MODULE 8: INTRODUCTION TO WATER RESOURCES 8.

Natural Disasters: ensures that the water

ENGINEERING supply infrastructure can withstand natural
disasters
 WATER RESOURCES ENGINEERING - an area of
professional practice that includes the design of  Hydrologic cycle is the pathway of water as it moves in
systems to control the quantity, quality, timing, and its various phases through the atmosphere, to the
distribution of water to meet the needs of human earth, over and through the land, to the ocean, and
habitation and the environment. back to the atmosphere
- Aside from the engineering and  HOW: Evaporation >> Condensation >>
environmental aspects of water-resource Precipitation >> Infiltration, Runoff, & Transpiration
systems, their feasibility from legal, economic,
financial, political, and social viewpoints must
generally be considered in the development
process.
EXAMPLES:
1. domestic, commercial, and industrial water supply
2. wastewater treatment
3. Irrigation
4. Drainage
5. flood control
6. salinity control
7. sediment control
8. pollution abatement
9. hydro power-generation systems
 HYDROLOGY – a study that deals with the
occurrence, distribution, movement, and  Water resource, any of the entire range of natural
properties of water on earth. waters that occur on the Earth, regardless of their
 WATER-RESOURCES ENGINEERING is commonly state and that are of potential use to humans.
regarded as a sub-discipline of civil engineering and
several other specialty areas are encompassed within 3 STATES OF WATER
the field of water-resources engineering.
 Water resource engineers, in particular, ensure
that the water supply infrastructure is effective and
able to withstand natural disasters caused by climate
change, aging and a growing population.
 GROUNDWATER HYDROLOGY - occurrence and
movement of water below the surface of the earth
 SURFACE-WATER HYDROLOGY AND  The Earth is a watery place. About 71 percent of the
CLIMATOLOGY - occurrence and movement of water Earth's surface is water-covered, and the oceans hold
above the surface of the earth; about 96.5 percent of all Earth's water. Water also
 HYDRO-GEOCHEMISTRY - chemical changes in exists in the air as water vapor, in rivers and lakes, in
water that is in contact with earth materials icecaps and glaciers, in the ground as soil moisture and
 Erosion, sedimentation, and geomorphology in aquifers.
effects of sediment transport on landform  The largest water sphere representing all water on, in,
 WATER POLICY, ECONOMICS, AND SYSTEMS and above the earth, would be about 332,500,000
ANALYSES - political, economic, and environmental cubic miles, (1,386,000,000 cubic kilometers), and be
constraints in the design and operation of water- about 860 miles (about 1,385 kilometers) in diameter.
resource systems.  The smaller sphere presents Earth's liquid fresh water
in groundwater, swamp water, rivers, and lakes. The
IMPORTANCE OF WATER-RESOURCES ENGINEERING: volume of this sphere would be about 2,551,000 cubic
1. Water Quality : improves water quality for miles (10,633,450 cubic kilometers) and form a sphere
human and environmental needs about 169.5 miles (272.8 kilometers) in diameter.
2. Water Pollution: reduces water pollution  That smallest sphere represents fresh water in all the
3. Water Resources: conserves water lakes and rivers on the planet. Most of the water
resources people and life on earth need every day comes from
4. Infrastructure: develops infrastructure these surface-water sources. The volume of this
5. water systems: manages water systems sphere is about 22,339 cubic miles (93,113 cubic
6. Irrigation: designs and implements kilometers). The diameter of this sphere is about 34.9
irrigation systems for agriculture miles (56.2 kilometers).
7. Water Supply: ensures that the water
supply infrastructure is effective

WATER PERCENTAGE:
 SALTWATER - 97%
 FRESHWATER - 3%
o ICE - 2.06%
o GROUNDWATER - 0.9%
o OTHER FRESHWATER - 0.04%
 LAKES - 0.0208%
 Wetlands – 0.0152%
 WATER VAPOR - 0.0032%
 Rivers – 0.0004%
 LIVING THINGS - 0.0004%
 Surface Water is any body of water
found on the eart h ’s surface, including
both th e sa ltw ate r in the oc ea n and the
freshwater in rivers, streams, and lakes.
wetlands, reservoirs, and creeks are also
included in wat er sur fa ce. The ocean,
despite being saltwater, is also
considered surface water.
 Surface water participates in the hydrologic cycle, or
water cycle, which involves the movement of water to
and from the Earth’s surface. Precipitation and water
runoff feed bodies of surface water. evaporation and
seepage of water into the ground, on the other hand,
cause water bodies to lose water. Water that seeps
deep into the ground is called groundwater.
THERE ARE THREE TYPES OF SURFACE WATER:
 Perennial
 Ephemeral
 End man-made
 Perennial, Or Permanent Surface Water
persists throughout the year and is
replenished with groundwater when there is
little precipitation.
- This is present year-round. swamps,
lakes, rivers are examples of permanent
groundwater. These bodies of water are
persistent and in the case of drought, are
replenished by groundwater.
 Ephemeral Or Semi-Permanent Surface Water exists
for only part of the year. Ephemeral surface water
includes small creeks, lagoons, and water holes.
 Man-made Surface Water is found in artificial
structures, such as dams and constructed wetlands.
 Sub-Surface Water - all water occurring
beneath the earth's surface, including soil
moisture, that in the vadose zone and
groundwater.
 Subsurface water includes all water located in
the pore spaces of soil and rocks . not all
subsurface water is groundwater that can
potentially be impacted by groundwater
abstraction .
 ABTRACTION - The act of removing water from a
groundwater resource or aquifer through pumping.
abstraction is a means of obtaining water from a
groundwater system. However, abstraction needs to
be properly managed to avoid over-abstraction or the
induction of contamination into the groundwater
system.
