ABSTRACT

Dyes are essential compounds widely used in various industries,

particularly in textiles, food, and cosmetics. This abstract provides an
overview of the chemistry of dyes, their applications, and their
environmental impact. The study explores the molecular structure of
dyes, the mechanisms of dyeing processes, and the different classes of
dyes, such as azo, anthraquinone, and vat dyes.

The primary focus is on the textile industry, where dyes play a crucial
role in imparting color to fabrics. The abstract delves into the
intricacies of dyeing techniques, including direct, vat, and reactive
dyeing, shedding light on how these methods affect the final color
and quality of the dyed material.

Additionally, the abstract discusses the environmental concerns

associated with dyeing processes, emphasizing the release of
pollutants into water bodies. It explores eco-friendly alternatives and
sustainable practices to mitigate the environmental impact of dyeing.

The abstract concludes by highlighting the importance of ongoing

research and innovation in the field of dyes, aiming to develop more
sustainable and environmentally friendly dyeing techniques.
Understanding the chemistry of dyes and their impact on the
environment is crucial for promoting responsible practices in
industries that heavily rely on these compounds.
INTRODUCTION
Dyes have been an integral part of human civilization for centuries,
providing color to fabrics, foods, and various other materials. These
vibrant compounds have played a pivotal role in shaping the
aesthetics of our surroundings and influencing cultural expressions. In
the context of the Class 12 curriculum, understanding the chemistry,
classification, and applications of dyes becomes crucial for students
delving into the world of chemistry and its practical applications.

Dyes can be broadly defined as colored substances that have an

affinity to substrates, such as textiles, paper, and leather, and are
capable of imparting color through a process known as dyeing. The
enchanting spectrum of colors we encounter in our daily lives, from
the clothes we wear to the products we use, owes much of its diversity
to the fascinating world of dyes.

The chemical structure of dyes is diverse, encompassing various

organic and synthetic compounds. Classifying dyes based on their
chemical composition and application characteristics reveals distinct
categories, such as azo dyes, anthraquinone dyes, vat dyes, and
reactive dyes. Each class of dyes has unique properties that influence
its suitability for specific applications, be it in the textile, food, or
cosmetic industry.

The textile industry stands as a primary consumer of dyes, utilizing

them to transform plain fabrics into an array of vibrant hues and
patterns. Different dyeing techniques, including direct, vat, and
reactive dyeing, contribute to the versatility of coloration in textiles.
The complex interplay of chemistry and technique in the dyeing
process requires a comprehensive understanding of the principles
governing these transformations.
However, the use of dyes is not without its challenges. The
environmental impact of dyeing processes, particularly in the
discharge of pollutants into water bodies, raises concerns about
sustainability. As we explore the world of dyes, it becomes imperative
to address these environmental issues and seek eco-friendly
alternatives to minimize the ecological footprint associated with dye
production and application.

Characteristics of a dye:

All coloured compounds are not dyes. A dye should possess the
following characteristics:

1. It should be fixed to the fabric firmly.

2. It should be stable to light.
3. It should be resistant to water, air, dilute acids, alkalis, etc.
4. It should not undergo fading on washing, drying, heating, and
treating with bleaching agents.
COLOUR PRODUCTION BY A DYE
A dye appears coloured when encountered with ordinary light due to
the phenomenon of absorption or the reflection of light. Ordinary light
or white light is composed of seven colours red, orange, yellow, green,
blue, indigo, and violet. When the light falls on a substance following
three things may happen:

1. When the light is reflected, the substance appears white.

2. When the light is absorbed, the substance appears black.
3. When only a part of the light is absorbed and rest is reflected,
the substance appears coloured. If a single wavelength of the
light is absorbed leaving behind others reflected, the colour will
be complementary to the absorbed light. Similarly, if a single
wavelength of light is reflected and the rest is absorbed, the
substance appears same colour which is reflected.

The wavelength of different colours of white light ranges from 400nm

to 800nm. The violet colour appears at 400 nm whereas red colour at
800 nm. The relationship between absorbed colour and their
complementary colour is shown in the following table:

Absorbed colour Complementary colour

Violet Yellow

Indigo Red

Blue Yellow

Green Orange
 Yellow Blue

Orange Green

Red Blue

Some of the complementary colours as well as absorbed colours may

be a combination of two colours due to absorption or the reflection
within a wider range of wavelengths of ordinary light.

