LAW OF PARSIMONY in the thoughts of William of Ockham

OUTLINE:
1.0 Introduction: what is the law of parsimony?

2.0 The history of the law of parsimony:

3.0 The scientific method/theories and the law of parsimony.

4.0 other applications of parsimony

5.0 The merits of parsimony

6.0 the Demerits of parsimony

7.0. Limitations of parsimony

8.0. other principles/approach similar to parsimony

8.1 law of likelihood
. 8.2 law of pluralism .
8.3 principle falsibility
8.4 satisficing
. 8.5 Bayes Theorem
8.6 minimum description length
8.9. KISS principle

9.0 Other principles contrary to parsimony

9.1 Principle of plenitude
9.2 principle of richness

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. 9.3 Holism
9.4 postmodernism
. Dialectical reasoning

10.0 Future postulations of law of parsimony

11.0. Conclusion

12.0. References /Bibliography

1.0 INTRODUCTION

The law of parsimony, also known as Ockham’s razor, is a philosophical and

scientific principle that states that among competing hypothesis, the one with
fewest assumptions should be selected until proven otherwise. It is one of the
qualities of a scientific theory and advises that when faced with multiple
explanation of hypothesis for a phenomena, one should prefer the simplest one
that still explains the observation. In essence it discourages an unnecessary
complexity or the addition of extra assumptions without evidence; keep it simple.
It is commonly attributed to William of Ockham as Ockham’s razor. We will
evaluate the law of parsimony from it’s origin to present application and try
postulating it’s future fate.

2.0 HISTORY OF LAW OF PARSIMONY

The history of the law of parsimony can be traced back to the writings of William
of Ockham. William of Ockham was a medieval English Franciscan friar and
philosopher (1287-1347). He is known to have contributed to medieval philosophy
but famously remembered by this law of Parsimony, Ockham’s razor. The razor
associated with him is more conventional than historic. The law has played a
significant role in the development of science and the scientific method, and it
continues to be a guiding principle for scientists and researchers today. Ockham,
used the law of parsimony as a tool to critique the theological doctrines of his
contemporaries. The principle gained popularity in the scientific community in the
17th century, with the work of English philosopher and scientist Sir Isaac Newton,
who famously said, “We are to admit no more causes of natural things than such as

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are both true and sufficient to explain their appearances.” 1 In philosophy,
Ockham’s razor (also spelled Ockham's razor or Ocham's razor; Latin: novacula
Occami) is the problem-solving principle that recommends searching for
explanations constructed with the smallest possible set of elements. It is also
known as the principle of parsimony or the law of parsimony (Latin: lex
parsimoniae) and it is frequently cited as Entia non sunt multiplicanda praeter
necessitatem, which translates as "Entities must not be multiplied beyond
necessity"2 although Occam never used these exact words. Popularly, the principle
is sometimes inaccurately paraphrased as "The simplest explanation is usually the
best one."3

3.0 SCIENTIFIC THEORIES/METHODS AND THE LAW OF

PARSIMONY, HOW HAS IT APPLIED SO FAR.

In physics, the law of parsimony has been used to formulate several important
theories and principles. For example, it was used by Albert Einstein to develop the
theory of relativity, which proposed that the laws of physics are the same for all
observers, regardless of their relative motion; quantum mechanics, where the
simplest explanation is often the most accurate. 4 For example, the principle of
Ockham’s razor was used to develop the Copenhagen interpretation of quantum
mechanics, which is one of the leading theories in in physics.

