Student book answers

Chapter 3: Cell function

Check your understanding 3.1a
1

2 A permeable membrane is a non-selective barrier that allows water and many types of
molecules to pass freely. In contrast, a selectively permeable membrane controls the
passage of water and other molecules into or out of cells
3 a Three factors that affect the permeability of the cell membrane are size of particles,
electrical charge of particle and the particle’s lipid solubility.
b i Neutral molecules such as carbon dioxide and oxygen gas – these substances can
move easily across the membrane since they are neutral molecules that have high
permeability
ii Sodium and potassium ions – these substances cannot move easily across the cell
membrane since they are electrically charged particles that are not very soluble in
lipids and so have a low membrane permeability.
iii Water and ethanol – water moves easily across the membrane through tiny
hydrophilic pores called aquaporins. Since ethanol is a lipid soluble molecule, it
moves easily through the membrane.
iv Large molecules such as proteins – cannot move easily across the membrane and
require carrier proteins embedded through the membrane to facilitate transport in
and out of the cell.
4 a Sugar
b Water
5 a Diffusion is the movement of particles from a high concentration to a low
concentration.
b Factors that could increase the rate of diffusion are the concentration gradient, surface
area or temperature.
6 a Substances that can move across the cell membrane by diffusion are generally small,
unchanged particles such as carbon dioxide and oxygen.
b Facilitated diffusion involves the use of carrier proteins to move large molecules or
electrically charged ions to diffuse across the cell membrane.

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 c Examples of substances that utilise facilitated diffusion are glucose, amino acids,
sodium and chloride ions.
7 a The process of osmosis is the movement of solvent (water in cells) molecules from a
high concentration to a low concentration.
b Diffusion is the movement of solutes from a high concentration to a low
concentration, whereas osmosis is the movement of a solvent from a high
concentration to a low concentration.
c The term ‘isotonic’ means fluids inside and outside a cell are of equal concentration;
the term ‘hypotonic’ means a solution of lower solute concentration that surrounds a
cell; the term ‘hypertonic’ means a solution of higher solute concentration that
surrounds a cell.
Check your understanding 3.1b
1 Active transport is the movement of molecules from an area of low concentration to an
area of high concentration (against the concentration gradient). Active transport requires
the input of energy. An example of where active transport occurs is when kidney cells
reabsorb glucose and amino acids so that they are not lost in urine.
2 Both active transport and diffusion involve the movement of particles across a
membrane. However, active transport moves particles against a concentration gradient
and requires energy, whereas diffusion moves particles along a concentration gradient
and requires no energy input.
3 Endocytosis moves large molecules, such as food particles, across the membrane barrier
into the cell. In endocytosis the cell membrane changes shape and engulfs the particle,
drawing it into the cell.
4 a Exocytosis is the process where a membrane-bound vesicle fuses with the cell
membrane to export its contents out of the cell.
b Endocytosis involves the cell membrane engulfing a particle and allowing it to enter
the cell.
5 Examples of substances that are removed from cells are hormones, proteins, antibodies
and enzymes.
Worked example 3.2
a 2 cm cube
SA = 6 × 2 × 2
= 24 cm2
V=2×2×2
= 8 cm3
SA:V = 24/8
= 3:1
b 3 cm cube
SA = 6 × 3 × 3

