CYBERPSYCHOLOGY, BEHAVIOR, AND SOCIAL NETWORKING

Volume 18, Number 5, 2015

ª Mary Ann Liebert, Inc.
DOI: 10.1089/cyber.2014.0549

Internet Use and Well-Being in Older Adults

Jinmoo Heo, PhD,1 Sanghee Chun, PhD,2 Sunwoo Lee, PhD,3

Kyung Hee Lee, PhD,4 and Junhyoung Kim, PhD 4

Abstract

The Internet has become an important social context in the lives of older adults. Extant research has focused on
the use of the Internet and how it influences well-being. However, conflicting findings exist. The purpose of the
study was to develop an integrative research model in order to determine the nature of the relationships among
Internet use, loneliness, social support, life satisfaction, and psychological well-being. Specifically, loneliness
and social support were tested as potential mediators that may modify the relationship between Internet use and
indicators of well-being. Data from the U.S. Health and Retirement Study (HRS) were used, and the association
among Internet use, social support, loneliness, life satisfaction, and psychological well-being was explored. The
sample consisted of 5,203 older adults (aged 65 years and older). The results indicated that higher levels of
Internet use were significant predictors of higher levels of social support, reduced loneliness, and better life
satisfaction and psychological well-being among older adults.

Introduction can be influenced by the extent to which their social networks

ccording to the Administration on Aging,1 the
A population of adults aged 65 years and older in the
United States is projected to increase from 12.4% in 2000 to
19% in 2030. This demographic trend highlights the need to
address factors that are conducive to the well-being of older
adults. Past studies have demonstrated an association be-
tween engaging in meaningful and productive activities and
increased levels of social support for and well-being of older
adults.2,3 Researchers have argued the impact of the use of the
Internet on old age, and some studies have suggested that
Internet use has certain benefits. For example, Chen and
Persson4 documented a positive relationship between Inter-
net use and the psychological well-being of older adults.
Shapira et al.5 conducted a quasi-experimental design study
and found that Internet use contributes to older adults’ well-
being. Interpersonal interactions, independence, and cogni-
tive functioning were enhanced as a result of using the
Internet, according to their study.
Social support is often regarded as a potential mediator of
well-being in older adults. Social support provides emotional
links between older adults and other people, and the main
sources of social support for older adults are family and
friends.6 Upon reviewing the literature, Perkins and LaMartin7
reported that the well-being and life satisfaction of older adults
provide them with support. Likewise, Erickson and Johnson8
surveyed older Canadian adults and found that Internet use
was positively related with life satisfaction, self-efficacy, and
social support. They also noted an inverse relationship be-
tween Internet use and loneliness and depression. The avail-
ability of social support from friends, family members, and
community ties has well-established protective connections
(or buffer actions) to feelings of loneliness among older
adults.9 The Internet is becoming increasingly influential in
our daily lives, and a number of studies have been conducted
to examine the impact of Internet use on perceived social
support.10 Researchers who argue that Internet use positively
affects perceptions of social support insist that the Internet
facilitates individuals to meet and interact with people who
have similar interests.11,12
Such findings intrigued the investigators to test causal
relationships in order to determine the role of Internet use on
social support, loneliness, and well-being. When these find-
ings are taken together, it is apparent that the field lacks a
coherent understanding of the role that Internet use plays on
well-being. The primary focus of the current study was to
develop an integrative research model in order to determine
the nature of the relationships among Internet use, loneliness,
social support, life satisfaction, and psychological well-
being. Specifically, loneliness and social support were tested

1
Department of Recreation, Park and Tourism Sciences, Texas A&M University, College Station, Texas.
2
Department of Recreation and Leisure Studies, Brock University, St. Catherines, Canada.
3
Faculty of Physical Culture, Palacký University, Olomouc, Czech Republic.
4
Department of Recreation, Parks and Leisure Services Administration, Central Michigan University, Mount Pleasant, Michigan.

