processes
Article
Application of Artificial Neural Network for Predicting the
Drying Kinetics and Chemical Attributes of Linden
(Tilia platyphyllos Scop.) during the Infrared Drying Process
Kemal Çağatay Selvi 1, *, Alfadhl Yahya Alkhaled 2 and Taner Yıldız 1
Citation: Selvi, K.Ç.; Alkhaled, A.Y.;
Yıldız, T. Application of Artificial
Neural Network for Predicting the
Drying Kinetics and Chemical
Attributes of Linden (Tilia platyphyllos
Scop.) during the Infrared Drying
Process. Processes 2022, 10, 2069.
https://doi.org/10.3390/pr10102069
Academic Editor: Timothy Langrish
Received: 12 July 2022
Accepted: 10 October 2022
Published: 13 October 2022
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Copyright: © 2022 by the authors.
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland.
This article is an open access article
distributed under the terms and
conditions of the Creative Commons
Attribution (CC BY) license (https://
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4.0/).
Processes 2022, 10, 2069. https://doi.org/10.3390/pr10102069
1 Department of Agricultural Machinery and Technologies Engineering, Faculty of Agriculture,
University of Ondokuz Mayis, Samsun 55139, Turkey
2 Department of Horticulture, College of Agricultural & Life Sciences, University of Wisconsin–Madison,
Madison, WI 53705, USA
* Correspondence: kcselvi@omu.edu.tr; Tel.: +90-362-312-1919
Abstract: This study analyzes the possibility of utilizing artificial neural networks (ANNs) to charac-
terize the drying kinetics of linden leaf samples during infrared drying (IRD) at different temperatures
(50, 60, and 70 ◦ C) with sample thicknesses between 0.210 mm and 0.230 mm. The statistical pa-
rameters were constructed using several thin-layer models and ANN techniques. The coefficient of
determination (R2 ) and root mean square error (RMSE) were utilized to evaluate the appropriateness
of the models. The effective moisture diffusivity ranged from 4.13 × 10−12 m2 /s to 5.89 × 10−12 m2 /s,
and the activation energy was 16.339 kJ/mol. The applied Page, Midilli et al., Henderson and Pabis,
logarithmic, and Newton models could sufficiently describe the kinetics of linden leaf samples, with
R2 values of >0.9900 and RMSE values of <0.0025. The ANN model displayed R2 and RMSE values of
0.9986 and 0.0210, respectively. In addition, the ANN model made significantly accurate predictions
of the chemical properties of linden of total phenolic content (TPC), total flavonoid content (TFC),
DPPH, and FRAP, with values of R2 of 0.9975, 0.9891, 0.9980, and 0.9854, respectively. The validation
of the findings showed a high degree of agreement between the anticipated values generated using
the ANN model and the experimental moisture ratio data. The results of this study suggested that
ANNs could potentially be applied to characterize the drying process of linden leaves and make
predictions of their chemical contents.
Keywords: linden leaves; infrared drying; artificial neural network model; total phenolic content;
total flavonoids; DPPH; FRAP content
1. Introduction
Linden (Tilia platyphyllos Scop.) is a medicinal plant, the tea prepared with which
has a pleasant taste and which has several dozen different species and varieties [1]. It is
rich in polyphenols and presents high antioxidant activity against DPPH radicals [2,3]. In
addition, the nutritional content of linden, such as potassium and carbohydrates, has several
applications with positive effects on one’s health, including the following: treatment of
hypertension [4] and preparation of medicines that are sedative, stomachic, antispasmodic,
and diuretic [5]. In addition, it is recommended that the leaves are not used as intensely
as the flowers and that they are used as a diaphoretic, but the effect has not yet been
experimentally evaluated [6]. Apart from all these, it has been reported that it is used
to treat coughing related to common colds and as a sleep regulator [7]. Primarily in
Turkey, three linden species, Tilia tomentosa Moench, Tilia platyphyllos Scop., and Tilia rubra,
are found in the natural environment [8]. Many previous researchers have stated the
agricultural value of linden, such as its relief of anxiety related to indigestion, irregular
heartbeat, and vomiting [6,9–12].
https://www.mdpi.com/journal/processes
Processes 2022, 10, 2069 2 of 16

The process of drying food is one of the postharvest preservation methods that are most
frequently utilized. The processing of harvested agricultural crops helps to decrease the
rate of spoiling, improve the storage time, and lower the amount of items’ total bulk weight
before and after transportation. The enzymatic change brought about by the reactions
linked to the drying of agricultural goods is deactivated as a consequence of heat and mass
transfer, which ultimately leads to a reduction in the amount of moisture [13]. In addition,
it facilitates the removal of beneficial components from various food products. Various
techniques for drying, including hot-air drying (HAD), infrared drying (IRD), vacuum
drying (VD), and microwave drying (MWD), have been used for drying crops [14–16]. IRD
is the most efficient of these several drying processes, and it is a method that is utilized most
frequently in industrial drying because of the inherently more uniformly dried product
that it produces, which is innocuous and devoid of toxicity [17].
In the food processing industry, IRD radiation has been introduced, which reduces
both energy usage and processing time [18]. The logic behind IRD is that a portion of the
electromagnetic spectrum is mostly responsible for the heating impact that the Sun has [19].
It is only when infrared radiation is utilized to heat or dry wet items (since radiation travels
through a substance) that it is effective. The qualities of the material and the wavelength of
radiation both play a role in the depth to which it can penetrate. However, the drawback of
IRD is that it is harder to dry heavier coatings, as it is a surface phenomenon. Furthermore,
the surface of dry materials emits IRD radiation without heating the underlying substance.
There is no requirement for a medium heating source to be placed between the IRD energy
source and the substance that is dried [20]. IRD is often more convenient for thin material
layers having a large surface subject to radiation. There are several research studies on
mint documented in the scientific literature [21] that are relevant to the IRD process, as
well as studies on pieces of pepper [22], onion [23], strawberry [24], and kiwifruit [25], all
on separate plates. Therefore, knowing the optimal working standards and appropriate
drying conditions and using appropriate drying techniques are of paramount importance
to achieve quality together with reducing product costs and increasing the yield.
Earlier research investigated a variety of mathematical thin-layer drying models,
including empirical, semi-conceptual, and conceptual ones, such as Page, Newton, and
logarithmic models, to explain the drying kinetics of fruits and vegetables with the purpose
of increasing the performance characteristics of the drying process as a whole [26,27]. The
physical rules on which these models are based include aspects of mass, reaction kinetics,
and thermodynamics, among others, which regulate the process. A model’s accuracy in
predicting a thermal process is restricted by other elements, such as physical qualities,
which are subject to change throughout the thermal process. In addition, these models
are able to provide satisfactory regression findings from experimental data in a relatively
short amount of time. However, mathematical thin-layer algorithms are experimental in
nature, and they do not provide a physical interpretation of the drying procedure, with
these differences depending on the product [18].
Artificial neural networks (ANNs), as a part of computational intelligence, are thought
to be difficult-to-understand tools for dynamic modeling and the analysis of complex sys-
tems [28]. The ANN method is inspired to the biological neural system as an advantageous
statistical tool for nonparametric regression. The implementation of an ANN provides a
wide variety of benefits in comparison with more traditional modeling methods, such as
the capability of absorbing complex data interactions. Thus, ANNs have superior learning
capacity, better flexibility, and an online, non-invasive nature [29]. Therefore, the ANN is a
practical statistical model that is modeled after the biological brain system as an instrument
for performing nonparametric regression [28].
The application of modeling techniques that make use of computational intelligence is
one possible approach to mathematical thin-layer models because of their consistency and
accuracy. The application of ANNs is met with great success in modeling and can enhance
the drying procedure for several vegetables and fruits, for example, mushrooms [30],
eggplant [31], and persimmon [32]. In light of this, the ANN method may be used to make
 Processes 2022, 10, 2069 3 of 16

