Origin of the Universe, the Solar System, and Earth

system
Structure of the solar system - the Sun is at the center and the
different planets revolve around it. You also learned that there are
other bodies in the solar system that move around the Sun and the
other planets. These are the moons, asteroid, meteoroids
and comets. Beyond the solar system are the countless number of
stars in space that seem to group together to form constellations.
The solar system, the stars, and the constellations all lie in an
unending space called the universe.

The big bang theory

The most accepted theory about the
origin of the universe is the Big
Bang Theory. Georges Lemaître, a
Belgian priest, is considered as the
first proponent of the Big Bang
Theory. The theory was supported
by other scientists such as Edwin
Hubble, Arno Penzias, and Robert
 Wilson who presented pieces of
evidence to support it.
The Big Bang Theory states that
the universe started as
a “singularity”—an area predicted
to be in the core of a black hole
with a very high temperature and
density, which compressed matter
with its intense gravitational
pressure.

Nucleosynthesis
Leads to the formation of chemicals such as hydrogen and helium.
These chemicals then lead to the formation of the stars and the
galaxies. The presence of the stars leads to the formation of larger
matter such as planets, comets, and other celestial bodies.
Ever since the Big Bang happened, the universe continuously
expands, and the occurrence of the cosmic background radiation
was suggested to be an aftermath of the explosion that happened 20
billion years ago.

Steady state theory

The Steady State Theory proposed by Hermann Bondi, Thomas
Gold, and Fred Hoyle, suggests that the universe has always been
there and will always be present. It also conveys that the universe
always looks the same in any time or space but continuously
expands while simultaneously creating matter, maintaining the
density of the universe; hence, the name Steady State.

Oscillating theory

The Oscillating Universe Theory, also referred to asthe

Pulsating Theory, discussesthat the universe is expanding and
will contract once all the energy after the Big Bang is used up.
This theory, proposed by Richard Tolman, can be described as
the combination of the Big Bang and the Big Crunch.
The Big Crunch occurs when the universe expands and
eventually reverses, then collapses causing a singularity or the
formation of another Big Bang.

Origin of the solar system

How did the Solar System come about?

The universe that started with the big bang did not form the stars
and galaxies immediately. The formation of stars and galaxies only
started 300-500 million years after the big bang. And the solar
system that you know today only formed 8.5-9 billion years after the
big bang. But how did the solar System form?
The solar system is composed of the Sun, the planets and their
satellites, the comets, and the asteroids.
 The Nebular Theory explains that the solar system
originated from a nebula – a gas cloud made up of
hydrogen particles. Before the nebula is stable, it is believed
that a nearby supernova resulted in the disruption of a
nebula. This disruption created areas of high density, and as
these areas were formed, gravity acted, pulling other
materials to it. The denser the nebula became, the more heat
it produced that resulted in the formation of the Sun. The
origins of the Nebula Theory can be credited to Emmanuel
Swedenborg, Immanuel Kant, and Pierre – Simon
Laplace.

 The Encounter Theory proposed by Georges Leclerc

and Comte de Buffon explains that the solar system formed
as a result of a near collision between a passing star and the
Sun. as the star passes near the Sun, the materials of both
the Sun and the star were drawn out. The interaction from
 the gravity of the passing star and the Sun led to the
l6 formation of the planets in the solar system.
 The Protoplanet Theory is a modified version of the
nebular hypothesis. Just like the nebular theory,
protoplanetary theorists Carl von Weizsäcker and Gerard
Kuiper believed that the solar system started from a nebula.
An unidentified instability resulted in the pulling of dust
particles toward each other. This led to the formation of the
“planetesimals” – objects made up of dust and rock
particles, which is believed to be the origin of planets.
Planetesimals combined with other planetesimals and
formed protoplanets – larger planetesimals.

“Our knowledge about the universe is still limited. Age may only be
a number, but when it comes to the age of the universe, it's a pretty
important one. According to research, the universe is approximately
13.8 billion years old.”

The Earth System

Earth system relies on the interactions among the vast combination
of factors that enable it to support life. A change in one aspect of the
Earth system affects certain other parts. System can be divided into
subsystems, which are functioning units of a major system that
demonstrate strong internal connections.
Earth’s Major Subsystem

1. The Atmosphere a gaseous blanket of air that

envelops, shield, and insulate Earth. Variations in
atmospheric components and processes create
the changing conditions that we know as weather
and climate.

2. The hydrosphere includes the waters of Earth-

oceans, lakes, rivers, and glaciers.
 3. The lithosphere makes up the solid Earth-
landforms, rocks, soils, and minerals.

4. The biosphere is composed of all living

things: people, other animals, and plants.

BIG IDEA
These major systems and the interactions among them nurture the
conditions necessary for life. The hydrosphere
provides the water supply for life on Earth, including humans, and
provides a home environment for aquatic plants and animals. The
hydrosphere affects the lithosphere as water moving in streams,
waves, and current shapes landforms. It also influences the
atmosphere through evaporation, condensation, and the effects
of ocean temperatures on climate. Many other examples of overlap
exist among these four Earth subsystems. Soil can be examined as
part of the lithosphere, the biosphere, or the hydrosphere because
soils typically contain minerals, organisms, water (and gases). The
water stored in plants and animals is part of both the biosphere and
the hydrosphere, and the water in clouds is a component of
the atmosphere and the hydrosphere. The fact that we cannot draw
sharp boundaries between these divisions.