268
INTERNET USE AND WELL-BEING
as potential mediators that may modify the relationship be-
tween Internet use and well-being variables (i.e., life satis-
faction and psychological well-being).
Method
This study used data from the 2008 U.S. Health and Re-
tirement Study (HRS). The HRS is a longitudinal survey of a
nationally representative sample of noninstitutionalized men
and women who are aged 50 years and older. A total of 5,203
HRS participants (59% female) born between 1908 and 1948
were analyzed. The respondents’ ages ranged from 65 to 105
years (M = 77.87 years, SD = 8.06 years), and 15.4% were
aged between 65 and 69 years, 46.7% between 70 and 79
years, 27.7% between 80 and 89 years, and 10.1% 90 years or
older. Caucasians accounted for 85.7% of the study, 12.5%
were African Americans, 6.7% considered themselves either
Mexican American or other Hispanic, and others accounted
for 1.8%. Half of the participants (50.4%) were high school
graduates, 15.2% had 2 or 4 year college degrees, and 9.4%
had masters or professional degrees. With regard to marital
status, 60.1% were married, 11.9% were separated or di-
vorced, 25.5% were widowed, and 2.5% had never been
married.
Instruments
Internet use. Internet use was assessed using a single
question: ‘‘Use a computer for e-mail, Internet, or other
tasks?’’ Possible responses ranged from 1 = ‘‘not in the last
month’’ to 6 = ‘‘daily.’’
Social support. As utilized in Schuster et al.’s study,13
the participants were asked to rate their perceptions of their
family and friends in regard to: (a) how much they under-
stood the participants’ feelings, (b) how much the partici-
pants could depend upon them, and (c) how much they
showed concern for the participants’ problems. The re-
sponses ranged from 1 = ‘‘a lot’’ to 4 = ‘‘not at all.’’
Loneliness. Loneliness was assessed using 11 items de-
veloped by Hughes et al.14 The participants were asked to rate
how much of the time they feel the way described by the items,
such as lacking companionship, being left out, and feeling
isolated. The response category ranged from 1 = ‘‘often’’ to
3 = ‘‘hardly ever or never.’’
15
Life satisfaction. Diener et al.’s Satisfaction With Life
Scale (SWLS) was used to measure a global life satisfaction.
The SWLS is a 5-item questionnaire, and the respondents rated
each statement on a 7-point Likert-type scale. The statements
consisted of such things as ‘‘If I could live my life over, I
would change almost nothing.’’ Higher scores indicated
greater life satisfaction. In the current study, the SWLS dem-
onstrated high internal consistency (Cronbach’s a = 0.880).
Psychological well-being. This was assessed using Ryff’s
Measures of Psychological Well-Being.16 A total of seven
items using a 6-point Likert-type scale were used. Sample
items include ‘‘I have a sense of direction and purpose in my
life’’ and ‘‘I enjoy making plans for the future and working to
make them a reality.’’ The Cronbach’s alpha for these items
was 0.771.
269
Results
Measurement model
Table 1 summarizes the descriptive statistics of the mea-
sured variables. The mean and standardized deviations for
each of the 18 items are reported. The reliability coefficients
(Cronbach’s a) were calculated in order to determine the
internal consistency of the constructs. The results showed
that the internal consistency of the measured variables were
reliable. The Cronbach’s alpha values ranged from 0.711 to
0.880.
The statistical significance of each indicator was examined
for convergent validity. The critical ratio values were all
> 1.96 ( p < 0.05), suggesting that all of the measured vari-
ables were significant and that no violation of estimates ex-
isted.17,18 The explained variances for these variables are
represented by their squared multiple correlations (SMC).
The SMC values indicate a strong relationship among the
constructs and their factors in the analysis.
The goodness of fit of the measurement model was as-
sessed using a chi-square test and root mean square error of
approximation (RMSEA).19 The RMSEA value was well
below the 0.05–0.08 maximum to determine the acceptable
model fit. The comparative fit index (CFI), normed fit index
(NFI), and Akaike information criterion (AIC) were also
reported. The CFI and NFI values of q0.95 indicated a good
fit with the data; the smaller the AIC value, the better the
model fit.
Based on the initial measurement model, the first-order
measurement model was tested. The results from the CFA
revealed that the first-order measurement model had a sig-
nificant chi-square, v2 = 608.055 (df = 112, p < 0.001). Hence,
the null hypothesis—that the measure of the five-dimensional
model had a good fit to the data—was rejected. However, this
measurement model indicated a satisfactory level of fit in-
dices: CFI = 0.987, NFI = 0.984, RMSEA = 0.029, AIC =
726.055.
For this constructed measurement model, the correlations
between the latent factors were examined. Composite scores
were created for each of the five factors, based on the mean
of the items, which had their primary loadings on each
construct. It was found that the five constructs were moder-
ately correlated with each other.
Hypotheses tests
Employing structural equation modeling (SEM), the re-
lationships between the measures of Internet use, social
support, loneliness, life satisfaction, and psychological well-
being were examined. Table 2 provides the standardized
estimates of the path coefficients and the estimations of the
indirect and total effects between the latent factors in the
tested model. It was found that the measure of Internet use
was a significant predictor of social support (b = 0.096,
t = 6.051). Social support significantly affected the measure
of loneliness, which in turn affected life satisfaction and
psychological well-being (b = - 0.139, t = - 8.034). The
measure of loneliness was found to have significant path
coefficients toward both life satisfaction (b = - 0.489, t =
- 13.993) and psychological well-being (b = - 0.411, t =
- 12.864). The fit of the proposed structural model indicated
an acceptable fit to the data: v2 = 602.436 (df = 114,
270 HEO ET AL.