Structural components of a dye

1. Chromophore:

 Definition: The chromophore is the part of the dye molecule

responsible for its color. It contains a conjugated system of
double bonds, which allows it to absorb light in the visible
spectrum.
 Role: The conjugated double bond system in the chromophore
gives rise to the color by absorbing specific wavelengths of light.
The more extended the conjugation, the longer the wavelength
absorbed, resulting in a color shift from the ultraviolet to the
visible range.
 Example: In azo dyes, the -N=N- group is a common
chromophore. The presence of this group imparts a range of
colors, including red, orange, and yellow, depending on the
substituents attached.

2. Auxochrome:

 Definition: Auxochromes are functional groups that, when

attached to the chromophore, modify and intensify the color of
 the dye. Common auxochromes include hydroxyl (-OH), amino (-
NH2), and carbonyl (-COOH) groups.
 Role: Auxochromes enhance the color of the dye by extending
the conjugation of the chromophore or by increasing the
electron density. This leads to a shift in the absorption spectrum
towards longer wavelengths, resulting in more vibrant colors.
 Example: In azo dyes, the presence of amino (-NH2) groups
serves as an auxochrome, intensifying the color and providing a
broader range of shades.

3. Solubilizing Group:

 Definition: Solubilizing groups are functional groups that

enhance the solubility of the dye in specific solvents or media.
Common solubilizing groups include sulfonic acid (-SO3H) and
carboxyl (-COOH) groups.
 Role: Solubilizing groups make the dye more soluble in water or
other solvents, facilitating the dyeing process. Water-soluble
dyes are particularly important in industries like textiles, where
water-based processes are common.
 Example: In acid dyes, which are commonly used for dyeing
wool and silk, the sulfonic acid group (-SO3H) serves as a
solubilizing group, allowing the dye to dissolve in water.

Understanding the interplay of these structural components is crucial

for comprehending the color-producing mechanisms of dyes. The
chromophore provides the color, auxochromes intensify it, and
solubilizing groups enhance the practical application of the dye in
various industries.
CLASSIFICATION OF DYES
The dyes are mainly classified on the following basis:
1. On the basis of occurrence
2. On the basis of chemical structures
3. On the basis of applications
On the basis of occurrence
Dyes can be classified based on their occurrence into natural and
synthetic types. They are:
a. Natural dyes: The colouring matters which can be obtained from
different plants, animals and minerals are called natural dyes.
Plant based dyes are derived from various parts of the plants
such as leaves, roots, stems and flowers. Example includes indigo
from Indigofera plants, henna from Lawsonia inermis leaves, and
saffron from Crocus sativus flowers. Similarly, dyes are also
obtained from animal sources like insects, mollusks, or certain
glands. For instance, cochineal dye comes from the cochineal
insect, and Tyrian purple was historically obtained from sea
snails.
b. Synthetic dyes: The man made dye which are prepared using
certain chemicals called coloured pigments is called synthetic
dye. These dyes are designed according to the need of the users
and prepared in industries. For example, malachite green, crystal
violet, fluorescein, cargo red, martius yellow, etc are commonly
used synthetic dyes. These dyes are designed by selecting
preferred chromophores, chromogens and auxochromes. These
are cheaper, effective, long lasting, and easily available dyes and
have got wider application.
On the basis of chemical structure
Azo Dyes:

 Chemical Structure: Azo dyes are characterized by the presence

of the azo group (-N=N-), which consists of two nitrogen atoms
connected by a double bond. The azo group is central to the
color-producing mechanism in these dyes.
 Examples:
 Direct Yellow 12 (azo yellow dye)
 Acid Red 52 (azo red dye)

 Anthraquinone Dyes:

 Chemical Structure: Anthraquinone dyes feature the

anthraquinone ring system, a tricyclic aromatic structure
containing three benzene rings fused in a linear arrangement.
 Examples:
 Disperse Blue 1 (anthraquinone blue dye)
 Alizarin (anthraquinone red dye)

 Phthalocyanine Dyes: Chemical

Structure: Phthalocyanine dyes are characterized by the
phthalocyanine ring, a large macrocyclic structure composed of
four isoindole units linked by nitrogen atoms.