Processes 2022, 10, 2069 3 of 16

[30], eggplant [31], and persimmon [32]. In light of this, the ANN method may be used to
make accurate predictions of the drying kinetics of linden leaf samples subjected to IRD,
accurate predictions of the drying kinetics of linden leaf samples subjected to IRD, and the
and the literature provides only a limited amount of information on this topic. The use of
literature provides only a limited amount of information on this topic. The use of these
these models in this application can decrease the necessary amount of time for the pro-
models in this application can decrease the necessary amount of time for the production
duction process while optimize energy and quality of linden leaf samples and further
process while optimize energy and quality of linden leaf samples and further minimizing
minimizing costs. Therefore, this study aims to explore the drying properties of linden
costs. Therefore, this study aims to explore the drying properties of linden leaf samples at
leaf samples at different temperatures (50, 60, and 70 °C) using IRD associated with ANN
different temperatures (50, 60, and 70 ◦ C) using IRD associated with ANN modeling as a
modeling
method as a method of non-destructive
of non-destructive analysis forthe
analysis for characterizing characterizing the of
drying behavior drying behavior
linden leaves
of linden
and predictleaves and predict theproperties
the physiochemical physiochemical properties
of linden of linden leaf samples.
leaf samples.

2.2.Materials
Materialsand
andMethods
Methods
2.1.
2.1.Samples
SamplesPreparation
Preparation
Linden
Lindenleaves,
leaves,scientifically
scientificallyknown
known as asT.T.platyphyllos
platyphyllosScop.,
Scop.,were
weregathered
gatheredfromfromthe the
grounds
groundsof ofOndokuz
OndokuzMayıs Mayısuniversity.
university.In InTurkey,
Turkey,Samsun
Samsuncity’s
city’sshoreline
shorelineisishome
hometo toanan
open-air
open-airuniversity
university with
with location
location inin the
theBlack
BlackSeaSeaarea
areaofofthe
thecountry.
country.This
Thisherb
herbleaf
leafisis
widely
widelyregarded
regardedas asone
oneofofthethemost
mostpopular
populargoodsgoodsavailable
availablein inthe
thecity.
city.The
Thelinden
lindentreetree
has
hasblooms
blooms that five petals
that have five petalswith
withaalightlightgreenish-yellow
greenish-yellow coloration.
coloration. TheThe bloom
bloom is
is full
full of pollen-bearing stamens and an ovary that is arranged in corymbose
of pollen-bearing stamens and an ovary that is arranged in corymbose inflorescences, in inflorescences,
in which
which thethe peduncle
peduncle is only
is only partly
partly linked
linked to inflorescence
to the the inflorescence through
through a bract
a bract that isthat
made is
made of a membrane and is lanceolate in shape. It is around 8 cm long
of a membrane and is lanceolate in shape. It is around 8 cm long and has a rounded tip. and has a rounded
tip. Ahead
Ahead of the
of the process
process of drying,
of drying, lindenlinden
leaf leaf samples
samples werewerekeptkept
in a in a refrigerator
refrigerator at a
at a tem-
temperature
perature of of 5 °C5 ◦for
C for further
further analyses.This
analyses. Thisbeing
beingsaid,
said,ininthis
thisresearch
research study,
study, only
onlyleaves
leaves
that
thatwere
werefreefreefrom
fromdefects
defectsand anddisease
diseasewerewere selected
selected and
andplaced
placed into thethe
into infrared
infrareddrier as as
drier a
control having a very thin coating (5 g). Fresh, dry, and powdered linden
a control having a very thin coating (5 g). Fresh, dry, and powdered linden leaf samples leaf samples are
shown in Figure
are shown 1a–c.1a–c.
in Figure

Figure1.1.Linden
Figure Lindenleaves:
leaves:fresh
freshleaves
leaves(a),
(a),dry
drysamples
samples(b),
(b),and
andpowder
powder(c).
(c).

2.2.
2.2.Drying
DryingExperiments
Experiments
The
TheIRD
IRDmethod
methodwas wasemployed
employedwith withthe
theassistance
assistanceof ofaadrying
dryingunit
unitdesigned
designedfor foruse
use
ininthe
thelaboratory
laboratory (Radwag
(Radwag balances and and weighing
weighingscales;
scales;Warsaw,
Warsaw,Poland).
Poland).This
Thisgadget
gadgetis
iscapable
capableofofsending
sendingout outelectromagnetic
electromagnetic radiation
radiation in in the medium-frequency
medium-frequency IR IR band
bandof of
shortwave
shortwavelength.
length.TheThelinden
lindenleaf
leafsamples
samples were
weredried
dried atat three
three different
differenttemperatures
temperatures(50, (50,
60, ◦
60,and
and7070C).
°C).InIn
order
orderto avoid
to avoidcontamination during
contamination the IRD
during the procedure, the samples
IRD procedure, were
the samples
spread out evenly throughout the whole pan, and the radiation in the
were spread out evenly throughout the whole pan, and the radiation in the infrared spec-infrared spectrum
was
trumreflected back from
was reflected a region
back from that that
a region waswas
not not
covered by by
covered thethe
samples.
samples.AsAsthe
theprocess
process
ofofdrying
dryingcontinued,
continued,at ateach
eachdrying
dryingtemperature,
temperature,periods
periodsof ofapproximately
approximately 33min minwere
were
assigned
assignedforforevaporating
evaporatingwater waterin inabout
about33min
minintervals.
intervals.The Thetest
testwas
wasreproduced
reproducedthreethree
times,
times,and
andresults
resultsshowing
showing anan
average
averagedecrease
decreasein weight
in weight were reported.
were Before
reported. any any
Before of the
of
trials were performed, the IRD device was brought to the desired temperature
the trials were performed, the IRD device was brought to the desired temperature for a for a period
of 30 min
period ofto30allow
min totheallow
temperature of the dryer
the temperature to establish
of the a state of aequilibrium
dryer to establish with the
state of equilibrium
temperature of the air in the surrounding area.
with the temperature of the air in the surrounding area.
Processes 2022, 10, 2069 4 of 16

2.3. Kinetics of the Drying Processes

The amount of fluctuation in moisture content that occurred throughout the IRD
process was indicated in the moisture content ratio form (dimensionless) according to the
equation presented in Equation (1).