Table 1. Descriptive Statistics of the Measured Variables and Internal Consistency of Constructs
Construct Items M (SD) Cronbach’s a t SMC
Internet use Frequency of Internet use 3.92 (2.30) — — —
Social support 0.800
Other family members understand the way 2.91 (0.904) 61.639 0.586
I feel about things.
I can rely on family member if I have a serious 3.03 (1.036) 66.018 0.653
problem.
I can open up to my family members if 2.83 (1.021) 74.439 0.780
I need to talk about my worries.
My friends understand the way I feel about things. 3.07 (0.805) 9.862 0.252
I can rely on my friends if I have a serious problem. 3.08 (0.884) 21.481 0.105
I can open up to my friends if I need 2.97 (0.923) 20.663 0.093
to talk about my worries.
Loneliness 0.839
You lack companionship 1.53 (0.666) 40.898 0.473
Left out 1.43 (0.589) 33.755 0.558
Isolated from others 1.36 (0.579) 45.801 0.540
Alone 1.51 (0.661) 15.651 0.527
Life satisfation 0.880
In most way, my life is close to ideal. 4.83 (1.818) 53.396 0.594
The conditions of life are excellent. 4.83 (1.853) 58.972 0.699
I am satisfied with life. 5.48 (1.693) 60.141 0.723
So far, I have gotten the important 5.56 (1.623) 44.967 0.444
things I want in my life.
Psychological 0.711
well-being I enjoy making plans for the future 4.94 (1.207) 45.737 0.466
(purpose in life) and working to make them a reality.
I am an active person in carrying 4.94 (1.222) 46.715 0.486
out the plans I set for myself.
I have a sense of direction and purpose in my life. 4.92 (1.286) 42.134 0.396
Goodness-of-fit indices: v2 = 608.055, df = 112, comparative fit index = 0.987, normed fit index = 0.984, root mean square error of
approximation = 0.029, Akaike information criterion = 726.055.

p < 0.001), CFI = 0.987, NFI = 0.985, RMSEA = 0.029, and
AIC = 716.436. It was demonstrated that the indirect effects
of the measurement of Internet use on life satisfaction and
psychological well-being through social support and loneli-
ness were statistically significant. The total standardized
effect for the measure of Internet use on life satisfaction and
psychological well-being indicated significant path coeffi-
cients by the statistical standard. Figure 1 visualizes the re-
lationships among the latent factors.
Discussion
This study used a structural equation model to examine the
relationships between Internet use, social support, loneliness,
life satisfaction, and psychological well-being. While a number
of studies have reported a detrimental effect among older
adults of using the Internet, the findings in this study provide
further evidence that Internet use can positively influence the
lives of older adults by providing social support, which can