 Subsurface flow refers to the flow of water below
earth's surface as part of the hydrologic cycle.
Subsurface flow may return to earth's surface as
perched flow, such as from a spring or seep, or
subsurface (base flow) return to streams, creeks, and
rivers.
 Subsurface water is an integral part of the
hydrological system.
 Water resources of the Philippines include inland
freshwater (rivers, lakes, and groundwater), and
marine (bay, coastal, and oceanic waters). Overall,
there is sufficient water but not enough in highly
populated areas, especially during dry season.
 The Philippines obtains its water supply from different
sources.
These include:
1. Rainfall
2. surface water resources
3. Rivers
4. Lakes
5. reservoirs
6. groundwater resources.
 It has 18 major river basins and 421 principal river
basins as defined by the National Water Regulatory
Board (NWRB).
 The Bureau of Fisheries and Aquatic Resources (BFAR)
reports that there are 79 lakes in the country, mostly
utilized for fish production.
 Laguna Lake is the country’s largest lake with a total
area of 3,813.2 sq.km and is also one of the largest
lakes in Southeast Asia.
 Lake Lanao, the largest lake in Mindanao, is one of the
17 ancient lakes on earth (Environmental
management bureau, 2006).
 In terms of groundwater, the country has an
extensive groundwater reservoir with an aggregate
area of about 50,000 sq km.
 Data from the mines and geosciences bureau (mgb)
show that several groundwater basins are underlaid
by about 100,000 sq km of various rock formation
and that these resources are located in:
1. Northeast Luzon
2. Central Luzon
3. Laguna Lake Basin
4. Cavite-Batangas-Laguna Basin
5. Southeast Luzon
6. Mindoro Island
7. Negros Island
 8. Northeast Leyte
9. Ormoc-Kananga Basin
10. Agusan-Davao Basin
11. Occidental Misamis Basin
12. Lanao-Bukidnon-Misamis Basin
 The report also mentions that groundwater
contributes 14 percent of the total water resource
potential of the country.
 The design of water resource systems involves:
1. planning
2. Engineering and implementing
infrastructure to effectively manage
3. Allocate and utilize water resources while
considering factors like demand
4. sustainability
5. efficiency
6. resilience against uncertainties
IT'S CRUCIAL FOR ENSURING EQUITABLE:
 Access to water
 Meeting diverse needs
 Addressing challenges
 The uncertainty and natural variability of
Hydrologic processes require that most water
resource systems be designed with some
degree of risk (of failure).
Approaches to designing such systems can be
classified as either:
 FREQUENCY-BASED DESIGN - the exceedance
probability of the design event is selected a prior
and the water-resource system is designed to
accommodate all lesser events up to and including
an event with the selected exceedance probability.
The water-resource system will then be expected
to fail with a probability equal to the exceedance
probability of the design event.
- The frequency-based design approach is
commonly used in designing the minor structures of
urban drainage systems.
 RISK-BASED DESIGN - Are systems are designed
such that the sum of the capital cost and the cost
of failure is minimized. Capital costs tend to
increase and the cost of failure tends to decrease
with increasing system capacity. Because any
threats to human life are generally assigned
extremely high failure costs, structures such as
large dams are usually designed for rare Hydrologic
events with long return periods and
commensurate small failure risks.
 CRITICAL EVENT DESIGN - In some extreme cases,
where the consequences of failure are truly
catastrophic, water resource systems are designed
for the largest possible magnitude of a Hydrologic
event. This approach is called critical-event design,
and the value of the design (Hydrologic) variable in
this case is referred to as the estimated limiting
value (ELV).
 DESIGN OBJECTIVES OF WATER-RESOURCE SYSTEMS -
Water-resource systems can be broadly categorized as
water-control systems or water use systems, with
design objectives as shown in Table 1.5; however,
these systems are not mutually exclusive. The
following sections present a brief overview of the
design objectives in water-control and water-use
systems.
 Water Control Systems are primarily designed to
control the spatial and temporal distribution
of surface runoff resulting from rainfall
events.
 a flood is defined as a high flow that exceeds
the capacity of a stream or drainage channel.
 The elevation at which water overflows the
embankments of a stream or drainage channel is
called the flood stage.
 A floodplain is the normally dry land adjoining rivers,
streams, lakes, bays, or oceans that is inundated
during flood events.
 Water-Use System - Water for these systems
are generally derived from rivers, lakes, and
groundwater; and great care must be taken to
ensure that water withdrawals from these
sources are sustainable.
- The design capacity of water-use systems
is generally dictated by the population and
characteristics of the service area, commercial
and industrial requirements, crop requirements,
and/or the economic design life of the
system, some key design aspects of these systems
are given below.
- water-use systems are designed to
support human habitation and include water-
treatment systems, water-distribution systems,
wastewater-collection systems, wastewater-
treatment systems, and irrigation systems.
WATER USE SYSTEM
1. DOMESTIC WATER-SUPPLY SYSTEMS / proper hydration for crops.
DOMESTIC AND INDUSTRIAL WATER SUPPLY -
These systems typically include water-extraction
facilities, such as well fields, that must extract
water from the source at rates that do not cause
adverse effects on the source water and those
that depend on it.
- Water-treatment plants that must
produce water of sufficient quality to meet
drinking water standards and water-distribution
systems that must deliver peak demand while
sustaining adequate water pressures.
- Sources can include groundwater,
surface water from rivers or lakes, or even
desalination plants for areas with limited
freshwater access.