Biology In biology, the law of parsimony has been used in a variety of ways,
including the study of evolution and genetics. In the study of evolution, the law of
parsimony is often used to determine the most likely evolutionary history of a
species. This is done by finding the tree of relationships that requires the fewest
evolutionary changes, or the simplest explanation. 5 In genetics, the law of
parsimony is often used to determine the most likely sequence of mutations that led
to the evolution of a particular gene

1 Laird, J. (1919) "THE LAW OF PARSIMONY".

2 Schaffer, Jonathan (2015). "What Not to Multiply Without Necessity" (PDF).

3 Duignan, Brian. "Ockham’s Razor". Encyclopedia Britannica,

4 Kluge, Arnold G., 'What is the rationale for ‘Ockham's razor’ (a.k.a. parsimony) in phylogenetic inference?

5 Jorge V. Crisco, Journal of Theoretical Biology

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Psychology: In psychology, the law of parsimony has been used to develop
theories of human behavior. For example, it has been used to explain phenomena
such as cognitive dissonance, which is the feeling of discomfort that occurs when
a person’s beliefs or actions conflict with each other. 6 The law of parsimony has
also been used to develop theories of personality, such as the Big Five personality
traits.7 And it has been used in the study of psychopathology.

History: In the field of history, the law of parsimony has been used to understand
historical events and trends. For example, it has been used to explain the rise and
fall of empires, the causes of revolutions, and the development of new
technologies. The law of parsimony has also been used to understand the
motivations of historical figures, such as whether they were driven by personal
ambition or by a desire to serve the public good. In some cases, the law of
parsimony has been used to debunk historical myths.

Linguistics: The law of parsimony has also been applied to the study of language
and linguistics. For example, it has been used to explain the evolution of grammar
and the development of new words and phrases. The law of parsimony has also
been used to understand the relationship between language and thought, as well
as the origins of language itself. In addition, it has been used to study dialects and
the spread of language across different regions and cultures.

It has indeed been of great help for the development/ success of science.

4.0 OTHER APPLICATION OF THE PRINCIPLE OF PARSIMONY.

The law is applied in Sciences, philosophy, medicine, computer, in general problem solving.
Etc

4.1 IN SCIENCE: in scientific research Ockham`s Razor is frequently used to guide hypothesis
formation. scientists aim for the simplest explanation of each data to avoid over-complicating
theories.
It helps in formation of simple hypothesis: scientists are confronted with the multiple
hypothesis that could explain a set of observations of phenomenon. Ockham`s razor suggests

6 Epstein, Robert. “The Principle of Parsimony and Some Applications in Psychology.”

7Schaffer, Jonathan (2015). "What Not to Multiply Without Necessity" (PDF)

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selecting the simplest hypothesis that is consistent with the data. This helps avoid unnecessary
complexity and assumption.
In development and selection of simple scientific models: in the development of scientific
models simple models are often preferred over more complex ones if they adequately explain
the observed phenomena. ……….
Model comparison in cases where multiple models or theories can explain the same
observations scientists may prefer the one that introduces the fewest assumptions. This helps
to avoid unnecessary complexities and enhances the model generalizability.
prediction and testing: simple hypothesis or theories often leads to more specific and testable
predictions. Ockham’s razor encourages scientists to formulate hypothesis that make clear and
straight-forward predictions making it easier to confirm or refute the theory through
experimentation and observation.
explanation of anomalies: when an unexpected results or anomalies arise, Ockham’s razor
suggests considering modifications to the existing simpler theory rather than introducing
entirely new complex elements. This is based on the idea that modify an existing Theory is often
more economical than introducing additional assumptions.

4.2 IN PHILOSOPHY: philosophers use the principles of Parsimony to evaluate competing

philosophical theories. Simpler theories are often preferred unless more complex ones provide
significantly better explanatory power.
explanation of phenomena. Parsimony facilitates better explanation and understanding of
Phenomena.
Theory evaluation. Ockham’s razor is used to access theories favouring those with fewer
assumptions or entities unless a more complex explanation is deemed necessary to address the
philosophical problem at hand.
Ontological commitments. Why dealing with ontology (being ) philosophers tend to prefer
ontological frameworks that involve fewer entities or postulates as long as they adequately
capture the nature of reality.
Solving paradoxes. When faced with paradoxes or apparent contradictions, philosophers may
use Ockham’s razor to guide their attempt to resolve the issues.
Simplicity in argumentation. Philosophers aim for clarity and coherence in their argument
Ockham’s razor encourages simplicity in argumentation advocating for straight forward
reasoning.

