Electromagnetic Forces in

Electric Machines

May 2019
Outline

• Forces and Torque in Electric Machines

− Definition of Electromagnetic Forces
− Calculations
• Eccentricity and skew
• Rotor forces
− Tangential – torque ripple
− Radial – Unbalanced Magnetic Pull (UMP)
• Stator tooth forces
− Tangential
− Radial
− Discrete Forces and Force Densities
 Noise Sources [1]

Magnetic Mechanical Aerodynamic Electronic

Fluid Cooling Switching

Radial
Phenomena Harmonics
Load
Self Auxiliaries
Induced
Slot
Harmonics
Couplings
Magnetic Stator Rotor
Unbalance
Modes of Foundation
Vibration
Static
Bearings Balancing
Eccentricity

Dynamic
Eccentricity
Unbalanced
Rotor
Audible Elliptical Rotor
Frequencies Surface

20 Hz 60 Hz 261.63 Hz 4.186kHz 5 kHz 20 kHz

[1] P. Vigayraghavan, R. Krishnan, “Noise in Electric Machines: A Review,” IEEE, 1998

Coupling of Forces, Vibration, and Noise

• Electromagnetic forces
‐ Maxwell stress – electromagnetic pressure

Forces (FFT)
• Forces produce mechanical displacement

• Sound power calculated from displacement

Displ.
• Noise is calculated from sound power
Airgap forces (Equal and opposite forces on Rotor & Stator)

• Electromagnetic forces are

calculated in the airgap.
‐ Equal and opposite forces on
rotor and stator.
𝑇𝑜𝑟𝑞𝑢𝑒 = 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑠 ∗ 𝑓𝑡
• Maxwell forces are always a
distribution (force density)
with units [N/m2] or [N/m3].

• Forces are caused by the

interaction of winding layout
and spatial harmonics –
creates ripple and harmonics.

5
Skew and Eccentricity

• Axial Skew
‐ Continuous
‐ Stepped
‐ Side-effect: causes axial fields and forces

• Eccentricity
‐ Static – rotor rotates around its own axis,
but rotor axis is misaligned with stator axis.
Air-gap non-uniformity fixed in space.
‐ Dynamic – rotor rotates on a different axis.
Air-gap non-uniformity rotates with rotor.
‐ Mixed Static + Dynamic Eccentricity
‐ Eccentricity could be uniform along axial
direction, or could involve tilt.

6
 CoggingTorque vs. Skew Simplorer1

Skew on Rotor Forces

ANSOFT

750 Curve Info rms

V_ROTB1.TORQUE 353.5740
skew_width='0'
V_ROTB1.TORQUE 239.7549
skew_width='0.25'
500

TORQUE [mNewtonMeter]
V_ROTB1.TORQUE 135.0953
skew_width='0.5'
Torque_slices Maxwell2DDesign1 ANSOFT
V_ROTB1.TORQUE
200.00 95.8159
Curve Info skew_width='0.75'
Torque_Slice1 250 V_ROTB1.TORQUE
150.00 Torque_Slice2 skew_width='1' 56.2651

• 2D Multi-slice Transient FEA 100.00

Torque_Slice3
Torque_Slice4
0

Y1 [mNewtonMeter]
50.00

0.00
-250

• Can represent either/both stator or rotor skew – only the

-50.00
-500
-100.00
relative skew-offset is important. -150.00 -750
0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0
-200.00 Time (1s = 1tooth) [s]
0.00 0.25 0.50 0.75 1.00 1.25 1.50 1.75 2.00
Time [s]

200
Back EMF Simplorer1 ANSOFT

• Cogging or ripple torque is reduced through a process of

150
“averaging” the slotting ripples.
100

Induced Voltage [mV]

50

• Tends to reduce the average torque slightly (torque- 0

component from each slice is slightly out of phase) -50

-100

-150

-200
0.00 0.25 0.50 0.75 1.00 1.25 1.50 1.75 2.00
Time [s]

7
Eccentricity – Unbalanced Magnetic Pull

• Eccentricity is a misalignment of the rotor and stator axes.

• It is often caused by failing bearings or improper installation alignment.

• When un-centered, the air-gap fields want to close the smallest gap, and
so a large force is exerted between rotor and stator to try and close the
smallest airgap. This is called Unbalanced Magnetic Pull.

• This extra force must be supported by the bearings, and will cause
further mechanical losses and further wear on the bearings.
δy

8
Force Density in Airgap

Static eccentricity – rotor and

axis are shifted on +X axis.

We see larger radial forces in

airgap on +X side.

Top case contains zero current.

Forces are evenly distributed
over magnet surface.

Bottom case at rated current.

Forces are higher and shifted
to leading edge of magnet.

Put force calculation between Band and

Stator Teeth. Do not put any
calculation directly on Band radius.