 DIRECT WATER-SUPPLY SYSTEM - in direct
water supply system all appliances in a house
receives water from the rising main of
municipal supply mains.
 INDIRECT WATER-SUPPLY SYSTE M - Indirect
water supply system is flexible because when
mains run out of water, stored water is a
benefit till mains flow return.
2. DOMESTIC WASTEWATER-COLLECTION
SYSTEMS / WASTEWATER TREATMENT - These
systems typically terminate in a wastewater-
treatment plant that must provide a sufficient
level of treatment for the intended use of the
effluent, and effluent discharge systems that do
not degrade the receiving waters.
- these systems collect and manage used
water from homes, businesses, and institutions.
- the goal is to effectively remove
pollutants and contaminants before releasing the
treated water back into the environment or
reusing it for non-potable purposes like irrigation
or industrial processes.
- It takes thousands of miles of pipeline to
collect this wastewater so it can be treated and
returned to the environment.
3. IRRIGATION SYSTEMS - in agricultural areas,
water requirements of crops are met by a
combination of rainfall and irrigation.
- Usually, irrigation water is obtained from
groundwater and care must be taken to ensure
that the extraction rates are sustainable and long-
term declines in groundwater resources will not
occur.
- They aim to supplement natural rainfall
by delivering water directly to fields, ensuring
- Different types of irrigation systems exist,
including surface irrigation, drip irrigation,
sprinkler systems, and more.
4. HYDROELECTRIC POWER SYSTEMS /
HYDROPOWER GENERATION - In rivers where
there are large seasonal variations in flow
volumes and droughts occur frequently,
construction of dams and the generation of
hydroelectric power might be economically
feasible.
- These systems harness the energy of
flowing water to generate electricity.
- Hydroelectric power systems typically
involve damming rivers to create reservoirs and
controlling the flow of water through turbines.
- In such cases, water reservoirs are sized
to provide sufficient human habitation in years
and seasons of water deficit .
 WATER CONSERVATION is the practice of using water
efficiently to reduce unnecessary water usage.
According to Fresh Water Watch, water conservation
is important because fresh clean water is a limited
resource, as well as a costly one.
 Rainwater is a natural gift so conservation of water is
very essential.
 COMMERCIAL APPLICATIONS - it is important
to consider implementing water-conserving
changes to industrial and commercial
application use. it was found that high-
income countries use roughly 59% of their
water for industrial usage while low-income
countries use 8% for industrial usage.
 AGRICULTURAL APPLICATIONS - Water is an
essential part of irrigation. Plants always take
a lot of ground water thus ground water
should be replenished. For crop irrigation,
optimal water efficiency means minimizing
losses due to evaporation , runoff or
subsurface drainage while maximizing
production.
AIMS OF WATER CONSERVATION EFFORTS:
1. Ensuring the availability of water for future
generations.
2. Energy conservation as water pumping,
delivery, and wastewater treatment facilities
consume a significant amount of energy.
3. Habitat conservation where minimizing human water
usage helps to preserve freshwater habitats for local
wildlife and migrating waterfowl, but also water quality.
KEY ACTIVITIES TO CONSERVE WATER:
1. Any beneficial reduction in water loss, use and
waste of resources.
2. Avoiding any damage to water quality.
3. Improving water management practices that
reduce the use or enhance the beneficial use of
water.
 The objective of water conservation can be
achieved through MASSIVE EFFORTS ON THE
CONSERVATION AND UTILIZATION of water
on sustainable basis.
WATER CONSERVATION MEASURES
 Domestic Conservation
 Agricultural Conservation
 Industrial Conservation
 Rainwater Harvesting
DOMESTIC CONSERVATION
 Repair all leakages
 Do not waste water
 Use minimum water as required
 User water meter to know the consumption of
water throughout a day
AGRICULTURAL CONSERVATION
 Use drip irrigation or sprinkler irrigation
 Do not encourage wasteful irrigation system
 To construct the small reservoirs and construct a
roof over it to reduce evaporation rate
 Use lined canals to reduce seepage and
evaporation
 By efficient use of groundwater and surface water
INDUSTRIAL CONSERVATION
 Use such cooling system which uses less water
 Reuse the cooling water for irrigation or other
purpose
 Develop new techniques and equipment which
uses less water
 Install water treatment plant and waste water
treatment plant
RAINWATER HARVESTING
 In semi-arid and arid regions, both the surface
water and the ground water are having less water
therefore the collecting and preserving water is at
the peak point.
 This collection of water is called water harvesting,
a collection of rainwater and runoff primarily for
irrigation, human, livestock consumption.
RAINWATER HARVESTING TECHNIQUES
 Rainwater Collection – Roof top Rainwater
Harvesting
 Run-off Collection – Surface Run-off Harvesting
 Recharge to groundwater
 Run-off Enhancement
RAINWATER COLLECTION : ROOF TOP RAINWATER
HARVESTING
 Is the techniques through which rainwater is
captured from the roof catchments and stored in
sub-surface groundwater reservoir.
 Main objective: to make water available for future
use.
 Important in dry land, hilly, urban, and coastal
areas.
 The quality harvested rainwater is usually clean
following proper installation and maintenance.
Components of the rooftop rainwater harvesting
techniques:
 Collection Area
 Conveyance System
 Storage Tanks
 Delivery System
RUNOFF COLLECTION
 Small dams are constructed in natural channels to
impound the runoff water up to certain depth in
the channel
 The impounded water slowly infiltrates into the
soil and recharges the groundwater aquifer.
 Ponds and reservoirs
 To store runoff or spring water water for irrigation,
domestic purpose.