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4.3 IN MEDICINE: in medical diagnostics, physicians often consider the simplest explanation for
a set of symptoms before exploring more complex and less likely possibilities. The rule of
parsimony is applied as a heuristic principle in various aspects of clinical practice and decision
making including
Diagnosis. When considering potential diagnosis for a patient’s symptoms, Ockham’s razor
subjects favouring the simplest explanation that accounts for all observed symptoms.
treatment planning. In selecting a course of treatment physicians often prefer the simplest and
most straightforward interventions that are likely to address the patient’s condition effectively.
test ordering. Ockham’s razor is applied when deciding which diagnostic test to order. This is to
avoid unnecessary and complex procedures unless supply test do not provide sufficient
information.
drug prescription. In choosing medications health care professionals may prefer simpler drugs
over complex ones taking into account factors like patients adherence and potential
interactions.
clinical guidelines. Medical guidelines and protocols often incorporate Ockham’s razor by
recommending simpler and evidence-based approaches to diagnosis and treatment. This help
standardize care and enhance patients outcome.

4.4. IN COMPUTER SCIENCE: law of parsimony influences algorithm design, where simplicity is
valued for improving code readability and efficiency. It includes but not limited to algorithm
design, code simplicity, system architecture, debugging and troublesome shooting, user
interface design, data structure and algorithm complexity.

4.5 GENERAL PROBLEM SOLVING: Ockham’s Razor is applied in general problem solving
guiding individuals to consider straight forward Solutions before resorting to more
convoluted ones. This is possible through
Simplifying assumptions. When faced with complex problems. Ockham’s razor encourages
that the simple set of assumptions that adequately address the problem should be taken.
Prioritizing solutions. When there are multiple possible solutions to a problem or concerns
Ockham suggest giving preference to the simplest one that addresses the issue. This simplifies
decision-making and implementation.
Resource efficiency. Simple solutions often require fewer resources and more straight forward
to implement this is what Ockham’s razor encourages. It optimises resource usage minimizing
unnecessary steps, time and costs associated with solving a problem.

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Risk reduction. Complex solutions may introduce additional points of failure. Ockham’s razor
advises against unnecessary complexity to reduce the risk of errors or complications in the
problem-solving process.
Clarity in communication. Simple solutions are often easier to communicate and understand.
Nota bene. The use of parsimony in different fields of life cannot of course be exhausted here.
The factors in this general problem solving can be applied in every other areas, depending on
their peculiar practices.

A CASE STUDY / EXAMPLE.

One notable example of the law of parsimony in action is the story of Ignaz Semmelweis, a 19 th-
century doctor who made an important discovery about hygiene and infection. Semmelweis
noticed that in his hospital, the ward where medical students were trained had a much higher
mortality rate than the ward where midwives were trained.
After careful observation and analysis, Semmelweis discovered that the difference was due to
the fact that the medical students were not washing their hands between performing autopsies
and attending to patients. Semmelweis’ findings were initially rejected by the medical
establishment, but they were eventually proven to be correct.
This case is often cited as an example of the law of parsimony in action, as Semmelweis’ simple
hypothesis about hand-washing was able to explain a complex and seemingly mysterious
problem. Semmelweis’ discovery also demonstrates the importance of empirical evidence and
the need to test hypotheses against real-world data.

5.0. MERITS OF PARSIMONY

Emphasis and Promotion of Simplicity: the primary advantage is the Promotion

of simplicity. Simpler explanations, hypothesis or solutions are easier to
understand communicate and work with, leading to greater clarity in thoughts and
reasoning.

Elegance: simple explanations and theories are often considered more elegant.
They have a certain aesthetic appeal, and elegance in Solutions can contribute to a
better overall understanding and acceptance.

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Efficacy simple solutions are typically more efficient to implement and execute in
problem-solving. Ockham`s razor can lead to streamlined approaches that require
fewer resources, reducing time and cost.

Predictive power: simpler theory often makes more specific and testable
predictions. Ockham’s razor can enhance a hypothesis ability to predict future
observation and outcomes providing a practical advantage and scientific and
analytic endeavous.