(Mt − Me )
MR = (1)
( Mo − Me )

where Mt represents the moisture content of the samples at time t, Me is the equilibrium
moisture content, and Mo represents the initial moisture content. The Me values remained
the same, as stated by Aghbashlo et al. [33], because of how low they were in comparison to
the Mt and Mo levels, which resulted in almost no mistakes being made during the process.
For the sake of simplification, the moisture ratio was represented in this study as given in
Equation (2).
Mt
MR = (2)
Mo

2.4. Effective Moisture Diffusivity and Activation Energy

In order to conduct an accurate analysis of the results obtained using the IRD tech-
nique on linden leaf samples, it was necessary to obtain an understanding of the process
responsible for the transport of moisture within the samples as they dried. In the process
of Fick’s diffusion, because of the ease with which it could represent the process of mass
transfer, an equation in the form of a dimensional approach was used for the drying sam-
ples. Using this approach, the effective moisture diffusivity of the samples subjected to IRD
was calculated. The solution proposed by Crank [34] to the diffusion problem posed by
Fick is outlined in Equation (3).

∂Mt
= ∇· (Deff ∇ Mt ) (3)
∂t
Supposing that the rate of diffusion remains constant and that the initial moisture
distribution is uniform, Crank’s solution is cylindrical in shape. Equation (4) depicts the
sample shape that was taken.

8 ∞
!
1 (2n + 1)2 Deff t
MR = 2 ∑ exp − (4)
π n=1 (2n + 1)2 r2

where Deff is the effective moisture diffusivity measured in squared meters per second,
r is the radius of the sample measured in meters, and n is the positive integer, while the
drying time is denoted by t (s). Equation (4) was constrained to only be applied in order to
simplify the mathematical representation; the first term ultimately leads to Equation (5).

π2 Deff t
 
8
MR = 2 exp − (5)
π r2

The activation energy is the lowest possible value of energy that must be present for
drying to take place. The energy required for activation calculations for the IRD technique
was derived from the correlation between the Arrhenius equation and the effective moisture
diffusivity equation used to calculate the samples’ average temperature, and the results are
presented in Equation (6).
 
Ea
Deff = Do exp − (6)
R(T + 273.15)

where Do represents the pre-exponential factor, Ea represents the activation energy (kJ/mol),
R stands for the universal gas constant (8.3143 × 10−3 kJ/mol), and T represents the
Processes 2022, 10, 2069 5 of 16

sample’s average temperature as a whole (K). The values of Ea for each of the IR experiments
were applied to various degrees of linden leaf thickness, and the measurements were taken
from the values of the resulting slope via the process of drawing the fitting curve between
the logarithm of the distance and 1/(T + 273.15) (Equation (7)).

Ea
Slope = − (7)
R

2.5. Mathematical Thin-Layer Modeling

The drying data from the experiments were obtained and then fitted to five different
mathematical models. The particular mathematical models that were used were Page,
Midilli et al., Henderson and Pabis, and logarithmic models, and models based on loga-
rithms and Newton’s laws, as shown in Table 1. The mathematical models that were used
were derived from the analysis of non-linear least squares by means of the Sigma plot
program (version 10.0; Systat Software Inc., San Jose, CA, USA). The utilization of such
models results in more accurate forecasts while requiring fewer assumptions [32].

Table 1. Mathematical thin-layer drying models.

Model No. Model Name Model Expression Reference

1 Page model MR = exp (−ktn ) [26]
2 Midilli et al. model MR = a exp (−kt) + bt [35]
3 Henderson and Pabis model MR = a exp (−kt) [36]
4 Logarithmic model MR = a exp (−kt) + c [37]
5 Newton model MR = exp (−kt) [31]

2.6. Artificial Neural Network

A neural network is organized in layers that are interconnected with one another.
According to Haykin [38], an ANN may be broken down into three distinct categories of
constructions based on the nature of their connections: (1) the single-layer feed-forward
network, (2) a network with many layers of feed-forward connections, and (3) a recurrent
network. A multi-storey building is one of these constructions. In the modeling of food
and agricultural systems, layered feed-forward networks are utilized on a regular basis. A
forward neural network consists of one or more hidden layers (h), in addition to an initial
layer (n) and a production layer (m). The number of independent variables is proportional
to the number of neurons present in the initial and last layers and is representative of the
number of inputs (independent variables) and outputs (dependent variables, respectively).
In the course of this investigation, a multi-layer feed-forward network was utilized. This
construction was employed with three input parameters (drying time, temperature, and
thickness) and 1–3 hidden layers, in addition to the five output parameters of moisture
ratio, total phenolic content, total flavonoid content (TFC), DPPH, and total flavonoid assay
(FRAP), as is seen in Figure 2. During the model training process, a back-propagation
method was utilized, and in each and every one of these examples, the sigmoid function
was utilized, as shown in Equation (8).

1
f(x) = (8)
1 + e−x
The datasets were prepared by randomly dividing the data into training and test
datasets, 70% and 30%, respectively. The structure of the selected hidden layer was a
single-layer ([3], [6], [9]), two-layer ([3, 3], [6, 6], [9, 9]), or three-layer ([3, 3, 3], [6, 6, 6]
[9, 9, 9]) matrix, where for example, [9], [9, 9], and [9, 9, 9], represented one, two, and
three hidden layers with 9, 18, and 27 neurons, respectively, as illustrated in Figure 2.
The software that was utilized was Weka 3.6, which was developed in Hamilton, New
Zealand, for the analysis of the ANN model. In general, ANNs are capable of performing
neural fitting and prediction, as well as other related tasks. In this particular instance, it
 Processes 2022, 10, 2069 6 of 16
Processes 2022, 10, 2069 6 of 16

prediction, as well as other related tasks. In this particular instance, it could be possible to
could
makebe possible toabout
predictions make the
predictions about the
future without future without
employing neuralemploying neural network
network technologies tai-
technologies tailored to the
lored to the subject matter. subject matter.

Figure2.2.Artificial
Figure Artificialneural
neuralnetwork
networktopology
topologyapplied
appliedfor
forthis
thisstudy.
study.