 Improves the quality and quantity of ground water.
 two types of ponds: Impounding and dog cut type
RECHARGE TO GROUND WATER
 A new concept of rainwater harvesting and the
structures generally use are: pits, trenches, dug
wells, hand pumps, recharge walls, underground
reservoirs, lateral shafts with bore halls.
 RUNOFF ENHANCEMENT - Refers to the practice of
increasing the amount of water that flows over land,
rather than infiltrating into the soil. This can be done
through various methods, each with its own
advantages and disadvantages.
METHODS:
 Land management practices
 Runoff enhancement farms (REFs)
 Cloud seeding
 A dam is a hydraulic structure constructed across a
river or a natural stream to store water on its
upstream side.
- It is an impervious barrier put across a river
or a natural stream to create a reservoir for
impounding water, or to facilitate diversion of
water from the river.
STORAGE OF WATER IS UTILIZED FOR FOLLOWING
OBJECTIVES:
1. Hydro-power
2. Irrigation
3. Water for domestic consumption
4. Drought and flood control
5. For navigational facilities
6. To develop fisheries
 The side on which water is collected is called upstream
side and the other side of the barrier is called
downstream side. The pool of water which is formed
upstream is called a Reservoir.
 HEEL: contact with the ground on the upstream
side
 TOE: contact on the downstream side
 ABUTMENT: Sides of the valley on which the
structure of the dam rest.
 GALLERIES: Small Rooms-Like Structure
Left Within The Dam For Checking
Operations.
 DIVERSION TUNNEL: Tunnels Are
Constructed For Diverting Water Before
The Construction Of Dam.
 SPILLWAYS: It is the arrangement near the
top to release the excess water of the
reservoir to downstream side.
 SLUICE WAY: An opening in the dam near
the ground level, which is used to clear
the silt accumulation in the reservoir side.
 A gravity dam is made from concrete or masonry, or
sometimes both. It is called a gravity dam because
gravity holds it down to the ground stopping the water
in the reservoir pushing it over.
 The tallest gravity dam is the 285 m (935 ft) high
Grande Dixence Dam in Switzerland.
 BUTTRESS DAM - A concrete dam in which the smooth
upstream face is supported by buttresses on the
downstream side. Unlike traditional gravity dams,
buttress dams do not rely entirely upon their own
weight to resist the thrust of the water.
 BUTTRESS - a projecting support of stone or brick
built against a wall.
 ARCH DAM - These type of dams are concrete or
masonry dams which are curved or convex upstream
in plan. this shape helps to transmit the major part of
the water load to the abutments.
 The Daniel-Johnson Dam (Manicouagan River in
Quebec province, Canada) is 214 metres (703 feet) tall
at its highest point, making it the tallest dam of its
type in the world. Its 14 buttresses and 13 arches span
1,314 metres (4,311 feet) across the reservoir.
 Earth dams are constructed where the foundation or
the underlying material or rocks are weak to support
the masonry dam or where the suitable competent
rocks are at greater depth. They are trapezoidal in
shape.
 Earthen dams are relatively smaller in height and
broad at the base.
 They are mainly built with clay, sand and gravel, hence
they are also known as Earth fill dam or Rock fill dam.
 TARBELA DAM - With a volume of 142,000,000 cubic
meters, the Tarbela Dam is the largest earth and rock
fill dam in the world and stands 147 meters above the
Indus riverbed. Its reservoir occupies an area of 37
square kilometers.
 A weir is an impervious barrier constructed across a
river to raise the water level on the upstream side.
- The water is raised up to the required
height and the water then flows over the weir.
- Weirs have traditionally been used to
create mill ponds.
- They are also used to prevent flooding,
measure discharge, and help render a river
navigable.
 A Barrage is a type of low head, diversion dam which
consists of a number of large gates that can be opened
or closed to control the amount of water passing
through the structure, and thus regulate and stabilize
river water in upstream for use in irrigation and other
system. A barrage is built for diverting water, and
raises the water level only a feet; they are generally
 built on flat terrain across wide, often meandering
rivers.
MODULE 9: THE HYDROLOGICAL CYCLE
 The planet earth is called as the water planet. Water
exists in the atmosphere, lithosphere, hydrosphere
and biosphere. Among all these segments, water
masses are in continuous circulation. It is , in general,
called as the hydrologic cycle. It is also called as the
World’s Great Water Cycle, since it is the driving wheel
for all the movements of available water resources on
the planet earth.
 The world’s water is not in static form. It also
transforms from one state to the other. Water gets
transformed from liquid to solid, solid to liquid, liquid
to vapor, vapor to liquid, and vapor to solid states.
 The water gets temporarily stored and moved in the
form of surface water in rivers, lakes, ponds, ice caps,
and below the surface as groundwater. All these water
bodies are called water reservoirs.
 The duration of stay and storage of water in every
reservoir varies due to varying geological,
environmental, and other conditions. This is called the
residence time of water.
CONCEPT OF HYDROLOGICAL CYCLE
 The water cycle — technically known as the
hydrological cycle — is the continuous circulation of
water within the Earth's hydrosphere and is driven by
solar radiation. This includes the atmosphere, land,
surface water, and groundwater. (European
Environment Agency)
 This gigantic system, powered by energy from the Sun,
is a continuous exchange of moisture between the
oceans, the atmosphere, and the land. (NASA)
 As water moves through the cycle, it changes state
between liquid, solid, and gas phases. Water moves
from compartment to compartment, such as from
river to ocean, by the physical processes of
evaporation, precipitation, infiltration, runoff, and
subsurface flow.
COMPONENTS OF HYDROLOGIC CYCLE
The circulation of water masses seen in all spheres of the
earth involves several causative factors and components.