Reduction of errors: complex explanations or Solutions can introduce more

opportunities for errors. Simplicity, guided by our Ockham’s razor reduces the
likelihood of mistakes and enhancing the reliability of explanation and Solutions.

Communication simple ideas are generally easier to communicate weather in

scientific research, philosophy or everyday problem solving. Clear communication
of concept is essential and Ockham’s razor facilitates this by promoting simplicity.

Ockham’s Bias: Ockham’s razor serves as a useful heuristic, helping decision-

makers avoid over-complicating analysis or solutions. This bias towards simplicity
can be valuable in Solutions where a straight forward explanation and solution is
sufficient.

6.0. DEMERITS OF PARSIMONY

Oversimplification: strict adherence to Ockham’s razor may lead to

oversimplification. In some cases complex phenomena may require nuance and
intricate explanation that cannot be adequately captured by overly simple theories.
it is therefore important for scientists to use the law of parsimony in conjunction
with other scientific principles and methods, such as the scientific method and peer
review.8

Underestimating complexity: Ockham’s razor discourages exploration of

complex hypotheses that in reality provides a more accurate representation of the
observed phenomena. Some problems are heavily involved multiple interacting
factors that cannot be explained by a single simple course. these cases, it may be

8 Jorge V. Crisco, Journal of Theoretical Biology

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necessary to consider a more nuanced explanation, even if it is not the simplest
one.9

Subjectivity: determining what constitutes the simplest explanation can be

subjective. Different individuals may have different perspectives on what is
considered simple leading to potential biases in the application of Ockham’s razor.

Context sensitivity: the appropriateness of parsimony varies across different

domains and contexts. What works well in one field may not be as effective in
another. Its application requires careful consideration of the specific
circumstances.

Incompatibility with probabilistic reasoning. In situation involving uncertainty

or probabilistic reasoning, Ockham’s razor might not be the most appropriate
guideline. Bayesian approaches for example may involve more complex models
that better capture uncertainty.

Overlooking unseen variables: simple explanations may sometimes overlook

unseen or uncounted variables. In complex systems these variables can play a
crucial role and neglecting them can lead to incomplete or inaccurate conclusions.

Risk of premature ejection: relying too heavily on Ockham’s razor might lead to
the premature rejection of novel or unconventional ideas that while complex could
offer valuable insight to solution.

Confirmation bias. This is a cognitive bias that can occur when using the law of
parsimony. This is when people only seek out or interpret information in a way that
confirms their existing beliefs. This can lead to inaccurate conclusions and flawed
decision-making. To avoid confirmation bias, it’s important to consider alternative
explanations and to be open to evidence that may contradict one’s existing beliefs.
This can be a challenge, but it’s crucial for reaching the most accurate and
effective conclusions.10

7.0. LIMITATIONS OF PARSIMONY.

9Laird, John. “THE LAW OF PARSIMONY.”

10 C. K. Brampton, The Modern Schoolman

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 Even as parsimony is highly appraised, it is pertinent that it’s limitations.

Cultural and historical context: Ockham’s razor has cultural historical roots and
its application can be influenced by the contents in which it is used . Cultural
biases and historical factors may impact how simplicity is defined and applied.

Subjectivity in Simplicity. The notion of simplicity can be subjective and what is

considered a simple explanation of hypothesis may vary among individuals.

Incomplete models: Ockham’s razor may favour simpler models even if they are
not complete. In some cases more complex models might be necessary to fully
capture the intricacies of a phenomena and simplicity could result in
oversimplification.

Difficulty in quantifying complexities: there is no standardized metric for

measuring the complexity of explanation or hypothesis determining what is
simpler or more complex can be challenging and may vary depending on the
context.

Ignorance of unknown factors. Ockham’s razor may lead to neglect of unknown

or unobservable factors in situations where there are hidden variables or
phenomena not yet discovered a simple explanation may overlook these
complexities.