2.7.
2.7.Determination
DeterminationofofChemical
ChemicalCharacteristics
Characteristics
The
The maceration method wasused
maceration method was usedtotoextract
extractthe thepowdered
powderedmaterialmaterialwith withmethanol
methanol
and distilled water (80:20, volume/volume) for 12 h at room
and distilled water (80:20, volume/volume) for 12 h at room temperature; then, temperature; then, the mixture
the mix-
was
turecentrifuged for 20 for
was centrifuged min.20Amin.
sinboA SCM
sinbo2934SCMspice2934grinder with a with
spice grinder capacity of 55 g of
a capacity and 55ag
stainless-steel blade was
and a stainless-steel used
blade wasto grind
used to thegrind
linden thesamples. The supernatant
linden samples. was utilized
The supernatant was
for the purposes of estimating antioxidants and the activity of
utilized for the purposes of estimating antioxidants and the activity of antioxidants. The antioxidants. The total
phenolic content
total phenolic (TPC) (TPC)
content was determined
was determined using using
a technique knownknown
a technique as the asFolin–Ciocalteu
the Folin–Cio-
method [39]; therefore, we thoroughly combined a
calteu method [39]; therefore, we thoroughly combined a volume of 0.5 mLvolume of 0.5 mL of theof extract and
the extract
2.5 mL of Folin–Ciocalteu reagent. After waiting for 5 min, 2 mL
and 2.5 mL of Folin–Ciocalteu reagent. After waiting for 5 min, 2 mL of2 Na23CO3 solution of Na CO solution at
aatconcentration of 20% was added to the mixture, and it was
a concentration of 20% was added to the mixture, and it was then allowed to stand in then allowed to stand in
the
thedark
darkfor
foraaperiod
periodofof22h.h.At Ataawavelength
wavelengthof of760
760nm, nm,the theabsorbance
absorbancewas wasmeasured.
measured.
For the calibration curve, gallic acid was used as the standard, and the result was stated
For the calibration curve, gallic acid was used as the standard, and the result was stated
as milligrams of gallic acid. The overall flavonoid content was determined according to
as milligrams of gallic acid. The overall flavonoid content was determined according to
Gao et al. [40]. A colorimetric assay with AlCl3 was used to assess total fluorescent content
Gao et al. [40]. A colorimetric assay with AlCl3 was used to assess total fluorescent content
(TFC). In a test tube that already had 0.75 mL of distilled water, 0.25 mL of the extract
(TFC). In a test tube that already had 0.75 mL of distilled water, 0.25 mL of the extract was
was added to the tube. A volume of 0.15 mL of a 5% solution was added after adding
added to the tube. A volume of 0.15 mL of a 5% solution was added after adding sodium
sodium nitrite solution to the mixture; this was allowed to react for 5 min. The next step
nitrite solution to the mixture; this was allowed to react for 5 min. The next step was to
was to add 0.3 mL of 10% aluminum chloride. After waiting for 5 min, 1 mL of a sodium
add 0.3 mL of 10% aluminum chloride. After waiting for 5 min, 1 mL of a sodium hydrox-
hydroxide solution at a concentration of 1 M was added. The amount of absorption was
ide solution at a concentration of 1 M was added. The amount of absorption was 510 nm
510 nm when it was measured. In order to calibrate the catechin concentration, a standard
when it was measured. In order to calibrate the catechin concentration, a standard curve
curve was constructed. TFC was given in milligrams of catechin equivalents (CEs) per
was constructed. TFC was given in milligrams of catechin equivalents (CEs) per gram of
gram of sampled material.
sampled material. activity of free radicals was determined by employing the stable DPPH
The scavenging
free radicalscavenging
The as the measuringactivitytool,
of free radicals was
as described determined byetemploying
by Brand-Williams the stable
al. [41]. Methanolic
DPPH free radical as the measuring tool, as described by Brand-Williams
extract in the amount of 0.5 mL was added to the mixture; then, we added a 2 mL solution et al. [41]. Meth-
anolic extract in the amount of 0.5 mL was added to the mixture;
of methanol containing 200 mmol/L of DPPH, and the reaction mixture was vigorously then, we added a 2 mL
solutionAfter
shaken. of methanol containing
being allowed 200 mmol/L
to incubate at room of DPPH,
temperatureand the forreaction
120 min,mixture was vig-
the absorbance
orously shaken. After being allowed to incubate at room temperature
of DPPH in the positive control (Trolox) and the samples was evaluated at a wavelength for 120 min, theof
absorbance of DPPH in the positive control (Trolox) and the
517 nm. A comparison was made between the scavenging activities of the DPPH free radicalsamples was evaluated at a
wavelength
and of 517which
that of Trolox, nm. Aiscomparison
an analog ofwas made
vitamin E between
that is water the scavenging
soluble. Theactivities
findings wereof the
DPPH free radical and that of Trolox, which is an analog of vitamin
reported in millimoles of Trolox equivalents (TEs) per gram of powder. In this experiment, E that is water soluble.
Theferric
the findings wereantioxidant
reducing reported in powermillimoles
(FRAP)of Trolox
test was equivalents
performed(TEs) per gram
according of powder.
to Benzie and
In this[42].
Strain experiment,
Extract inthe theferric
amount reducing
of 0.50 antioxidant
mL was combined power with (FRAP) FRAPtestreagent
was performed
(3 mL) and ac-
cording to Benzie and Strain [42]. Extract in the amount of
allowed to sit for 5 min. FRAP reagent was composed of 300 mM acetate buffer, pH 3.6, 0.50 mL was combined with
FRAP
and reagent
10 mM TPTZ (3 mL) and allowed
dissolved in HCl to (40sit for 5inmin.
mM), FRAPtoreagent
addition FeCl 3.6H was2 O composed
(20 mM).of At300a
Processes 2022, 10, 2069 7 of 16

wavelength of 593 nm, an absorbance reading was taken with a spectrophotometer. The
samples were evaluated, and the calculations were performed with the use of the ferrous
sulfate calibration curve (0.0–1.0 mM) for quantification. The findings were reported in
terms of millimoles Fe (II) per gram of the samples’ dry weight.

2.8. Model Evaluation

Model evaluation was carried out by utilizing software that is part of Statistical
Analysis System (SAS; version 9.3; Institute, Inc., Cary, NC, USA). The comparison of
the mean significant differences between different drying time intervals while employing
the IRD technique was carried out using an ANOVA (5% level of significance and 95%
confidence intervals) and the Duncan test. The findings of replicate measurements were
reported as mean ± standard error values. The accuracy of the fitting of the computational
intelligence (ANN) and mathematical thin-layer models to the experimental data was
determined using statistical indicators. These model evaluators were the coefficient of
determination (R2 ) and the root mean square error (RMSE). They were mathematically
calculated in accordance with what is emphasized in Equations (9) and (10).
 2
∑N
i=1 V pred − V exp
R2 = 1 −  2 (9)
∑Ni=1 Vpred − Vm

v
u  2
u N
t ∑i=1 Vpred − Vexp
RMSE = (10)
N
where Vpred represents the projected value, Vexp represents the actual observation derived
from the experimental data, and Vm represents the mean value. The average of the actual
observations was obtained, with N standing for the total number of observations. The
values of R2 and RMSE were as follows: The quality of the fitting was considered to be
superior when both the value of R2 and the value of RMSE were reduced.