The major components (or) elements of the hydrologic
cycle are :
1. Precipitation
2. Evaporation
3. Transpiration
4. Evapotranspiration
5. Surface Runoff
6. Condensation
7. Infiltration
8. Groundwater base flow
9. Sublimation
10. Interception.
 Most of the Earth’s water masses reside in the oceans.
Continental water makes up about 3.5 percent of the
Earth’s water. About three-quarters of this amount (29
million cubic kilometers) is present as polar ice caps
and glaciers. About 5.3 million cubic kilometers as
deep groundwater. Thus, only the remaining fraction
can take part in the water exchange between the
oceans, the atmosphere, and the continents
 The key component of the terrestrial hydrological
cycle is generation of river runoff and movement of
water in the river networks. As stated previously, the
main land area units may be river basins and
watersheds. They are ideal hydrologic units. The sizes
of these areas vary from tens of sw.kms to several
thousand square km.
The following are the major factors involved in controlling
the movement of water masses in the Hydrologic cycle:
1. Application of energy that promotes transportation from
one state of matter to the other state.
2. Inherent properties of matter, i.e., water.
3. Dimensions and geo environmental settings of the
reservoirs
4. Gravity which promotes flow
5. Air which promotes mobility of water molecules
6. Earths revocation and rotation, which are responsible for
climate and weather cycles.
 CONDENSATION
 The sun’s radiant energy evaporates water from
surface water resources, including seas and oceans.
This water rises upwards as water vapour and reaches
the atmosphere.
 Condensation in the atmosphere takes place around
small particles of substances present in the air, which
have the affinity for water.
 EVAPORATION
- The combined effect of both evaporation of
water from the soil, surface water bodies, snow, ice and
transpiration from vegetation.
The rate of evapotranspiration is controlled by
several climatic, hydrologic, soil and geomorphological
conditions of a region.

Condensation depends on several factors. The notable

areas are:
a) Adiabatic cooling.
b) Mixture of two air masses of different temperatures
c) Contact cooling.
d) Radiational cooling.

 Precipitation is the process of transforming the water

vapour into a liquid or solid form, depending upon the
temperature of air near the clouds.
 The term precipitation is a common term. It includes a
variety of forms of precipitation. It includes mist, rain,
hail, sleet and snow.  SURAFE RUNOFF
 Rainfall is most common form of precipitation - Runoff is the quantity of water that is discharged
occurring in almost all parts of the world. In tropical from a drainage basin during a given time period. Runoff
regions, precipitation is expected completely as data may be presented as volumes in acre-feet, as mean
rainfall. In the polar regions, precipitation is expected discharges per unit of drainage area in cubic feet per
to be completely as snowfall. In mid latitudes, at high second per square mile, or as depths of water on the
altitudinal zones, precipitation occurs as snowfall, drainage basin in inches.
sleet and ice. - The term runoff refers to the overland flow of
 EVAPORATION FROM SOIL SURFACE water, after every rainfall or snowmelt. The overland flow
- The water molecules present in the starts when the rate of rainfall is greater than the rate of
soil matrix also get evaporated with great infiltration of the soil and increase in the amount of slope.
difficulty, unlike those which are released from The volume of water leaving through a river is known as
the free water surfaces. river discharge.
- The amount of water vapor present in the
atmosphere varies greatly from time to time,
but the dry gases do not change materially in
quantity from season to season.
 TRANSPIRATION
- The process of releasing the water absorbed
by the plants through their root system after
utilizing the nutrients for building their tissues,
in a specified time.
- Vegetation including numerous growing plants,
play a significant role in the hydrologic cycle.
- The water which is drawn into the plants
rootlets from the soil moisture, owing to
osmotic pressure moves up through the plants
stems and leaves. Through the stomatal  Stream flow is the discharge that occurs in a natural
openings, the water is released out as water channel.
vapor.  The word “stream flow” uniquely describes the
discharge in a surface stream course.
The amount of transpiration depends on the density and
size of the vegetation existing in place. FACTORS CONTROLLING RUNOFF
The controlling factors of transpiration are: - The flow of any stream is determined by two
a) Temperature major groups of factors. The first set belongs to the
b) Solar radiation geomorphological factors of the drainage basin. The second
c) Wind set of factors depend on the climatological variables
d) Soil moisture
1. Rainfall – Intensity and Type.
2. Duration of Rainfall.
3. Distribution of Rainfall.
4. Direction of Storm Movement.
5. Soil Moisture Conditions

 INFILTRATION is the downward percolation of

rainwater (or) snow melt water into the soil horizons.
The downward movement of water happens in the top
soil layer, especially through the smaller pore spaces
present in the soils. Infiltration is governed by two
forces as gravity and capillary action. The smaller
pores offer greater resistance to gravity, very small
 GLOBAL WATER BALANCE - The direct input sources of
pores pull water through capillary action in addition to
water for the lands and seas are from precipitation.
and even against the force of gravity. Tensiometer is
The major output sources are from evaporation,
used for the measurements of soilwater properties.
transpiration, sublimation, interception and
evapotranspiration.
a) Porosity and permeability of the soils
- There is a balance of water existing as storage
b) Structure and texture of the soils
in the form of groundwater, surface water bodies as lakes
c) Surface entry possibilities of the soils
and streams, ice caps and glaciers and as seas and oceans.
d) Transmission through the soil
These components can be analysed using a simple mass
e) Already available soil moisture and its depletion
balance equation called as water balance equation. This
f) Characteristics of the fluid
equation considers the inflow, outflow and changes in
storage reservoirs of fresh and saltwater.