Context dependency: the effectiveness of Ockham’s razor is context dependent.

it might work well in settings and speaker problems of incompetence but may not
be as applicable in others especially where complex interactions are the norm.

Misapplication. Ockham’s razor maybe being misapplied if taken to

dogmatically. It is not a magic bullet.11

8. OTHER PRINCIPLES SIMILAR/ ALTERNATING TO PARSIMONY

8.1. One alternative to the law of parsimony is the law of likelihood. this law
states that the best explanation is the one that is most likely to be true, given the
available evidence12
11 Jorge V. Crisco, Journal of Theoretical Biology

12 Laird, John. “THE LAW OF PARSIMONY.”

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8.2 Another alternative is the law of pluralism, which states that multiple
explanations may be equally valid, and that there is no single “best” explanation.

8.3. Principle of falsibility. This principle was proposed by Karl poppa it

suggests that for a hypothesis or theory to be considered scientific, it must be
potentially falsifiable by empirical evidence. Ockham’s razor compliments this by
encouraging simplicity which often makes hypothesis more testable.

8.4. Satisficing. It was coined by Herbert A Simon (20th Century economics).

satisficing involves accepting a good enough solution rather than seeking the
optimal ones Ockham’s razor aligns with satisficing when it encourages choosing
simpler explanations that adequately account for observations

8.5. Bayes’ Theorem. Another similar principle is Bayes’ Theorem, which uses
probability to evaluate the likelihood of different hypotheses. Like the law of
parsimony, Bayes’ Theorem seeks to find the most likely explanation. Ockham’s
razor alliance with bison thinking when simpler explanation so I given higher prior
probabilities, but by Asian methods also allow for updating these probabilities
based on new information.

8.6. The concept of “minimum description length”.

The minimum description length (MDL) principle, which is another approach that
is similar to the law of parsimony, is based on the idea that the simplest
explanation is the one that can be described in the fewest number of words. The
MDL principle has been used in various fields, including information theory,
computer science, and machine learning. Just like the law of parsimony, the MDL
principle is not a hard and fast rule, but it can be a useful tool for finding the most
efficient and accurate explanations.

8.7. KISS principle (keep it simple, stupid) this is commonly used in design and
engineering. The kiss principle advocates simplicity in design to enhance
functionality and avoid unnecessary complexity. This aligns with Ockham’s razor
in promoting simplicity for practical reasons.

9.0. CONTRADICTION PRINCIPLES TO THE PRINCIPLE OF

PARSIMONY.

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9.1. The principle of plenitude. This principle suggests that all possible entities
and their explanations should be considered. It stands in contrast to Ockham’s
razor by advocating for a comprehensive exploration of possibilities even if it
involves complexity.

9.2. Principle of richness. In some contexts there is a principle that encourages

considering richer or more complex explanations to account for a broader range of
phenomena . This contrasts with the simplicity favoured by Ockham’s razor.

9.3. Holism: holism emphasizes the importance of understanding systems as a

whole rather than reducing them to their individual proponent. It contracts with
Ockham’s razor which often favours simpler explanations by focusing on
individual elements.

9.4. Postmodernism. Postmodernist thought challenges the idea of single

objective truth and resist simplicity it contracts Ockham’s razor by questioning the
pursuit of simplicity in favour of recognizing multiple perspectives and
interpretations.

9.5. Dialectical reasoning. Dialectical reasoning involves considering opposing

viewpoints and contributions to arrive at a more comprehensive understanding
This contrasts with Ockham’s razor which may prioritize simplicity at the expense
of acknowledging complexity.

10.0. THE FUTURE POSTULATIONS OF THE LAW OF PARSIMONY.

Continuous relevance. Ockham’s razor has been a fundamental principle in

scientific classification and problems of encompass for centuries is emphasis on
simplicity and economy of explanations is likely to remain relevant as fishing and
fees were clear and concise reasoning is valued. It may become even more widely
used in fields like artificial intelligence and machine learning.

Integration with advanced technologies. The future of the law of parsimony will
likely be influenced by the development of new technologies and the availability of
new data. For example, advances in artificial intelligence and machine learning

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may allow for more sophisticated methods of determining which explanations are
simplest.