Why Earth is called a Blue Planet?

Planet Earth has been called the "Blue Planet" due to
the abundant water on its surface.
Here on Earth, we take liquid water for granted; after
all, our bodies are mostly made of

Factors that make a Planet Habitable

1. An abundance of liquid water on Earth, hence the blue color.
The Earth is a habitable planet. Water - in the liquid form,
turns out to be one of the most important prerequisites for
life as we know it.
2. Planets should have sufficient size to hold a significant
atmosphere. The composition of the atmosphere, specifically the
number of greenhouse gases, influences the planet's surface
temperature.
3. The amount of solar radiation that a planet receives is
primarily a function of distance from the sun. Sunlight is
essential for photosynthesis, but some organisms can extract
energy from other sources (chemosynthetic organisms).
4. A system that will be able to constantly supply nutrients to
organisms is important to sustain life. On Earth, nutrients are
cycled through the hydrologic cycle and plate tectonics
(volcanism)
5. The greenhouse effect is not necessarily undesirable. It is a
runaway greenhouse effect that we would like to avoid (e.g.,
Venus).

The Earth that Supports Life

 Water is also, perhaps, the most important ingredient for

most cellular processes, such as the metabolism of
sugar and protein synthesis.
 Water is an effective solvent. It is oftentimes referred to as
the universal solvent because it can dissolve
many substances, and these substances are then
easily absorbed by living organism.
 Nitrogen, another gas in the atmosphere, is an
important part of DNA that carries genetic instructions, and
likewise, it is also found in amino acids, the building blocks
of protein.

 Without energy, the processes of life would not happen.

The source of Earth’s energy is the Sun.
  Because of the Earth’s ideal distance from the Sun, it
receives the right amount of heat and light to support life.
 Sunlight helps plants produce nutrients
through photosynthesis. These nutrients provide energy to
living things.
 Some organisms rely on other sources of energy such as
chemicals from deep water vents, making it possible for life
to exist even at the bottom of the ocean.

Earth’s atmosphere is also an important factor in making

Earth ideal planet to host life.
 It contains gases that are essential for sustaining life.
 One of these gases is oxygen, which is constantly
replenished into the atmosphere by plants.
 Earth’s atmosphere also contains a small amount of carbon
dioxide, which helps to moderate the planet’s temperature.
It is also used by plants during photosynthesis to produce
glucose.
Earth’s composition
Element oxygen alone found in the earth’s crust. However, other
life elements are found in the atmosphere and water. Make amino
acids building blocks of protein. Other elements (carbon,
hydrogen, nitrogen, etc.)
Big Bang Theory states that the universe started as a singularity
that exploded. This explosion resulted to the formation of all the
matter in universe.
Steady State Theory discusses that the universe has always
been there and will always be present.
Oscillating Universe Theory discusses that the universe is
expanding and will contract once all the energy after the Big
Bang is used up. The collapsing of the universe will then lead to
the formation of a new universe.
The Nebular Theory explained that the Solar System originated
from a nebula that was disrupted by a nearby supernova.
The Encounter Theory suggests that the Solar System formed
because of a near collision between a passing star and the Sun.
The Protoplanet Theory is a modified version of the nebular
hypothesis stating that the Solar System started from a
nebula that was disrupted which led to the formation of
protoplanets.
Earth supports life because of its water and atmosphere. The
Sun is its main source of energy and plate tectonics recycles
the substances needed for life.
Earth’s Major Subsystems: Biosphere, lithosphere, atmosphere,
hydrosphere.

Rock- Forming Minerals

Mineralogy is the study of minerals. Minerals are the building

blocks of rocks and been used for both functional and decorative
designs for thousands of years.

Mineral as a naturally- occurring chemical compound, usually in

crystalline form and inorganic in origin, and has a specific chemical
composition. The crystalline structure and chemical composition
give the mineral its unique set of physical and chemical properties

Properties of Minerals
∙ Luster - is the ability of a mineral to reflect light from its
surface. Most minerals have metallic luster and are describe as
either glassy, dull or earthy, pearly, silky, or greasy.
∙ Ability to transmit light - a mineral can opaque when no lights is
transmitted
through it; translucent when small amount of light is transmitted
through it; and
transparent when almost all amount of light is transmitted through
it.
∙ Color - is not a reliable property in identifying a mineral. The
presence of
Impurities may alter its color.
∙ Streak - is the color of a mineral in powder form. This property is
often used in identifying the mineral since it is very consistent
unlike the color.
∙ Crystal shape - refers to the common characteristic shape of a
crystals. It can be octahedron like magnetite crystals, dodecahedron
like garnets, and cubes like halite and fluorite crystals.