 INTERCEPTION is the process of retaining water on the
leaves of vegetation. A small amount of rainfall is
The basis of the equation is :
intercepted by vegetation. The rainfall which is not
Inflow = outflow +- changes in storage
intercepted is known as through fall. The water which
This equation can be expanded as:
reaches the ground via steps and thanks is called as
P – E – T – Ro = S
stem flow.
Where
VEGETATION CHARACTERISTICS
P = Precipitation Ro = Runoff
1.growth form: trees, shrubs, grasses, forbs
E = Evaporation S = Changes in Storage
2. plant density
T = Transpiration
3. plant structure: number, size, flexibility, strength and
pattern of branches; texture, surface area and orientation
 EARTH’S OTHER CYCLING PROCESS
of leaves
- The hydrologic cycle is the primary cycle of the
4. plant community structure
planet earth. It becomes the focal concept and dining
mechanism for part of the rock cycle, geochemical cycle
 GROUNDWATER BASEFLOW
and the sedimentary cycles of biogeochemical cycle.
- The rainwater that is falling over the ground
- In the rock cycle, weathering, mass wasting,
surface percolates down through the soil and reaches the
erosion, transportation and depositional aspects of
groundwater zone. Depending upon the slope of the
sediments are carried out by the components of hydrologic
groundwater system, the groundwater moves towards the
cycle.
rivers, lakes or the oceans.
- The sulphur and phosphors cycles of
biogeochemical cycles are driven by the components of
METHODLOGICAL FACTORS
hydrologic cycle. All trace elements and their motilities
1.precipitation intensity
among rock, soil, water, plant and animal are all controlled
2. precipitation duration
by the hydrologic cycle.
3. wind speed
4. type of rainfall: rain versus snow
 RIVER BASIN AS HYDROLOGIC UNIT
5. precipitation frequency

 SUBLIMATION - Snow covered zones also experience

losses of water through direct evaporation. The
process of direct evaporation of snow into water
vapour is known as sublimation.
- The solid does not pass through a liquid state for
evaporation. It is very difficult to distinguish between
evaporation and sublimation from snow. Air temperature
plays a significant role in addition to wind, in sublimation to
happen.
 Drainage basin is a part of the Earth’s surface that
contains a drainage system with a common outlet
for its surface runoff.
 Hydrologic unit is a geographic area representing
part or all of a surface drainage basin. Drainage
area of a stream at a specific location is that area
upstream from the location, measured in a
horizontal plane, that has a common outlet at the
site for its surface runoff from precipitation that
normally drains by gravity into a stream.
  The total volume of water on the earth in its liquid,
solid and vapour forms has been the same since
the formation of the planet.
 A river basin refers to the fall catchment zone of a
river and its tributaries with a clear cut water
divide separating it from other basins. All network
of streams belonging to the main river and its
tributaries are enclosed well within the river basin.
 HYDROLIC CYCLE AND NATURAL HAZARD
 Floods are the major natural arising out of the
surface runoff of large basins and their rivers.
Floods cause server damage to life and properties.
 Thunderstorms are yet another hazard coming due
to hydrologic processes in the atmosphere. These
are issues requiring proper disaster management
methods.
 Cyclones are depressions created in bays and
oceans due to atmospheric pressure belts. They
move towards the condensed water masses.
THE FLOWING ARE THE COMMON UNITS USED WHILE
REFERRING TO THE COMPONENTS OF THE HYDROLOGICAL
CYCLE.
1. Cubic metre per second (m/s).
2. Cubic kilometer per day (or) month (or) year.
3. Acre feet per day, month, (or) year.
4. CM depth on drainage basin per day.
5. Million gallons per month (or) day or year.
6. Million metre cube per day (mme).
 WATER VOLUME UNIT
 Gallon is also the standard unit of measuring
liquids. It is used to express the storage and flof
capacity in cubic feet / cubic metre.
 Acre - feet is yet another unit. It refers to the
quantity of water required to cover one acre to a
depth of 1 foot.
 COMMON HYDROLIC UNITS
PRECIPITATION - inches (or) mm (or) cm
RUNOFF - inches (or) mm (or) cm
RUNOFF VOLUME - acre feet per second
RUNOFF RATE - cubic feet per second
EVAPORATION / INTERCEPTION - inches (or) cm
INFILTRATION - inches (or) cm / hr
STORAGE - cubic feet, acre feet
MODULE 10: THE WATER CODE OF THE PHILIPPINES
Objectives of Water Code
• To establish the basic principles and
framework relating to the
appropriation, control and conservation
of water resources and to achieve the
optimum development and rational
utilization of these resources;
• To define the extent of the rights and
obligations of water users and owners
including the protection and regulation
of such rights;
• To adopt a basic law regarding the
ownership, appropriation, utilization,
exploitation, development,
conservation and protection of water
resources and rights to land related
thereto; and
• To identify the administrative agencies
which will enforce the Water Code.
UNDERLYING PRINCIPLES OF THE WATER
CODE OF THE PHILIPPINES
• All waters belong to the State;
• All waters that belong to the State
cannot be subject to acquisitive
prescription;
• The State may allow the use
or development of waters by
administrative concession;
• The utilization, exploitation,
development, conservation and
protection of water resources shall be
subject to the control and regulation of
the government through the
Natural Water Resources Council;
• Preference in the use and development
of waters shall consider current usages
and be responsive to the changing
needs of the country.
The Water Code of the Philippines is a legal
document that outlines the laws and regulations
related to water resources in the country.
WATER - as used in the Water Code, refers to
water under the ground, water above the
ground, water in the atmosphere and the
waters of the sea within the territorial
jurisdiction of the Philippines.