3. Results and Discussion

3.1. Behavior of the Drying Process
The changes in the moisture ratio over time following the application of the IRD
technique at different temperatures (50, 60, and 70 ◦ C) are illustrated in Figure 3. The
moisture ratios of the linden leaf samples used for the analysis may be determined from the
plot. The effectiveness of the IRD approach was reduced as the drying time increased. The
rates of drying were achieved using the IRD technique during the time when the rate was
decreasing. Figure 3 makes it abundantly evident that the drying time, as a result, decreased
as the drying progressed. The moisture ratio values of 0.20 and 0.42 were obtained after
a drying time of 10 min and at temperatures of 60 and 70 ◦ C. After 37 min of drying, a
moisture ratio of 0.20 was discovered to be present in the substance at 50 ◦ C. The amount
of moisture in the material fell to 0.10 g [H2 O] kg−1 [DM], depending on the temperature
at which it was dried, within around 20 to 50 min (Figure 3). In addition, the findings
demonstrated that the increase in the drying temperature led to a steeper slope, and the
amount of time it took to dry the samples was cut down by around 250%. Based on these
findings, it could be deduced that the moisture of samples obtained from linden leaves
transferred from the inner layer to the surface as the air became dryer. The temperature
increased to a point at which water vapor escaped from the surface of the dry material to
the surrounding air atmosphere, resulting in an increase in the pace of drying that occurred
as a result of a higher temperature. The results were in accordance with the findings of
other studies on the drying patterns of different types of materials [17,32,43]. In addition,
the drying rate curves became steeper as the drying temperature increased. This discovery
may be found in accordance with the findings of a number of different investigations using
the IRD method [23,24].
Processes 2022, 10, 2069 8 of 16

discovery may be found in accordance with the findings of a number of different investi-
Processes 2022, 10, 2069 8 of 16
gations using the IRD method [23,24].

1
50 °C 60 °C 70 °C

Moisture Ratio (MR)

0.8

0.6

0.4

0.2

0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
Drying time (min)
Figure 3. Drying characteristics of linden leaf samples.
Figure 3. Drying characteristics of linden leaf samples.
3.2. Effective Moisture Diffusivity and Activation Energy
3.2. Effective Moisture the
Table 2 displays Diffusivity and Activation
many values that could Energy
be assigned to the effective moisture diffu-
sivityTable
(Deff ).2 The Deff values
displays the manyranged anywhere
values from 4.13
that could × 10−12 mto2 /s
be assigned thetoeffective
−12 m2 /s
5.89 × 10moisture
on average.(D
diffusivity According
eff). The Dto what isranged
eff values presented in Tablefrom
anywhere 2, Deff noticeably
4.13 × 10−12 mrose
2/s towith
5.89the
× 10increase
−12 m2/s

in the drying temperature from 50 ◦ C to 70 ◦ C. This outcome could have been due to the
on average. According to what is presented in Table 2, Deff noticeably rose with the in-
increase
crease in in
thethe activity
drying of water molecules
temperature from 50 °Cattohigher
70 °C.temperatures,
This outcome which led tobeen
could have a rise in
due
moisture
to diffusivity.
the increase in the The values
activity of Deff molecules
of water that were found in this
at higher research study
temperatures, fellled
which within
to a
the typical range of 10 −6 to 10–12 m2 /s when applied to the drying of food materials.
rise in moisture diffusivity. The values of Deff that were found in this research study fell
The values
within of Deff range
the typical were consistent with
of 10−6 to 10 –12 mthose found
2/s when in other
applied investigations
to the drying of food on the drying
materials.
of strawberries (2.40–12.1 × 10 −9 m2 /s), the drying of apples (2.27–4.97 × 10−10 m2 /s),
The values of Deff were consistent with those found in other investigations on the drying
thestrawberries
of drying of persimmon
(2.40–12.1 slices
× 10−9(1.330–9.221 × 10−of
m2/s), the drying
9 m2 /s), and the drying of pumpkins
apples (2.27–4.97 × 10−10 m2/s), the
(1.19–4.27 −
× 10 m /s)9 2 [32,44–46].
drying of persimmon slices (1.330–9.221 × 10−9 m2/s), and the drying of pumpkins (1.19–
4.27 × 10−9 m2/s) [32,44–46].
Table 2. Values of effective moisture diffusivity and activation energy in linden leaf samples subjected
to IRD.2. Values of effective moisture diffusivity and activation energy in linden leaf samples sub-
Table
jected to IRD.
Drying Temperature (◦ C) Deff (m2 /s) D0 (m2 /s) Ea (kJ/mol)
Drying Temperature
50 (°C) 4.13 ×D10 eff−(m
12 2/s) D0 (m2/s) Ea (kJ/mol)
60 50 4.47 × − 12 1.746 × 10 − 9 16.339
4.13
10 × 10 −12

70 60 5.89 × 10−×1210−12
4.47 1.746 × 10−9 16.339
70 5.89 × 10 −12

On the other hand, the Arrhenius diffusivity constant, sometimes referred to as the “pre-
On the factor”
exponential other hand, equationthe Arrhenius diffusivity
(D0 ), for linden leaves constant, sometimes
was estimated referred
to be 1.746 × 10to−9as 2 /s
mthe
“pre-exponential
by the researchers. factor” equationof(Denergy
The amounts 0), for linden
required leaves was estimated
for activation in IRDto were
be 1.746 × 10−9
obtained
m
by/s
2 by the ln(D
plotting researchers.
eff ) versus The amounts
1/(T + 273.15).of energy
Unlike required for activation
the activation in IRD were
energy, however, ob-
this was
proportional
tained to theln(D
by plotting gradient multiplied
eff) versus by the universal
1/(T + 273.15). Unlike thegasactivation
constant (R), as seen
energy, in Figure
however, this4.
The proportional
was energy required to theforgradient
activation was calculated
multiplied using thegas
by the universal IRDconstant
value, which
(R), as may
seen bein
found in
Figure 4. Table 2. Therequired
The energy value of forEa in IRD waswas
activation 16.339 kJ/mol.using
calculated This the
result
IRD was within
value, the
which
rangebeoffound
may 15–40 in
kJ/mol
Table found
2. The for several
value of Eafoods
in IRD [47].
wasWhen
16.339activation energies
kJ/mol. This resultofwas
vegetables
within
the range of 15–40 kJ/mol found for several foods [47]. When activation energies of found
and fruits were assessed, more than 90% of the activation energy values that were vege-
in previous
tables studies
and fruits were ranged
assessed,between
more14.42
than 90% and 43.26
of thekJ/mol, forenergy
activation example, 28.60
values kJ/mol
that were
for bamboo
found [48]. The
in previous activation
studies energy
ranged found14.42
between in the present
and 43.26 study
kJ/mol, forfor
linden leaves28.60
example, was
relatively
kJ/mol forlow. The E
bamboo a value
[48]. The shows the sensitivity
activation energy found of diffusivity to temperature.
in the present This means
study for linden leaves
that the lower the Ea value is, the lower the sensitivity of diffusivity to the temperature is;
so, a lower value indicates high moisture diffusivity. Hence, in the present study, about
16.339 kJ/mol of energy was required for moisture diffusion and subsequent evaporation
from the surface of the leaves.
 was relatively low. The Ea value shows the sensitivity of diffusivity to temperature. This
means that the lower the Ea value is, the lower the sensitivity of diffusivity to the temper-
ature is; so, a lower value indicates high moisture diffusivity. Hence, in the present study,
Processes 2022, 10, 2069 about 16.339 kJ/mol of energy was required for moisture diffusion and subsequent evap- 9 of 16
oration from the surface of the leaves.