 Examples:
 Copper Phthalocyanine (blue and green phthalocyanine
dye)
 Pigment Green 7 (phthalocyanine green dye)

 Triarylmethane Dyes:

 Chemical Structure: Triarylmethane dyes contain a central carbon

atom bonded to three aryl (aromatic) groups. The aryl groups
 often contain various substituents that influence the color of the
dye.
 Examples:
 Malachite Green (triarylmethane green dye)
 Crystal Violet (triarylmethane violet dye)

 Nitro-dyes

 Chemical structure: Nitro dyes are polynitro derivatives of

phenols containing at least one nitro group ortho or para vto the
hydroxyl group. It consists two or more aromatic rings.
 Examples: martins yellow, palatine orange and nitroso green

On the basis of application

 Acid Dyes- These are azo dyes and are characterized by the
salts of sulphonic or carboxylic acids. These are usually
applied to wool, silk and nylon and have no affinity for
cotton. Example- Orange I, Orange II, Methyl Orange,
Martius Yellow and Naphthol Yellow.

 Basic Dyes- These dyes contain Amino group in

unsubstituted (-NH2) or Substituted form (-NR2)
as chromophore (colour bearing group)
or auxochrome (colour enhancing group). These form
water-soluble cations in an acid solution which then react
with anionic sites present on the fabrics and thus get
attached to them. These are used to dye modified nylons,
polyesters, paper, leather, wool, cotton
etc. Example- Aniline Yellow and Malachite Green.
 Direct Dyes- These also belong to the class of azo dyes and
are used to dye the fabrics directly by placing it in an
aqueous solution of the dye. These are suitable for those
fabrics which can form H-bonds with the dyes. These are
used to dye wool, silk, nylon, rayon and
cotton. Example- Martius Yellow and Congo Red.

 Disperse Dyes- These are water-insoluble dyes which are

dispersed in reagents like Phenol, Cresol etc. before
applying to synthetic fibres. These are used to dye nylon,
polyesters and polyacrylonitrile. Example- Celliton Fast Pink
B and Celliton Fast Blue B.

 Fibre Reactive Dyes- These dyes contain a reactive group

which combines directly with the hydroxyl or Amino group
of the fibre. Because of the irreversible chemical reaction,
the colour is fast and has a long life. These are used to dye
nylon, wool and silk.

 Insoluble Azo Dyes (Ingrain Dyes)- These dyes are directly

synthesized on the surface of the fibre. The fabric to be
coloured is soaked in an alkaline solution of Phenol or
Naphthol and is then treated with a solution of diazotised
amine to produce azo dye on the surface of the fabric. The
colour imparted by such dyes is not very fast. These are used
to dye nylon, cotton, silk, polyester
etc. Example- Nitroaniline red.

 Vat Dyes- These are insoluble dyes which are first reduced
to a colourless leuco compounds in wooden vats by alkaline
reducing agents like sodium hyposulphite and then applied
to the fabric. After some time, the fabric is exposed to air or
 an oxidizing agent to get insoluble coloured dye on the
fabric. These are used to dye cotton fibres. Example- Indigo.

 Mordant Dyes- These dyes do not dye a fabric directly but

require a mordant which acts as the binding agent between
the dye and fabric. For acid dyes, the mordant is a metal
hydroxide while for basic dyes it is Tannic acid. The mordant
gets attached to the fabric and then interacts with the dye
forming an insoluble coloured complex, called Lake.
Depending upon mordant used, dyes give different
colours. Example- Alizarin (a mordant dye) gives a red colour
with Al and Sn salts, brownish-red with Cr mordant and
black-violet with Fe mordant.
CONCLUSION
In conclusion, dyes play a pivotal role in various industries,
contributing to the vibrant and diverse array of colors in everyday
products. Their applications span across textiles, paper, leather, food,
inks, biological sciences, plastics, wood, photography, and more. The
versatility of dyes arises from the myriad of chemical structures and
properties they exhibit.

The classification of dyes based on application highlights the

importance of tailoring dye characteristics to specific needs. For
instance, the challenges and requirements in dyeing textiles differ
significantly from those in coloring plastics or biological staining. The
development of specialized dyes for each application area involves
considerations of colorfastness, compatibility with substrates,
environmental impact, and regulatory compliance.

In summary, the world of dyes is dynamic and multifaceted, constantly

adapting to societal needs, technological advancements, and
environmental considerations. The ongoing pursuit of innovation in
dye chemistry ensures that we continue to experience a colorful and
visually dynamic world across a wide range of products and
applications.

Bibliography:
1. www.sciencedirect.com
2. en.wikipedia.org
3. bio.libretexts.org