutaneous vein is formed by the
union of the muscular vein from the dorsal
and lateral regions of the body wall and by
the cutaneous vein from the skin of the body
wall.
Postcaval vein. This comes near the
posterior of the kidney as a result of the
fusion of a large renal vein. It also obtains
numerous vessels from the kidneys and
gonads that pass through the liver to the
sinus venosus. This vein is also the route of
the blood that has been collected from
certain organs through the capillaries before
it returns to the heart.
During blood circulation, the blood passes
through the portal system of the veins.
There are two portal veins in the frog: the
hepatic portal and the renal portal veins.
The hepatic portal system. It consists of
the hepatic portal vein and its tributaries:
these are the gastric vein, the pancreatic
vein, the splenic vein, and the intestinal
vein. A major vessel, the ventral or anterior
abdominal vein, is formed by the
convergence of the veins in the pelvic
region. The same vein passes forward
along the ventral midline and enters the
liver.
venosus is evident. This accepts blood
from the three caval veins. Located
externally between the atrium and ventricle
is a groove, the coronary sulcus.
Internally, the heart has an
auriculo-ventricular opening, which is
divided by the interauricular septum. The AV
(auriculo-ventricular) valves guard these
openings.
The opening of the pulmonary vein
(pulmo-auricular aperture) is found in the
left auricle and is guarded by pulmonary
valves.

The renal portal system. It consists of a

large, renal portal vein which is formed by
the femoral vein from the dorsal and
anterior side of the thigh, the sciatic vein
from the posterior side of the thigh, the
dorso-lumbar veins from the dorsal body
wall, and the oviducal vein from the oviduct.

The frog’s heart.

The heart of the frog has three chambers:

two atria (auricles) and one ventricle.
The atria are separated into two chambers
by the
interatrial (interauricular)

The conus arteriosus at the ventral

surface of the heart receives blood from the
left atrium. This then bifurcates to become
the truncus arteriosus. And along its inner
dorsal wall, is an S-shaped longitudinal fold
known as the spiral valve.

On the dorsal surface of the heart, a

triangular thin-walled sac known as sinus
Arterial System

subscapular

muculo-

Venous System

Fig. 18.44. Frog. Venous system (Dorsal view).

MODULE 12: NERVOUS SYSTEM

Nervous System
- a highly complex part of an animal
that coordinates its actions and
sensory information by transmitting
signals to and from different parts
of its body.
- Consists of two main parts, called
the central nervous system (CNS)
and the peripheral nervous system
(PNS).
 The midbrain, which is the center
for visual coordination.
Its dorsal part are the rounded
optic lobes with optic ventricle
within.

• Makes up the cerebellum.

• This is structurally a dorsal
transverse fold ridge.
• Function for the equilibrium and
coordinated movements.

• The medulla oblongata is

located in this brain part. •• •• • ••••• •

• Connects the brain to the
spinal cord.

PERIPHERAL OUS
Olfactory nerves
• These are the first pair of
nerves that originate from the
olfactory.

Optic nerves
• These are the second pair
of nerves that originate from
the optic

Oculomotor nerves
• These are the third pair of
nerves that originate near the
infundibulum.
• It is exclusively motor.
Trochlear nerves
• Fourth pair of nerves coming from
the dorsal side of the brain are
located between the optic lobes
and infundibulum.
• it is exclusively motor.

Trigeminal nerves
• Fifth pair of nerves originating
from the anterior end of the
medulla.
• It bears Gasserian ganglion
(provide sensation to the head
and face and provide
movement to the muscle of
mastication)

Abducens nerves
• Sixth pair of nerves originate from
the ventral side of the medulla
and distributed to the eye.
• It is a motor nerve.

Facial nerves
• Seventh pair of nerves arise from
the medulla posterior to the fifth
cranial nerve.
• It is mixed nerve as having both
visceral sensory and visceral
motor fibers (mouth function)

Auditory nerves
° Eight pair of nerves coming
from the anterior side of the
medulla.
• Goes to internal ear.

Glossopharyngeal nerves
° Ninth pair arising from a group
of roots at the sides of the
medulla.
• Goes to the tongue, hyoid and

Vagus nerves
° Tenth pair and have the same
origin with the ninth cranial
nerves.
• These innervate the
shoulder muscles, larynx,
esophagus, stomach, and
lungs.
 • There are ten pairs of spinal
nerves of the frog arising from
the spinal cord.
• Each spinal nerve arises by:
ODorsal root (sensory) - carry
impulses from different body
parts towards the spinal cord.
OVentral root (motor) - motor or
visceral motor fibers
• Ramus dorsalis contains only somatic sensory fibers
• Ramus ventralis contains somatic motor fibers,
• Ramus communicans contains both visceral sensory and visceral
motor fibers.

w.
t'/w›u

Fig. 16.M. Frog. Four spinal nervae and their branches.

• First spinal nerve innervates the

tongue and hyoid muscles.
• Second spinal nerve, which is
the biggest, receives branches
from the first spinal nerve.
• Third spinal nerve innervates
the shoulder and forelimbs. This
sends a branch to the second
nerve and then branch off to
the external oblique,
transversus and skin.
• The fourth, fiXh and sixth
nerves are distributed to
the muscles and skin of
the body wall.
• The seventh, eight and
ninth spinal nerves form
the sciatic plexus, which
innervates the hindlimbs.
• The tenth spinal
nerve innervates the urinary
bladder and cloaca.

Fig. 18.54. Fn:›g. Oisseclion showing spinal nerves

1-10 and sympathei c Ink on the loft srde
only.