Temperature inverse (1/K)

0.00288 0.00291 0.00294 0.00297 0.003 0.00303 0.00306 0.00309 0.00312

-25.80
-25.85
-25.90
-25.95
ln (Deff)
y = -1.965.2866x - 20.16593
-26.00
R² = 0.8964
-26.05
-26.10
-26.15
-26.20
-26.25
-26.30

Figure
Figure4.4.Relationship
Relationshipbetween
betweenIRD
IRDtemperature
temperatureand
andeffective
effectivemoisture
moisturediffusivity.
diffusivity.

3.3.Comparison
3.3. ComparisonofofDifferent
DifferentMathematical
MathematicalModels
ModelsofofThin
ThinLayers
Layers
DuringIRD,
During IRD,mathematical
mathematicalthin-layer
thin-layeralgorithms
algorithmswere wereutilized
utilizedtotocharacterize
characterizethe
the
drying kinetics of linden leaf samples. Table 3 presents different mathematical
drying kinetics of linden leaf samples. Table 3 presents different mathematical models, models,
suchasasPage,
such Page,Midilli
Midillietetal.,
al.,Henderson
Hendersonand andPabis,
Pabis,logarithmic,
logarithmic,andandNewton,
Newton,that
thatsuited
suited
the data, considering the experimental moisture content data of the sample. Despite the
the data, considering the experimental moisture content data of the sample. Despite the
fact that each of the five models was suitably chosen for the experimental data, the Page
fact that each of the five models was suitably chosen for the experimental data, the Page
model satisfactorily characterized the drying kinetics of linden leaf when it was fitted to
model satisfactorily characterized the drying kinetics of linden leaf when it was fitted to
the experimental data. Samples had R2 values of more than 0.9900 and RMSE values of
the experimental data. Samples had R2 values of more than 0.9900 and RMSE values of
less than 0.0200 under all IRD conditions. Temperatures were taken from Table 3, and as
less than 0.0200 under all IRD conditions. Temperatures were taken from Table 3, and as
shown here, results that were comparable to those observed using the other four models
shown here, results that were comparable to those observed using the other four models
were achieved. Similar results were obtained using the other four models; we found the
were achieved. Similar results were obtained using the other four models; we found the
top model to fit the experimental data with the highest R2 2 of >0.9990 and the lowest RMSE
top model to fit the experimental data with the highest R of >0.9990 and the lowest RMSE
of <0.0150 at all three temperatures (50, 60 and 70 ◦ C), except for the Henderson and Pabis
of <0.0150 at all three temperatures (50, 60 and 70 °C),2 except for the Henderson and Pabis
model and the Newton model, which illustrated R values of 0.9896 and 0.9896 at 70 ◦ C,
model and the Newton model, which illustrated R2 values of 0.9896 and 0.9896 at 70 °C,
respectively. Khaled et al. [32] similarly stated the suitability of the Page, Midilli et al.,
respectively.
Henderson and Khaled
Pabis,et logarithmic,
al. [32] similarly stated the
and Newton suitability
models of the Page,
for predicting Midilli
the drying et al.,of
kinetics
Henderson and Pabis, logarithmic, and Newton models for predicting the drying
persimmon slices samples. Younis et al. [48] found similar results, indicating the evaluation kinetics
ofofpersimmon slices
the suitability samples.
of the Page, Younis et al.,
Midilli et al. [48] found similar
Henderson results,
and Pabis, indicating
logarithmic, theNewton
and eval-
uation of the suitability of the Page, Midilli et al., Henderson and Pabis, logarithmic,
models, as well as any other relevant models, in a discussion on the drying characteristics and
Newton
of garlicmodels,
slices. as well as any other relevant models, in a discussion on the drying char-
acteristics of garlic slices.
Table 3. Mathematical drying model evaluation for linden leaves samples subject to IRD.
Table 3. Mathematical drying model evaluation for linden leaves samples subject to IRD.
Drying Temperature (◦ C) Model No. Model Parameters R2 RMSE
Drying Temperature (°C) Model No. Model Parameters R2 RMSE
1 1 k = 0.0472,
k = 0.0472, n = 1.0381
n = 1.0381 0.9992
0.9992 0.0090
0.0090
2 2 k = 0.0413,
k = 0.0413, n = 1.0933,
n = 1.0933, a = 0.9998,
a = 0.9998, b = 0.0003
b = 0.0003 0.9999
0.9999 0.0025
0.0025
5050 3 3 a = 1.0128, k = 0.0538
a = 1.0128, k = 0.0538 0.9990
0.9990 0.0098
0.0098
4 4 a = 1.0096, k = 0.0547,
a = 1.0096, c = 0.0053
k = 0.0547, c = 0.0053 0.9991
0.9991 0.0099
0.0099
5 5 k = 0.0532
k = 0.0532 0.9988
0.9988 0.0104
0.0104
1 k = 0.0955, n = 0.9915 0.9935 0.0257
2 k = 0.0716, n = 1.1305, a = 0.9984, b = 0.0009 0.9992 0.0102
60 3 a = 1.0032, k = 0.0937 0.9935 0.0256
4 a = 0.9844, k = 0.1028, c = 0.0286 0.9969 0.0188
5 k = 0.0934 0.9935 0.0245
Processes 2022, 10, 2069 10 of 16

Table 3. Cont.

Drying Temperature (◦ C) Model No. Model Parameters R2 RMSE

1 k = 0.2584, n = 0.7815 0.9931 0.0269
2 k = 0.1300, n = 1.1340, a = 0.9914, b = 0.0013 0.9984 0.0152
70 3 a = 0.9935, k = 0.1625 0.9896 0.0330
4 a = 0.9611, k = 0.1866, c = 0.0405 0.9998 0.0055
5 k = 0.1635 0.9896 0.0312

3.4. Results of Artificial Neural Network

When employing the ANN model in the IRD approach, time, temperature, and various
degrees of linden leaf thickness were employed to make predictions regarding the moisture
ratio. The statistical findings of training and validation are shown in Table 4. The training
datasets were utilized in order to determine the optimal combination of neuronal and
hidden layer counts for multi-layer modeling using neural networks to find out which
method had the most accurate predicting ability. The findings of IRD found that the design
with two hidden layers consisting of 12 and 18 neurons (6 and 6 neurons; 9 and 9 neurons)
produced the greatest results when compared with the findings of the training set (0.9769
and 0.9743) and the test set (0.9986 and 0.9974). While at one hidden layer consisting of
3, 6, and 9 neurons; two hidden layers consisting of 6 neurons; and three hidden layers
consisting of 9, 18, and 27 neurons, respectively (Table 4). Additionally, it was discovered
that the networks were vulnerable to the number of neurons in the deepest layers of
their bodies. Therefore, fewer neurons led to underfitting, whereas an excessive number
of neurons led to overfitting, causing an excessive amount of fitting. Khaled et al. [32]
provided evidence indicating that an ANN consisting of two hidden layers and 12 neurons
accurately anticipated the changes in persimmon moisture content during the various
stages of vacuum drying (VD) and hot-air drying (HAD) at varied drying temperatures
of 50 ◦ C, 60 ◦ C, and 70 ◦ C for sample thicknesses of 5 mm and 8 mm. ANN models
consisting of two covert layers were also shown to accurately forecast the drying behavior
of other fruits and vegetables, such as pepper, apple slices, and mushroom, in the case of
microwave–vacuum drying [49,50].