9
Force with Different Eccentricities
Concentric – no eccentricity Wobble around non-centered axis

Wobble around stator-centered axis Static Eccentricity

10
Eccentricity Model Example 1

Left Side Right Side

Tooth Tooth
Eccentricity Model Example 1 – Parametric Study

• Rotor missaligned
0%, 25%, 50%

• Solved simultaneously
on multi-core computer

• Shown: Radial Force on

Right Tooth Tip

• FFT of Radial Force

Stator Tooth Forces

• Forces on the stator teeth are directly caused by air-gap

forces in front of teeth.
• Can be described as either: Radial/Tangential or X/Y
force components.
• The Radial component is always substantially larger.
• The fundamental excitation frequency for force acting
on each tooth is Ftooth = p*N(rpm)/60.

Maxwell Stress 𝐵𝑠 𝐵𝑠
Tensor Eqn: 𝑓Ԧ𝑠 = 𝑛 • 𝐵𝑠 + 𝑛× × 𝐵𝑠
2𝜇0 2𝜇0

[N/m2]
2D Circular
Components:
[N/m2]

13
Maxwell Force Calculation Details Forces Integrated on Tooth (object/arc) [N]

Radial Force on Tooth

• Maxwell calculates distributed forces in the air gap in
several similar forms.
• Edge Force Density on magnetic
objects (Virtual Work method).
• Maxwell Stress Tensor density on
arcs within the air-gap.

Edge Force Density Maxwell Stress

Tangential Force on Tooth

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Electromagnetic Forces on Teeth

• The distributed forces are integrated on each

tooth tip to produce “lumped” transient forces,
Fradial and Ftangential [N].

• Either the tooth forces can be calculated as:

• Edge Force Density (Virtual Work)
• Maxwell Stress Tensor (on Arc)

• The forces on the teeth may be exactly phase

shifted or not, depending on symmetry and the
winding configuration/excitation.

• The sum of the average tangential force on all

teeth is exactly related to the average torque on
the rotor by the air-gap radius.
Force and Moment on Teeth
𝑟𝑖 are the vectors
• Maxwell Calculates the Object Force and Moment on
from Centroid to
each tooth object. force locations
• Force is integration of density.
• Moment is next order of accuracy – cause extra stress
𝑇𝐶𝑀 = σ𝑖 𝑟𝑖 × 𝐹𝑖
due to “twisting” of tooth tip.
𝐹1
• Object-based force calculation and mapping often works well
due to discrete gaps for each tooth. 𝐹2 Centroid
• Good for 2D Magnetic to 3D Structural coupling.
• No force density distribution “mapping” required, which
reduces meshing requirements.
• Easy to replicate from one motor pole to full model.

• All coupling enabled directly in the interface. Automatically

applies real and imaginary forces and moments in Harmonic.

16
Force Details: Calculating Forces in Maxwell

1. Edge-Force Density (Local Virtual Work)

2. B-field in gaps (Maxwell Stress Tensor)
3. Force Parameter (Integrated Total Force – Virtual Work)

• Virtual Work considers a “virtual displacement” of the surface elements of

selected objects, and assumes air is surrounding, therefore a gap is required.
• MST is applied to surface of dashed line – i.e. surfaces in the air gap, and
completely surrounding object(s).
• The integration of these volume/surface densities creates a lumped force.

• Use first two options (MST and force density) on tooth tips or in air-gap plots.
• Use Force Parameter on Rotor UMP force (all rotating objects – see workshop).

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Maxwell Force References
Using either Object-Based or Element-Based

• Complex Motor Challenges:

− Switched-Reluctance motor, axial flux motor, DC motor,
and motor with skewed stator have 3D effects not Lumped
captured in the object-based mapping
Magnetic
• Solution: Ansys unique element-based force Force
mapping accurately captures the 3D effects

• Fast magnetic studies with 2D periodic FEA. Distributed

Magnetic
• Fully accurate 3D with skew and eccentricity
Force
supported by highly scalable HPC.
Discrete
Mechanical
Support(s)
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Summary – Lecture 1

• Maxwell provides tools to calculate Motor forces acting on both the

rotor and stator in a wide range of situations.

• Start Workshop 1 to try force calculation for unbalanced magnetic

pull.

• We will apply force calculation on Stator Teeth Objects in next Lecture

and Workshops.
Appendix and Further Details

• Example of analytic combination of motor harmonics for

harmonic force calculations, i.e. torque ripple.
Harmonics of Back EMF and Torque Ripple
- PMSM – The 3-phase current system is balanced and symmetric, the motor
current does not contain even harmonics,
2π 2π
I a + I b + I c = I m  [sin( ) + sin( + ) + sin( − )] = 0
3 3

- Then the current and back EMF,

 I a = I 1  sin (θ ) + I 5  sin ( 5θ) + I 7  sin ( 7θ) + I 9  sin ( 9θ) + I 11  sin ( 11θ) + ......