Mineral Strength determines how easy the mineral break or

deform when exposed to stress. These can be determined by the
chemical bonds between each crystal lattice. The terms used to
describe mineral strength are tenacity, hardness, cleavage,
and fracture.

Friedrich Mohs is a German mineralogist who devised a scale

to determine the
hardness of minerals. He selected 10 common minerals and

determine their hardness. Which became the basis for

determining the hardness of unknown minerals.

Tenacity refers to the minerals resistance to breaking or

deforming. These minerals can either be brittle, malleable,
sectile, or elastic.
Hardness is measure of the mineral’s resistance to abrasion or
scratching. To determine the hardness of a mineral, a
comparative hardness scale assigns numerical values to the
hardness of a mineral was made by Friedrich Mohs.
Cleavage is exhibited when a mineral breaks and smooth flat
surfaces are formed the breakage.
Mineral groups
“A number of minerals make up most of the rocks on the Earth’s
crust referred to as rock-forming minerals. Less abundant minerals
are used extensively in
manufacturing products and are called economic minerals.”
Using the characteristics and properties, minerals have been
identified and the common and most abundant rock forming
minerals found on Earth’s crust are the following: olivine, quartz,
feldspar, mica, pyroxene, amphibole and calcite. These rock-
forming minerals can be found in most of the surface rocks.

Silicate Minerals
Most of the rock-forming minerals contain the elements oxygen,
silicon, aluminum, iron, calcium, sodium, potassium,
and Magnesium. Oxygen and silicon are the most common elements
on the Earth’s crust. These two elements readily combine to form
silicates which are the basic building blocks for most common
mineral group.

Nonsilicate Minerals
Nonsilicates are less abundant in the Earth’s crust but some
nonsilicate minerals have some economic importance. Some
common nonsilicate groups are oxides, carbonates, sulfates, and
halides. These mineral groups, aside from their economic
importance, are main composition of sediments and sedimentary
rocks.

Economic Importance of Nonsilicate Minerals

There are some rock-forming minerals that are of economic
importance. One of this is the mineral calcite, which is the main
components of limestone, a kind of sedimentary rock. Calcite is
used in the production of cement. Some of nonsilicate minerals are
sources of iron and aluminum for building automobiles, gypsum for
plaster and walls for home construction, and copper as conductor of
electricity. Oxides like hematite and magnetite are important ores of
iron.

Rocks: Materials of
the Geosphere
. Rocks are naturally
occurring solid
aggregates of one or
more minerals. They
are identified by the
minerals they contain
and by their textures.
Rocks are the
materials if geosphere.
Natural phenomena
such as volcanic
eruption, mountain
building, weathering,
and erosion, and even
earthquake involve
rocks. The process that
allows one to see how
rocks change into
sedimentary rock,
metamorphic and
igneous rock is the
rock cycle. The
rock cycle also shows
where the different
forms of rocks
originated.

IGNEOUS ROCKS

∙ Igneous rock is formed from molten magma that cools and

crystallizes. It may solidify on the surface (Extrusive) or
beneath the surface (intrusive)
∙ Magma is a molten rock material beneath the surface of the
earth. Lava is molten rock material extruded to the surface of
the earth through a central vent (Volcano) or as a fissure
eruption.
Plutonic or intrusive rocks
∙ From solidified magma underneath the earth
∙ Phaneritic textures
∙ Examples: granite, diorite, gabbro
Volcanic or extrusive rocks
∙ From solidified lava at or near the surface of the earth ∙ Common
texture: aphanitic, porphyritic, vesicular ∙ Examples: rhyolite,
andesite, basalt
∙ Pyroclastic rocks: fragmental rocks usually associated with
a violent or explosive type of eruption.
∙ Examples of tuff and pyroclastic-flow deposits (ignimbrite)

SEdimenrtary rocks

∙ These are rocks that are formed at or near the surface of the Earth
∙ Sedimentary processes include weathering of rocks, erosion,
sediment transport and deposition (compaction and cementation).
∙ The main classifications of a sedimentary rock are clastic or
detrital sedimentary rock, and chemical sedimentary rock

METAMORPHIC ROCKS
∙ Metamorphism meanstransformation or change in form. It is
the process that causes changes in texture, mineralogy, and even
the chemical composition of rocks.
∙ Metamorphic rocks originate from preexisting igneous,
sedimentary, or event metamorphic rocks. Hence, every
metamorphic rock has a parent rock.

2 Basic Types

1. Contact metamorphism
• Heat as the main factor occurs when a pre-existing rocks get in
contact with a heat source (magma)
• Occurs on a relatively small scale: around the vicinity of intruding
magma
• Creates non-foliated metamorphic rocks (e.g., hornfels) Regional
metamorphism.

2. Regional metamorphism
• Pressure as the main factor occurs in areas that
have undergone deformation during orogenic event
resulting in mountain belts
• Occurs in a regional/large scale
• Creates foliated metamorphic rocks such as schist and gneiss
• Non-foliated rocks like marble also form thru
regional metamorphism, where pressure is not
intense, far from the main geologic event