Table 4. Statistical results of drying kinetics of linden leaf samples for the ANN model using IRD.

Training Test
No. of Hidden Layers No. of Neurons
R2 RMSE R2 RMSE
1 3 0.9620 0.0654 0.9978 0.0152
1 6 0.9602 0.0666 0.9943 0.0194
1 9 0.9717 0.0566 0.9866 0.0302
2 3, 3 0.9549 0.0706 0.9974 0.0132
2 6, 6 0.9769 0.0546 0.9986 0.0210
2 9, 9 0.9743 0.0568 0.9974 0.0327
3 3, 3, 3 0.9424 0.0795 0.9962 0.0215
3 6, 6, 6 0.9672 0.0616 0.9971 0.0163
3 9, 9, 9 0.9704 0.0587 0.9961 0.0412

3.5. Comparison between Mathematical Thin-Layer Models and Artificial Neuron Networks
The greatest findings produced using the computational intelligence (ANN) model,
as well as the top two mathematical thin-layer models (Page and Midilli et al), for the
prediction of the moisture ratios are summarized in Table 5. The best results found by
applying the ANN to IRD were R2 of 0.9986 and RMSE of 0.0210 considering two hidden
layers with 12 neurons. On the other hand, the mathematical thin-layer models found
the range of R2 to be from 0.9992 to 0.9999 and that of RMSE to be between 0.0090 and
Processes 2022, 10, 2069 11 of 16

0.0025 for IRD at the temperatures of 50 ◦ C and 70 ◦ C. It could be seen that the prediction
of the moisture ratios with the model developed using the ANN gave the highest R2
result and the lowest RMSE compared with the mathematical thin-layer models (Page,
Midilli et al., and logarithmic models) with values of >0.9900 and <0.0100, respectively
(Table 5). According to the findings, the ANN produced the greatest outcomes, which
was consistent with the findings of previous research [32,47] that backed the usage of an
ANN as a data prediction approach to help to enhance the outcomes. In conclusion, the
findings of this study showed that the computational model could be applied to real-world
problems using ANN in the processes of drying linden leaf samples under a variety of
conditions. Therefore, using the ANN approach in drying resulted in an improvement in
drying performance in general; managing the drying process and the input factors could
maximize energy efficiency, product quality, and profit.

Table 5. Statistical results of drying kinetics of linden leaf samples for computational intelligence and
mathematical models using IRD.

Model R2 RMSE
Computational
ANN 0.9986 0.0210
intelligence
Logarithmic 0.9998 0.0055
Mathematical model Page 0.9992 0.0090
Midilli et al. 0.9999 0.0025

3.6. Total Phenolic Content (TPC) and Total Flavonoid Content (TFC)
To avoid mistakes caused by differences in dry matter contents, the results were
calculated using dry matter values. The TPC in fresh leaves was substantially higher
than that in dried leaves (p ≤ 0.05). Similarly, a new research study indicated that dried
plant materials contained more polyphenolic antioxidants than fresh plant materials [51].
Table 6 displays the TPC and TFC concentrations in linden leaves processed at various
temperatures.

Table 6. Total phenolic and flavonoid contents in fresh and dried linden leaves.

Temperature (◦ C) TPC (mg/g, DW) TFC (mg/g, DW)

Fresh 127.73 ± 0.76 b 0.567 ± 0.015 b
50 95.184 ± 0.47 a 2.790 ± 0.150 a
60 99.756 ± 0.63 a 2.631 ± 0.084 a
70 99.756 ± 0.63 a 2.583 ± 0.145 a
Significance <0.001 <0.001
Total phenolic content (TPC) and total flavonoid content (TFC). a, b: different letters within the same column
show statistical differences (p < 0.01).

Due to heteroscedasticity, a nonparametric permutation test was performed to examine

the data. To prevent mistakes resulting from variances in dry matter contents, TPC and
TFC values were adjusted and evaluated based on dry matter values. The TPC in linden
leaves varied significantly between fresh and dried samples, with values ranging from
95.184 ± 0.63 mg/g to 127.73 ± 0.76 mg/g (Table 6). The TPC in dried leaves (at 50, 60, and
70 ◦ C) was considerably (p-value < 0.001) lower than that in fresh leaves. The decrease in
TPC following IR drying may have been due to enzymatic reactions. In addition, the TPC
significantly decreased between fresh and dried samples, most likely due to the production
of several antioxidant molecules with differing degrees of antioxidant activity. Rababah
et al. [52] observed the same outcomes in sage, lemon balm, and thyme, and López et al. [53]
did so in blueberry. When evaluating the number of phenolic compounds after drying,
greater TPC values were discovered in fresh leaves than in dried samples. It was also
Processes 2022, 10, 2069 12 of 16

reported by Felipe et al. [54] that the drying process could reduce the overall phenol level
by roughly 30%.
In contrast, as shown in Table 6, the Duncan test suggested that there were no signifi-
cant differences among the temperatures (50, 60, and 70 ◦ C). This suggested that linden
leaves were thermostable within the temperature range investigated. This may indicate that
the phenolic compounds present in linden leaves are thermostable. Złotek et al. [55] made
similar observations about the drying process. In addition, some researchers hypothesized
that not only the number of antioxidants but also the synergy between them and the other
leaves could impact the differences in the antioxidant capacity of material extracts [56].
Similarly, when the TFC was analyzed, a propensity for the phenol content to be
directly proportionate was noted. Table 6 displays the TFC content of linden leaves, which
varied significantly between fresh and dried samples, ranging from 0.567 ± 0.015 mg/g to
2.790 ± 0.150 mg/g. This may have been due to the decrease in solution viscosity caused
by an increase in the temperature as the lime leaves changed from a wet to dry state and
the corresponding increase in solubility [57]. Roshanak et al. [58] observed that dried green
tea contained a higher concentration of TFC than fresh samples. In a separate investigation,
Azad et al. [59] studied the effects of the IR drying process on Angelica Gigas Nakai Powder
and discovered that the temperature rise decreased the total flavonoid concentration in
comparison with the fresh sample. Even though the highest TFC value among temperature
applications was obtained at 50 ◦ C, there were no statistically significant changes (0.001) in
the data due to the temperature rise. As with the total phenol content measurements, the
TFC values were unaffected by the rise in the temperature. Sugar moieties and methoxyl
groups protect flavonoids from various drying processes, such as IR, microwave, and
ultrasonic-induced degradation, while hydroxyl groups and the presence of non-phenolic
chemicals increases their stability [60]. In this investigation, regardless of the kind of
flavonoids and the amount of substituents, the flavonoid content did not vary. In addition,
the present study’s TFC results correlated with those of Olsson et al. [61]. According to
their findings, heating did not affect the total flavonol content in sweet cultivars and red
onion cultivars.
As evidenced by these findings, drying processes have diverse effects on TPC and TFC.
This conclusion implies that in addition to the Midilli drying model, the simpler Page model
may be preferable for drying linden leaves using an infrared thin-layer drying approach. In
addition, 50 ◦ C could be sufficient in terms of phenol concentration and flavonoid content
in an IR process for drying thin layers of lime leaves. Higher temperatures, such as 60 ◦ C
or 70 ◦ C, can be avoided to conserve energy. Still under investigation are the functional
aspects of food drying that are influenced by complex chemical interactions.