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 = 54 cm2
V=3×3×3
= 27 cm3
SA:V = 54/27
= 2:1
Check your understanding 3.1c
1 a Physical factors of molecules, such as size, can affect the movement across the
membrane. Small molecules are able to diffuse between the phospholipids easily,
whereas larger molecules require carrier proteins or even the processes of endocytosis
or exocytosis to move across the membrane.
b Chemical factors, such as the charge of a molecule, can affect the movement across
the membrane. Uncharged molecules, such as ethanol, can easily move across the
membrane, whereas charged (hydrophilic) ions, such as sodium, require protein
channels to move across the membrane.
2 Since diffusion is a passive process, a constant concentration gradient must be
maintained in order for substances to move from a high concentration to a low
concentration.
3 a i Surface area: the total area of the outer surface of a cell
ii Volume: the total internal space of a cell
iii SA:V: the surface area divided by the volume of the cell
b A cell must maintain a high surface-area-to-volume ratio to allow substances to
diffuse easily into and out of the cell. This process allows the cell to maintain a
constant internal environment.
4 By increasing the size of a cell, its surface-area-to-volume ratio decreases, meaning that
less of the internal contents come into contact with its outer surface. This decreases the
rate at which substances can diffuse into and out of the cell.
5 a
CELL SURFACE AREA VOLUME SA:V
a Flattened cell 7 mm 2
1 mm 3
7:1
b Cube-shaped cell 6 mm2 1 mm3 6:1
b The flattened cell would be more efficient in obtaining nutrients and removing waste
since it has a higher surface-area-to-volume ratio. This means that more of its internal
environment has contact with the surface of the cell and so molecules diffuse at a
faster rate.
Check your understanding 3.2
1 A cell requires both organic substances, such as carbohydrates, lipids, proteins and
nucleic acids, as well as inorganic substances, such as carbon, oxygen and sodium. These
substances are used as either a source of energy or building blocks for new cells.
2 The four main biomacromolecules are carbohydrates, lipids, proteins and nucleic acids.
3 a A carbohydrate is made up of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen.

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 b Carbohydrates can be monosaccharides (glucose), disaccharides (sucrose) or
polysaccharides (starch), and are used as a source of energy or stored as energy in
cells.
4 You would expect to find DNA and RNA inside the nucleus in a cell. RNA can also be
found in the cytoplasm.
5 a Lipids are used in the cells for components of membranes, structural parts of
hormones and energy storage.
b Lipids are referred to as triglycerides since they are typically composed of three fatty
acid chains attached to a glycerol backbone. Lipids are used for energy storage,
membrane structure, and for the components of hormones.
6 a Organic compounds are synthesised by living things and contain carbon and hydrogen
atoms, whereas inorganic compounds are part of the non-living world and do not
contain carbon and hydrogen in long chains.
b Amino acids are the basic units of a polypeptide chain. Proteins are groups of
polypeptide chains twisted into a shape.
7 There are around 20 amino acids that can be combined in any order to form a plethora of
polypeptide combinations. This high level of assortment options leads to a multitude of
protein varieties.
Check your understanding 3.3
1 Enzymes are proteins that act as a biological catalyst to control cellular reactions. Each
enzyme has an optimum temperature and pH at which it will function most efficiently.
2 Enzymes catalyse reactions by lowering the amount of activation energy needed. This is
done by bonding with the reactants and bringing them together rather than waiting for
random collisions to take place. This process greatly speeds up reactions.
3 Enzymes lower the amount of activation energy in a reaction by bonding with the
reactants and bringing them together rather than waiting for random collisions to take
place.
4 a Three factors that can affect the activity of an enzyme are temperature, pH and
enzyme/substrate concentration levels.
b All enzymes have an optimum temperature and pH range. When in this range, the
enzyme is at its most efficient. If the temperature or pH moves beyond this range, the
enzyme can slow down or denature (rendering it useless). If there is a limited amount
of enzyme and a high substrate concentration level, the reaction rate will plateau when
all of the enzyme is in use.
5 a The lock-and-key model describes the active site of an enzyme as a ridged exact
shape that can only fit one type of substrate.
b In comparison to the lock-and-key model, the induced-fit model describes the active
site as a less ridged area that can alter slightly to accommodate the substrate, much
like a glove for a hand.
6 a The term ‘denature’ refers to the enzyme losing its shape and thusly not being able to
bind to its substrate
b Enzymes can denature under high temperatures or pH outside of their optimum range.