The Water Code covers various aspects related
to water, including the rights and
responsibilities of water users, the allocation
and distribution of water resources, water
quality standards, and the protection of water
sources and ecosystems. It aims to promote
equitable access to water, efficient water use,
and the conservation of water resources.
OWNERSHIP OF WATERS
Article 5. The following belong to the State :
a. Rivers and their natural beds;
b. Continuous or intermittent waters of
springs and brooks running in their
natural beds and the beds themselves
c. Natural lakes and lagoons;
d. All other categories of surface waters
such as water flowing over lands, water
form rainfall whether natural or
 artificial, and water from agriculture
runoff, seepage and drainage;
e. Atmospheric water;
f. Substerranean or ground waters; and
g. Seawater
Article 6. The following waters found on private
lands also belong to the States:
a. Continuous or intermittent waters rising
on such lands;
b. Lakes and lagoons naturally waters
rising on such lands;
c. Rain water and falling on such lands;
d. Subterranean or ground waters; and,
e. Waters in swamps and marshes.
The owner of the land where the water is found
may use the same for domestic purposes
without securing a permit, provided that such
use shall have be registered, when required by
the Council. The Council, however, may regulate
such use when there is wastage, or in times of
emergency
Article 7:
• Subject to the provisions of this Code,
any person who captures or collects
water by means of cisterns, tanks, or
pools shall have exclusive control over
such water and the right to dispose of
the same.
Article 8:
• Water legally appropriated shall be
subject to the control of the
appropriator from the moment it
reaches the appropriator's canal or
aqueduct leading to the place where
the water will be used or stored and,
thereafter, so long as it is being
beneficially used for the purposes for
which it was appropriated.
Appropriation of Waters, Permit System,
Water Quality standards
• Appropriation of Waters
• Is the acquisition of rights over the use
of waters or the taking or diverting of
waters from a natural source in the
manner and for any purpose allowed by
law.
ARTICLE 10. Water may be appropriated for the
following purposes:
a. Domestic
b. Municipal
c. Irrigation
d. Power generation
e. Fisheries
f. Livestock raising
g. Industrial
h. Recreational, and
i. Other purposes
Standards for Drinking-water Quality
• Drinking-water must be clear and does
not have objectionable taste, odor and
color. It must be pleasant to drink and
free from all harmful organisms,
chemical substances and radionuclides
in amounts which could constitute a
hazard to the health of the consumer
• The quality of drinking-water shall be
measured in terms of its
microbiological, physical, chemical and
radiological constituents
• Water Quality Standards
Section 1: Basic Policy
It is policy of the State to pursue a policy of
economic growth in a manner consistent with
the protection, preservation and revival of the
quality of our fresh, brackish and marine
waters.
Section 3: Scope and Coverage
1. Ammonia
2. Boron
3. Copper or Dissolved Copper
4. Fecal Coliform
5. Phosphate
6. Sulfate
Water Rights
• is the privilege granted by the
government to appropriate and use
water, evidence by a document known
as a water permit
• Prior appropriation doctrine of “first in
time, first in right” for water allocation
is adopted
• The measure and limit of appropriation
of water shall be beneficial use.
• “Beneficial use” is the utilization of
water in the right amount during the
period that the water is needed for producing the benefits
for which the
water is appropriated
Article 13
Except as otherwise herein provided, no person,
including government instrumentalities or
government-owned or controlled corporations,
shall appropriate water without a water right,
which shall be evidenced by a document known
as a water permit
Article 14
Subject to the provisions of this Code
concerning the control, protection,
conservation, and regulation of the
appropriation and use of waters, any person
may appropriate or use natural bodies of water
without securing a water permit for any of the
following. a. Appropriation of water by means
of hand carried receptacles; and b. Bathing or
washing, watering or dipping of domestic or
farm animals, and navigation of watercrafts or
transportation of logs and other objects by
flotation.
Qualifications of Applicants for
Permit/Authority
• Citizens of the Philippines
• Associations, duly registered cooperatives or
corporations organized under Philippine laws, at
least 60% of the capital of which is owned by
citizens of the Philippines
• Government entities and instrumentalities,
including government-owned or controlled
corporation
When Permit/Authority from the National
Water Resourcers Council must be secured
• Appropriation of water for any purpose.
• Change in purpose of the appropriation
• Amendment of an existing
permit/authority
• Transfer or lease of water right
• Developing a stream, lake, or spring for
recreational purposes
• Lowering or raising the level of the
water of a lake, river or marsh, or
draining the same
• Transbasin diversion
• Dumping of mine tailings or wastes into
a river or a waterway
• Such other instances that will require a
permit/authority as determined by the
Council.
Protection of Watersheds
• The Code emphasizes the importance of
protecting watersheds to maintain the
quality and quantity of water resources
• Watersheds- also known as drainage
basin, with common outlet such as lake
river or ocean.
• Plays a crucial role in management of
freshwater
• Sustainable use of water and preserving
the health of aquatic ecosystem.
IRRIGATION AND AGRICULTURE
• in agriculture. the artificial application
of water to land
• supplement rainfall and serves to
increase production.
• assure sustained high-level production
of crops.
• Conservation and Protection of Waters and
Watersheds and Related Land Resources
ARTICLE 31. Preference in the development of
water resources shall consider security of the
State, multiple use, beneficial effects, adverse
effects and costs of development.
ARTICLE 32. The utilization of subterranean or
ground water shall be coordinated with that of
surface waters such as rivers, streams, springs
and lakes, so that a superior right in one is not
adversely affected by an inferior right in the
other.
