1. Define dryness fraction.

Dryness fraction is defined as the ratio of mass of vapour to combined mass of vapour and
liquid in a saturated liquid vapour mixture. It is denoted by x
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑣𝑎𝑝𝑜𝑢𝑟 𝑚𝑔
𝐷𝑟𝑦𝑛𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑓𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 , 𝑥 = =
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑣𝑎𝑝𝑜𝑢𝑟 + 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑙𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑑 𝑚𝑔 + 𝑚𝑙

2. Draw the p-v-T surface of a substance that contracts on freezing.

The equilibrium states of a simple, compressible substance can be specified in terms of its
pressure, volume and temperature. If any two of these state variables is specified, the third is
determined. This implies that the states of the substance can be represented as a surface in a
three-dimensional p-v-T space. The p-v-T surface above represents a substance which
contracts upon freezing. Most substances do so, the notable exception being water which
expands upon freezing. A considerable amount of information about the phases of matter can
be illustrated with the p-v-T surface.

The solid, liquid and gas(vapor) phases can be represented by regions on the surface. Note
that there are regions on the surface which represent a single phase, and regions which are
combinations of two phases. A point lying on a line between a single-phase and a two-phase
region represents a "saturation state". The line between the liquid and the liquid-vapor
regions is called the liquid-saturation line and any point on that line represents a saturated-
liquid state. A point on the boundary between the vapor and the liquid-vapor regions is called
a saturated-vapor state.

Note the critical state where the saturated-liquid and saturated-vapor lines meet. The state
variables of this unique point are denoted by 𝑃𝑐 , 𝑣𝑐 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑇𝑐 . If a substance is above the critical
temperature 𝑇𝑐 , it cannot condense into a liquid, no matter how high the pressure. This
merging of the liquid and vapor states above the critical temperature is a characteristic of all
known substances. While a pure vapor state can exist at a pressure lower than 𝑃𝑐 , at pressures
above 𝑃𝑐 it is constrained to be a vapor. States with pressures above 𝑃𝑐 are described as
"supercritical states".
 The remarkable "triple state" of matter where solid, liquid and vapor are in equilibrium may
be characterized by a temperature called the triple point. The triple state is represented by a
line parallel to the p-v plane with a characteristic pressure for the substance but variable
volume. The triple point temperature of water is assigned the value 273.16 K and the triple
state of water is used as the reference for establishing the Kelvin temperature scale.

3. What is critical state? Explain the terms critical pressure, critical volume and critical
temperature of water?

The critical point or critical state is the point at which two phases of a substance becomes
indistinguishable from one another. At this point, there is no phase boundary. At critical point
the liquid and the vapor phases have the same density. Critical point defined critical pressure
𝑝𝑐 and critical temperature 𝑇𝑐 .

Critical temperature: The critical temperature of a substance can be defined as the highest
temperature at which the substance can exist as a liquid. At temperatures above the critical
temperature, the substance in its vapour/gaseous state can no longer be liquified, regardless
of the amount pressure applied to it.
Critical Pressure (𝑝𝑐 ).: The critical pressure of a substance is the pressure that must be applied
in order to liquefy that substance at its critical temperature. For example, 217.7 atm. of
pressure must be applied to water in order to liquefy it at its critical temperature (which is
647.09 K)
Critical volume: The volume of one mole of a gas volume liquefied at critical temperature is
known as the critical volume (Vc).

4. Draw the phase equilibrium diagram on p-v coordinates for a substance which shrinks in
volume on melting.
5. Draw the phase equilibrium diagram for a pure substance on h-s plot with relevant constant
property lines
6. Explain P – T diagram of a pure substance.
7. Steam initially at 0.3 MPa, 250°C is cooled at constant volume. (a) At what temperature will
the steam become saturated vapour? (b) What is quality at 80°C? (c) What is the heat
transferred per kg of steam in cooling from250°C to 80°C?
8. A rigid vessel contains 1 kg of a mixture of saturated water and saturated steam at a pressure
of 0.15 MPa. When the mixture is heated, the state passes through the critical point.
Determine
a. The volume of the vessel.
b. The mass of liquid and of vapour in the vessel initially.
c. The temperature of the mixture when the pressure has risen to 3 MPa.
d. The heat transfer required to produce the final state.
9. Steam flows in a pipeline at 1.5MPa. After expanding to 0.1MPa in a throttling calorimeter,
the temperature is found to be 120°C. Find the quality of steam in the pipeline. What is the
maximum moisture at 1.5MPa that can be determined with this set-up if at least 5°C of
superheat is required after throttling for accurate reading?
10. A vessel of volume 0.04 m3 contains a mixture of saturated water and saturated steam at a
temperature of 250oC. The mass of the liquid present is 9 kg. Find the pressure, the mass, the
specific volume, the enthalpy, the entropy and the internal energy
11. Steam initially at 0.3 MPa, 250°C is cooled at constant volume. (a) At what temperature will
the steam become saturated vapour? (b) What is quality at 80°C? (c) What is the heat
transferred per kg of steam in cooling from250°C to 80°C?

12. A rigid closed tank of volume 3 m3 contains 5 kg of wet steam at a pressure of 200 kPa. The
tank is heated until the steam becomes dry saturated. Determine the final pressure and the
heat transfer to the tank.
13. A steam pressure of holding capacity 4 m3 contains a mixture of saturated water and saturated
steam at 2500C. The mass of the liquid present is 1 ton. Determine (i) Quality; (ii) Specific
Volume; (iii) Specific Enthalpy; (iv) Specific Entropy and (v) Specific Internal Energy of steam
14. A pressure cooker holding 2 kg of steam at 5 bar and 90% dry is being cooled slowly. What
quantity of heat has to be extracted so as to reduce the steam quality down to 60%? Also
 calculate the pressure and temperature of the steam that remains in the pressure cooker after
the heat rejection.
15. A mass of wet steam at temperature 1650C is expanded at constant quality 0.8 to pressure 3
bar. It is then heated at constant pressure to a degree of superheat 650C. Find the enthalpy
and entropy changes during expansion and during heating. Draw the T – s and h – s diagrams