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7 Enzymes are important to the maintenance of life since they speed up reactions within
cells and lower the amount of energy needed for reactions to take place. Without
enzymes, metabolic processes would occur too slowly to maintain an organism.
8 There are thousands of different types of enzymes in the human body since there are
thousands of chemical reactions taking place that require specific substrates to occur.
Each enzyme is specific to a certain type of reaction.
9 A patient with a temperature of 42°C would have an internal temperature 5°C above
normal. Enzymes in the human body have an optimum temperature of 36.5/37°C, so they
may begin to denature at 42°C and hinder metabolic processes.
Check your understanding 3.4a
1 a ATP is a molecule that stores energy in a high-energy bond. ADP is the product after
the high-energy bond has been released. The ATP, ADP relationship is cyclical.
b The advantage of using ATP is that it is a small mobile molecule that can deliver
energy to wherever it is needed. This energy is more easily accessible compared to
that stored in glucose.
2 a The purpose of photosynthesis is to convert inorganic substances into glucose.
b Products of the light-dependent stage are hydrogen ions, oxygen and ATP. The
oxygen is released as a waste into the atmosphere. During the light-independent stage
the ATP is used to bond the hydrogen produced in the light-dependent stage to carbon
dioxide forming glucose.
3 a 6CO 2 + 12H 2 O + light → C 6 H 12 O 6 + 6O 2
b It is considered to be a summary equation since there are two stages within the
process.
4 Not all living plant cells carry out photosynthesis since not all living plant cells have
access to light (for example, root cells).
5 The light-dependent stage of photosynthesis occurs in the grana of chloroplasts and
requires water and light and produces oxygen, hydrogen and ATP. The light-independent
stage of photosynthesis occurs in the stroma of the chloroplasts and requires carbon
dioxide and ATP and produces glucose.
Check your understanding 3.4b
1 C 6 H 12 O 6 + 6O 2 → 6CO 2 + 6H 2 O + ATP
2 The role of aerobic respiration is to produce energy from glucose and oxygen in the form
of ATP.
3 a The initial reactant in glycolysis is glucose and the final products are ATP and lactic
acid.
b Glycolysis occurs in the cytoplasm.
4 The products of aerobic respiration are 36 ATP molecules, carbon dioxide and water,
compared to 2 ATP molecules and lactic acid in anaerobic respiration.
5 During the process of aerobic cellular respiration, carbon dioxide is produced inside the
mitochondrion from the carbon of the pyruvate bonding with oxygen.

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6 a Lactic acid is formed during anaerobic respiration when glucose is broken down in the
absence of oxygen.
b During the aerobic respiration process (when more oxygen becomes available), lactic
acid is changed into pyruvate and converted into carbon dioxide.
7 Waste can be removed from the cell by simple diffusion, exocytosis, or it can also be
destroyed inside lysosomes.
Chapter review questions
1 a Diffusion is the passive movement of particles across a semipermeable membrane,
whereas facilitated diffusion involves carrier proteins to transport molecules across
the membrane.
b Diffusion is the movement of a solute from a high concentration to a low
concentration, whereas osmosis is the movement of a solvent from a high
concentration to a low concentration.
c Osmosis is the movement along a concentration gradient (with no energy needed),
whereas active transport is the movement against a concentration gradient (with
energy input needed).
d Exocytosis is the movement of molecules from the inside of a cell to the outside via a
vesicle bonding to the membrane, whereas endocytosis is the movement of molecules
entering a cell via the cell membrane, engulfing said molecules.
2
MODES OF TRANSPORT DESCRIPTION EXAMPLE
Diffusion High to low concentration – no Oxygen, carbon dioxide
energy
Osmosis High to low concentration – no Water
energy
Facilitated diffusion High to low concentration Sodium, potassium
Exocytosis Substances exiting a cell via a Hormones, proteins, enzymes
vesicle fusing with membrane
Endocytosis Substances entering a cell – Large molecules, food
requires energy
Active transport Low to high concentration – Glucose, amino acids
energy required

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3 Water would move from the inside of the freshwater organism into the surrounding
hypertonic solution as osmosis moves water from a high concentration to a low
concentration.