 E a = E1  sin (θ ) + E3  sin ( 3θ) + E5  sin ( 5θ) + E 7  sin ( 7θ) + E9  sin ( 9θ) + E11  sin ( 11θ) + ......
 2 5  2 7  2 9  2
 I b = I 1  sin (θ + ) + I 5  sin ( 5θ + ) + I 7  sin ( 7 θ + ) + I 9  sin ( 9θ + ) + ......
3 3 3 3

 E = E  sin (θ + 2 ) + E  sin ( 3θ + 3  2 ) + E  sin ( 5θ + 5  2 ) + E  sin ( 7θ + 7  2 ) + ......
 b 1
3
3
3
5
3
7
3
 2 5  2 7  2 9  2
 I c = I 1  sin (θ − 3 ) + I 5  sin ( 5θ − 3 ) + I 7  sin ( 7θ − 3 ) + I 9  sin ( 9θ − 3 ) + ......

 E = E  sin (θ − 2 ) + E  sin ( 3θ − 3  2 ) + E  sin ( 5θ − 5  2 ) + E  sin ( 7θ − 7  2 ) + ......
 c 1
3
3
3
5
3
7
3

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Harmonics of Back EMF and Torque Ripple
- There is a current in the motor windings, and the electromagnetic torque is generated,

Tm =
1
E a I a + Eb I b + Ec I c  = T0 + T6  cos (6 ) + T12  cos (12 ) + T18  cos (18 ) + T24  cos (24 ) + .......

- The same harmonic order for both back EMF and motor current will generate torque,
  2   2   2   2 
I1 E1  sin ( )sin ( ) + sin  +  sin  +  + sin  −  sin  − 
  3   3   3   3 
1 1  4  1   4  
= I1 E1   1 − cos(2 ) + 1 − cos 2 +  + 1 − cos 2 −  
2 2  3  2   3  
3
= −  I1  E1
2

- The motor current and the back EMF with order of harmonics three times of current
harmonics generate no torque,
  2   3  2   2   3  2 
I1 E3  sin ( )sin (3 ) + sin  +  sin  3 +  + sin  −  sin  3 − 
  3   3   3   3 
1 1  2   2  1   2   2  
= I1 E3   − cos(4 ) + cos(2 ) + − cos 4 +  + cos 2 −  + − cos 4 −  + cos 2 +  
2 2  3   3  2   3   3  
=0
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Harmonics of Back EMF and Torque Ripple
- Motor current and back EMF with different harmonics generate torque with harmonics
order multiple of 6 as follows,

  2   5  2   2   5  2 
I 1 E5  sin ( )sin (5 ) + sin  +  sin  5 +  + sin  −  sin  5 − 
  3   3   3   3 
1 1  2  1   2  
= I 1 E5   − cos(6 ) + cos(4 ) + − cos(6 ) + cos 4 +  + − cos(6 ) + cos 4 −  
 2 2   3   2   3  

= −  I 1  E5  cos(6 )
3
2

- The electromagnetic torque is calculates as,

T0 =
3
(I 1 E1 + I 5 E5 + I 7 E7 + I 11 E11 + .......)
2
T6 =
3
(I 1 (E7 − E5 ) + I 5 (E11 − E1 ) + I 7 (E1 + E13 ) + I11 (E5 + E17 ) + .......)
2
T12 =
3
(I1 (E13 − E11 ) + I 5 (E17 − E7 ) + I 7 (E19 − E5 ) + I 11 (E 23 − E1 ) + .......)
2
T18 =
3
(I1 (E19 − E17 ) + I 5 (E 23 − E13 ) + I 7 (E 25 − E11 ) + I11 (E 29 − E7 ) + .......)
2

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Harmonics of Back EMF and Torque ripple

Expressed as a matrix:

T0   E1 E5 E7 E11   I1 
T 
 = 3
E −E
 7 E11 − E1 E13 + E1 E17 + E5   I 5 

6 5

T12  2  E13 − E11 E17 − E7 E19 − E5 E 23 − E1   I 7 

     
 18 
T  E19 − E17 E 23 − E13 E 25 − E11 E 29 − E7   I 11 

25
Harmonics of Back EMF and Torque Ripple
4-pole, 24-slot Surface Mounted Permanent Magnet Synchronous motor example

Back EMF waveform at 1500 rpm

1500 rpm = 50 Hz (electrical frequency) = 25 Hz (mechanical frequency)
24 slots = 12 per electrical cycle

26
Harmonics of Back EMF and Torque Ripple
FFT on back EMF waveform

1x

Slots per cycle: Ns/c=12

Extra ripple at Ns/c +/- 1

3x 5x 7x 9x 11x 13x

27
Harmonics of Back EMF and Torque Ripple
Steady-state torque waveform and corresponding torque spectrum

Average Torque

Slots per cycle:

Ns/c=12

12x
6x 24x 36x

28