3.7. Results of Artificial Neuron Networks to Predict Chemical Properties of Linden Leaf Samples
Temperatures and linden leaf thickness levels were used to predict total phenolics
(mg/g, DW), total flavonoids (mg/g, DW), DPPH (mmol/g, DW), and FRAP (mmol/g,
DW) using the ANN model. Table 7 illustrates the statistical results of the four chemical
properties obtained by applying the multi-layer feed-forward network structure on the
drying experimental data of the samples. The ANN dataset was used to assess the opti-
mum number of neurons and hidden layers for multi-layer neural network modeling for
determining the best predictive power. In the case of total phenolics, total flavonoids, and
FRAP, we found that the architecture with two hidden layers with 6 (3 and 3) neurons
obtained the best results of R2 (0.9975, 0.9891, and 0.9845) and the lowest RMSE (2.6100,
0.1346, and 0.9808) as compared with those with one hidden layer (3, 6, and 9 neurons),
two hidden layers (12 and 18 neurons), and three hidden layers (9, 18, and 27 neurons),
respectively (Table 6). On the other hand, for DPPH, the highest results were found with
the architecture with three hidden layers with 18 (6, 6, and 6) neurons, which obtained
the best result of R2 (0.9980) and the lowest RMSR (2.9317) as compared with those with
one hidden layer (3, 6, and 9 neurons), two hidden layers (6, 12, and 18 neurons), and
three hidden layers (9 and 27 neurons), respectively (Table 7). In addition to this, it was
Processes 2022, 10, 2069 13 of 16

discovered that the networks were vulnerable to the number of neurons hiding in their
layers under the surface. Because of this, lower neuronal populations led to underfitting.

Table 7. Statistical results of chemical characteristics of linden leaf samples for ANN approach
using IRD.

Total Phenolics Total Flavonoids

No. of Hidden No. of DPPH, mmol/g, DW FRAP, mmol/g, DW
(mg/g, DW) (mg/g, DW)
Layers Neurons
R2 RMSE R2 RMSE R2 RMSE R2 RMSE
1 3 0.9969 2.8914 0.9884 0.1393 0.9977 3.1420 0.9816 1.0760
1 6 0.9965 3.1026 0.9882 0.1404 0.9977 3.1396 0.9824 1.0485
1 9 0.9965 3.0855 0.9877 0.1439 0.9975 3.3549 0.9839 1.0017
2 3, 3 0.9975 2.6100 0.9891 0.1346 0.9978 3.0660 0.9845 0.9808
2 6, 6 0.9974 2.6835 0.9890 0.1356 0.9978 3.0664 0.9840 0.9986
2 9, 9 0.9972 2.7533 0.9888 0.1370 0.9978 3.0894 0.9833 1.0197
3 3, 3, 3 0.9970 2.8433 0.9881 0.1401 0.9979 3.0421 0.9826 1.0402
3 6, 6, 6 0.9968 2.9741 0.9876 0.1439 0.9980 2.9317 0.9818 1.0690
3 9, 9, 9 0.9965 3.0873 0.9873 0.1460 0.9979 3.0024 0.9812 1.0906

4. Conclusions
In this research study, the possibility of employing an ANN as a modeling tool to
predict the drying process and the chemical features of linden leaf samples was investi-
gated. The effectiveness of the IRD strategy was tested in practice by drying samples of
linden leaves. According to the findings, IRD had a major impact on the rate at which
moisture evaporated, the diffusivity of water, and the activation energy in linden leaf
samples. A rise in the drying temperature and sample thickness had an effect on the drying
kinetics and moisture diffusivity of samples. The effective moisture diffusivity ranged from
4.13 × 10−12 m2 /s to 5.89 × 10−12 m2 /s, and the average value was 5.89 × 10−12 m2 /s.
The activation energy was 16,339 kilojoules per molecule. The drying kinetics of linden
were satisfactorily described using logarithmic models and those developed by Midilli et al.
(R2 > 0.9900). The ANN model had the greatest R2 value, which was 0.9986. By comparing
mathematical thin-layer models and the ANN, the ANN outputs were shown to be more
accurate. In addition, the ANN model made significantly accurate predictions of the linden
chemical attributes of TPC, TFC, DPPH, and FRAP, with R2 values of 0.9975, 0.9891, 0.9980,
and 0.9845, respectively, and RMSE values of 2.6100, 0.1346, 2.9317, and 0.9808, respectively.
Because of this, the ANN model was capable of describing a greater variety of experimental
data than the theoretical models, which were restricted to certain experimental circum-
stances. Thus, the ANN may be regarded as a viable alternative modeling approach for
the purpose of understanding the drying behavior of linden leaf samples. In addition,
ANNs could be successfully applied to industrial drying processes, online monitoring,
and management operations. Nevertheless, further research is necessary to determine the
capacity of ANNs to accurately forecast the changes that occur in the nutritional profile of
fruits and vegetables as a result of drying.

Author Contributions: Conceptualization, K.Ç.S. and A.Y.A.; methodology, K.Ç.S.; validation, K.Ç.S.
and A.Y.A.; formal analysis, K.Ç.S. and A.Y.A.; resources, K.Ç.S.; writing—original draft preparation,
K.Ç.S.; writing—review and editing, K.Ç.S and A.Y.A. and T.Y.; supervision, T.Y. All authors have
read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Funding: This research received no external funding.
Institutional Review Board Statement: Not applicable.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.
Processes 2022, 10, 2069 14 of 16

Abbreviations

C degree (◦ )
TPC total phenolic content (mg/g)
TFC total flavonoid content (mg/g)
ANN artificial neural network
RMSE root mean square error
DPPH radical scavenging activity (2,2-diphenyl-1-picryl-hydrazyl-hydrate)
FRAP ferric reducing antioxidant power

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