Interdisciplinary challenges. The interdisciplinary nature of modern research may

introduce new challenges to Ockham’s razor. Fields that deal with highly
interconnected and multifaceted systems such as climate science and neuroscience
may require more sophisticated approaches that balance simplicity with the need
for comprehensive

Ethical consideration. Ethical considerations may play a role in the application of

Ockham’s razor particularly in fees where oversimplification could have ethical
implications striking a balance between simplicity and a thorough understanding of
complex ethical issues may become increasingly important.

Philosophical debates. Ongoing philosophical debates about the nature of

simplicity complexity and the foundations of scientific reasoning will likely
continue. different philosophical perspectives may influence the interpretation and
application of Ockham’s razor.

11.0 CONCLUSION:

In general, the law of parsimony has been a valuable tool for researchers in
a variety of fields. It has helped to generate new theories and explanations, and has
even been used to debunk false or inaccurate claims. However, it is important to
note that the law of parsimony is not a rule that must be followed in all cases.
While it's widely embraced in scientific and philosophical contexts, its application
requires careful consideration, as overly simplistic explanations may not always
capture the full complexity of reality. In essence, Ockham's Razor serves as a
valuable heuristic, promoting simplicity without sacrificing explanatory power
when seeking to understand the world.

12.0. REFERENCES and Bibliography

Reference

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The law of Parsimony: The Monist by John Laird

What Not to Multiply Without Necessity(PDF) by Jonathan Schaffer

The Principle of Parsimony and Some Applications in Psychology by Robert Einstein

Ockham’s Razor by Brian Duignan

The Diagnostic Approach in Complex Patients: Parsimony or Plenitude? By James

Kell

The Modern Schoolman by C.K Brampton

Kluge, Arnold G., 'What is the rationale for ‘Ockham's razor’ (a.k.a. parsimony) in
phylogenetic inference? By Arnold G. Kluge

BIBLIOGRAPHIES

Laird, John. “THE LAW OF PARSIMONY.” The Monist, vol. 29, no. 3, 1919, pp.
321–44. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/27900747, accessed 18 Nov. 2023.

Schaffer, Jonathan (2015). "What Not to Multiply Without Necessity" (PDF).

Australasian Journal of Philosophy. 93 (4): 644–664.

Duignan, Brian. "Ockham’s Razor". Encyclopedia Britannica, http://www

wikipedia.org, accessed 18 Nov.,2023

Jorge V. Crisco, Journal of Theoretical Biology, Volume 97, Issue 1, 7 July 1982,
Pages 35-41, http:// www.wikipedia.org, accessed 19 Nov.,2023

C. K. Brampton, The Modern Schoolman, Volume 41, Issue 3, March 1964, Pages
273-281, http://www.doi.org, accessed 19 Nov., 2023

James Kelly, The Diagnostic Approach in Complex Patients: Parsimony or

Plenitude?, published on sept 17, 2020, volume 134, issue 1, p11-12,
http://www.amjmed.com, accessed 19 Nov, 2023.

Kluge, Arnold G., 'What is the rationale for ‘Ockham's razor’ (a.k.a. parsimony) in
phylogenetic inference?', in Victor A. Albert (ed.), Parsimony, Phylogeny, and

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Genomics (Oxford, 2006; online edn, Oxford Academic, 1 Sept. 2007),
https://doi.org., accessed 19 Nov. 2023.

Epstein, Robert. “The Principle of Parsimony and Some Applications in

Psychology.” The Journal of Mind and Behavior, vol. 5, no. 2, 1984, pp. 119–30.
JSTOR,

http://www.jstor.org/stable/43853318. Accessed 20 Nov. 2023.

Http://www.jstor.org

Https://www.dictionary.com/browse/law-of-parsimony

Http://www.alleydog.com

https://chat.openai.com/c/81e4911c-c6dd-480-b919-6310c872d242

Http://www.journals.sagepub.com

Http://www.drroberteipstein.com

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