Table 2. Summary of the Standardized Estimates of Path Coefficients Between Internet Use, Positive
Social Support, Loneliness, and Increased Life Satisfaction and Psychological Well-Being
Hypotheses
Path b SE t R2 test results
Iu/Ss 0.096 0.012 6.051*** 0.009 Supported
Ss/Ln - 0.139 0.015 –8.034*** 0.019 Supported
Ln/Ls - 0.489 0.040 –13.993*** 0.239 Supported
Ln/Pw - 0.411 0.033 –12.864*** 0.184 Supported
Indirect Total
Iu/Ss/Ln/Ls 0.007 0.003 2.333** Supported
Iu/Ss/Ln/Pw 0.005 0.001 5.450** Supported
Iu/Ls 0.007 0.001 7.000** Supported
Iu/Pw 0.005 0.001 5.000** Supported
***p < 0.001; **p < 0.01.
Iu, Internet use; Ss, social support; Ls, life satisfaction; Pw, psychological well-being.
INTERNET USE AND WELL-BEING
FIG. 1. Tested relationships and standardized estimates of path coefficients between Internet use, social support, lone-
liness, life satisfaction, and psychological well-being. Note: Latent constructs are shown as ovals, and measured variables
are shown as boxes. Each measured variable has an error term, but the error terms are not shown.
eventually promote life satisfaction and psychological well-
being.5 This study also demonstrates the importance of social
support as a mediator of the relationships among Internet us-
age, loneliness, life satisfaction, and psychological well-being.
This study adds to previous research by demonstrating that
social support partially mediates the relationship between
Internet use and well-being. When social support and lone-
liness were incorporated into the relationship between In-
ternet use and well-being, the relationship between the two
decreased by mitigating the negative effect of loneliness on
well-being. Therefore, social support plays an indirect role in
Internet use and well-being. This could be interpreted as so-
cial support having a significant impact on higher life satis-
faction and psychological well-being in older adults’ Internet
use. The mediating role of social support is consistent with
Berkman and Glass’s20 argument that using the Internet in-
fluences well-being through social relationships. Perhaps
older adults’ frequency of contact with family and friends
increases when they spend more time using the Internet.
Communicating through e-mail or other modalities, such as
chatrooms, may increase opportunities for older adults to
share their thoughts, feelings, and worries with their family
and friends, which positively affects their life satisfaction
and psychological well-being.
A plausible explanation for this phenomenon is that older
adults may develop supportive relationships through online
interactions and enhance contact with family and friends by
using the Internet.21 Giving and receiving tangible or emo-
tional assistance is the essence of social support. Perhaps
older adults benefit from the direct effects of social support
by developing a safe and reliable online social network.
More specifically, enjoyable interactions within that network
could possibly offer a safe context within which to share
one’s true feelings and thoughts with friends and, eventually,
experience a sense of connectedness and strong social sup-
port. Therefore, people interacting via the Internet are more
likely to have a reduced chance of social isolation and feeling
of loneliness.22 Although this study emphasized the impor-
tance of social support by presenting a direct relationship
271
between Internet use and social support, different types of the
enjoyable online activities may provide further distinctive
benefits for older online users. Future research needs to ex-
plore other potential mediators of the relationships among
Internet use, life satisfaction, and psychological well-being
for a comprehensive understanding of the effects of Internet
use among older adults.
The results of this study indicated that more frequent use
of the Internet has an indirect influence on improving psy-
chological well-being among older adults, which supports
previous reports that have suggested that Internet use can be
beneficial to well-being in later life.23 This study offers an
insight into that Internet use—a relatively new medium for
social networking in modern society—and can be an im-
portant tool for restoring and maintaining social relation-
ships. For older adults with health-related issues or mobility
limitations, social networking via the Internet can offer vital
opportunities for creating and maintain connections with
close friends and loved ones.
While it is not claimed that the structural equation model
is comprehensive, it takes into account the dynamic role of
Internet use, and the direction of the causal relationship
through which Internet use is associated with the well-being
of older adults could be tested. Satisfaction in social rela-
tionships was considered one of the critical factors in regard
to enhancing psychological well-being.24 Further investiga-
tion is necessary to examine the effects of Internet use on
building social networks and improving psychological well-
being.
Several issues should be addressed when interpreting the
results of this study. First, a single item was used to measure
overall Internet use levels. This is a very simple measure of
Internet use, and more sophisticated assessments might ex-
plain specifically the impact of Internet use on the well-being
of older adults. This item was the only measure of Internet
use available in the secondary data set (HRS) that was used
in the study. It is acknowledged that this measurement does
not allow specific details to be learned about Internet use,
such as the purpose of the Internet use, types of online
272
activities, and types of devices that the participant used.
Moreover, taking into account other behavioral characteris-
tics of Internet use, such as types of domains (e.g., chat-
rooms, message boards, newsgroups, instant messaging,
listservs) and topics of communication, would be useful for
future research. It is recommend that future studies use
multiple-item scales that capture various aspects of these
constructs. While the participants in this study came from a
national sample, future studies would benefit from including
a more diverse sample (i.e., Hispanics, Asians, and Native
Americans) so that the perceptions and behaviors of under-
represented groups can be explored. According to Smith,25
77% of adults who are 65 years and older owned cell phones
in 2014, but the number of those individuals who use smart-
phones still remains low (18%). The smartphone adoption rate
among the 65 years and older population was even lower in
2011 (11%). Although, it is not uncommon to find older adults
using the Internet via smartphones, it should be noted that the
secondary data used in the current study were collected in
2008. It was common practice to use computers for the In-
ternet rather than smartphones back then, especially amongst
older adults. Despite these limitations, it was found that higher
levels of Internet use were significant predictors of higher
levels of social support, reduced loneliness, and increased life
satisfaction and psychological well-being among older adults.
Acknowledgment
The study was supported, in part, by the project: Support
for Creating Excellent Research Teams and Intersectoral
Mobility at Palacký University in Olomouc II. Reg. no:
CZ.1.07/2.3.00/30.0041.
Author Disclosure Statement
No competing financial interests exist.
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Address correspondence to:
Dr. Kyung Hee Lee
Department of Recreation,
Parks and Leisure Services Administration
1275 S. Franklin Street
Finch Fieldhouse 109
Central Michigan University
Mount Pleasant, MI 48859
E-mail: tour.lee@gmail.com