4 Plant cells do not burst when placed in a hypotonic solution since the cell wall prevents
the cell from expanding to extremes.
5 a Solution X was hypertonic.
b Solution Z was isotonic.
6 a A flattened rectangular cell would have a higher surface-area-to-volume ratio
compared to a sphere.
b A flattened rectangular cell would have high surface-area-to-volume ratio and its
shape would optimise the diffusion of substances to all areas of a cell.
7 As food colouring is added to a beaker of water the particles of food colouring begin a
net diffusion through the beaker. These particles move along a concentration gradient
from high to low concentration, eventually reaching equilibrium, where all particles are
evenly distributed.
8 It is said that carbon is the element on which all life depends since all organic compounds
contain carbon.
9
MOLECULE CHEMICAL STRUCTURE/MONOMER FUNCTION
COMPOSITION

Carbohydrate Carbon, hydrogen and Glucose Energy source for

oxygen (2 hydrogen:1 respiration in cells
oxygen ratio) Energy storage as starch
Structural component of
cell walls (cellulose)
Lipids Carbon, hydrogen and Glycerol and fatty acids Structural part of all
oxygen (no 2:1 ratio) membranes
Energy storage
Proteins Carbon, hydrogen, Amino acids Structural part of all
oxygen, nitrogen, membranes
sometimes phosphorus Structural part of
and sulfur cytoplasm
Forms enzymes for

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 metabolic reactions

Nucleic acid Carbon, hydrogen, oxygen Nucleotides of DNA and RNA DNA – stores coded
and nitrogen information to control all
cell activities and
hereditary information
RNA – plays a role in
protein synthesis.
10 Inorganic nutrients such as gases, minerals and water are used for metabolic processes,
the building blocks for cells, as well as a stored source of energy for the cell.
11
FACTOR EFFECT
Temperature Low temperatures below optimum slow enzyme
activity
High temperatures denature enzyme
pH pH outside optimum range can slow and denature
enzyme
Concentration The number of available enzymes present to bond
with a substrate can limit the number of reactions
being catalysed
12 Conditions necessary for photosynthesis: carbon dioxide, water, light and chloroplasts.
13 Photosynthesis occurs in the chloroplast of photosynthetic cells and requires carbon
dioxide, water and light to occur. The products of photosynthesis are oxygen and glucose
for respiration. However, aerobic respiration occurs in the mitochondria and requires
oxygen and glucose to produce carbon dioxide, water and ATP for energy.
14 One enzyme can only catalyse one reaction since each enzyme has a specific active site
shape to bond to a specific substrate.
15 Cells cannot grow to a big size since this would reduce the SA:V ratio and limit efficient
diffusion, impeding metabolic processes.
16 The lock-and-key model explains the effect of denaturing enzymes as if an enzymes
shape is altered the ‘key’ (substrate) cannot longer fit the ‘lock’ (active site).
17 The oxygen produced in photosynthesis comes from the carbon dioxide reactant.
18 Phosphates need a large amount of energy to bond to each other. Since ATP has three
phosphates, it is a great source of stored energy.
19 a Enzyme activity would slow down in a low temperature environment due to less
kinetic energy.
b Enzyme activity would stop due to denaturing at high temperatures.
c The active site would remain the same at a low temperature but change due to
denaturing at high temperatures.
20 The reason we exhale and inhale air is to get rid of waste products and intake oxygen
necessary for respiration. The waste product we exhale is carbon dioxide. This extra
carbon dioxide in exhaled air comes from the breakdown of glucose. This could be
proven by exhaling into a plastic bag, which would eventually contain high amounts of
carbon dioxide and low amounts of oxygen compared to the surrounding air.

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