ARTICLE 33. Water contained in open canals,
aqueducts or reservoirs of private persons may
be used by any person for domestic purpose or
for watering plants as long as the water is
withdrawn by manual methods without
checking the stream or damaging the canal,
aqueduct or reservoir; Provided, That this right
may be restricted by the owner should it result
in loss or injury to him.
ARTICLE 34. A water permittee or appropriator
may use any watercourse to convey water to
another point in the watercourse for the
purpose stated in a permit and such water may
be diverted or recaptured at that point by said
Permittee in the same amount less allowance
for normal losses in transit.
ARTICLE 35. Works for the storage, diversion,
distribution and utilization of water resources
shall contain adequate provision for the
prevention and control of diseases that may be
induced or spread by such works when required
by the Council.
ARTICLE 36. When the reuse of waste water is
feasible, it shall be limited as much as possible,
to such uses other than direct human
consumption. No person or agency shall
distribute such water for public consumption
until it is demonstrated that such consumption
will not adversely affect the health and safety of
the public.
ARTICLE 66. After due notice and hearing when
warranted by circumstances, minimum stream
flows for rivers and streams, and minimum
water levels for lakes may be established by the
Council under such conditions as may be
necessary for the protection of the
environment, control of pollution, navigation,
prevention of salt damage, and general public
use.
ARTICLE 67. Any watershed or any area of land
adjacent to any surface water or overlying any
ground water may be declared by the
Department of Natural Resources as protected
area. Rules and regulations may be
promulgated by such Department to prohibit or
control such activities by the owners or
occupants thereof within the protected area
which may damage or cause the deterioration
of the surface water or ground water or
interfere with the investigation, use, control,
protection, management or administration of
such waters.
ARTICLE 68. It shall be the duty of any person in
control of a well to prevent the water from
flowing on the surface of the land, or into any
surface water, or any porous stratum
underneath the surface without being
beneficially used.
ARTICLE 69. It shall be the duty of any person in
control of a well containing water with minerals
or other substances injurious to man, animals,
agriculture, and vegetation to prevent such
waters from flowing on the surface of the land
or into any surface water or into any other
aquifer or porous stratum.
ARTICLE 70. No person shall utilize an existing
well or pond or spread waters for recharging
subterranean or ground water supplies without
prior permission of the Council.
Flood Control and Drainage, Environmental
Protection
• The code addresses flood control and
drainage issues, allowing for the
construction of flood structures.
• The construction of all flood control
projects or structures and the
management of riverbanks and
waterways to mitigate flooding in urban
areas fall under the jurisdiction of the Water Code.
Compliance with
environmental standards is essential in
such projects.
Environmental Protection
There are provisions to safeguard aquatic
ecosystem and the environment in general.
a. Water Permit for a Bottled Water
b. Watershed Protection Initiatives
c. Water Quality Monitoring
 Water Permit for a Bottled Water
When a bottle water company plans to extract
water from a natural source for commercial
purposes, they must obtain a water permit in
accordance with Water Code. This ensures that
the water resources are used sustainably, and
that water quality is maintained.
 Watershed Protection Initiatives
Local governmental organization often engage
in watershed protection projects to prevent
deforestation and soil erosion. These efforts are
aligned with the Water Code’s emphasizing on
safeguarding watersheds to protect water
quality and quantity.
 Water Quality Monitoring
Government agencies and environmental
groups regularly monitor water quality in rivers,
lakes, and coastal areas to ensure compliance
with the water quality standards set in the
Water Code. Any violations may lead to legal
actions or remediation efforts.
CONTROL OF WATERS
To promote the best interest and the
coordinated protection of flood plain lands.
• In declared flood control areas, rules
and regulations may be promulgated to
prohibit or control activities that may
damage or cause deterioration of lakes
and dikes, obstruct the flow of water,
change the natural flow of the river,
increase flood losses or aggravate flood
problems.
• The government may construct
necessary flood control structures in
declared flood control areas, and for
this purpose it shall have a legal
easement as wide as may be needed
along and adjacent to the river bank
and outside the bed or channel of the
river.
• River beds, sand bars and tidal flats may
not be cultivated except upon prior
permission.
Administrative Bodies, Penalties
Article 79.
The Administration and enforcement of the
provisions of this Code, including:
-The granting of permits
-And the imposition of penalties for
administrative violations hereof, are hereby
vested to the council, and except in regard to
those functions which under this Code are
specifically conferred upon other agencies of
the government, the Council is hereby
empowered to make all decisions and
determinations provided for in this Code.
Article 90.
The following acts shall be penalized by
suspension or revocation of the violator's water
permit or other right to the use of water and/or
a fine of not exceeding One thousand Pesos
(Php1,000.00), in the discretion of the council:
a. Appropriation of subterranean
or ground water for domestic
use by an overlying landowner
without registration required by
the Council;
b. non-observance of any
standard of beneficial use of
water. c. Failure of the appropriator to
keep a record of water
withdrawal when required.
d. Failure to comply with any of
 the terms or conditions in a
water permit or a water rights
grant.
b. Unauthorized use of water for a
purpose other than that for which a
right or permit was granted.
c. Construction or repair of any hydraulic
work or structure without duly
approved plans and specifications,
when required.
d. Failure to install a regulating and
measuring device for the control
volume of water appropriated, when
required.
e. Unauthorized sale, lease, or transfer of
water and/or water rights.
f. Failure to provide adequate facilities to
prevent or control diseases when
required by the Council in the
construction of any work for the
storage, diversion, distribution and
utilization of water.
g. Drilling of a well without permission of
the Council.
h. Utilization of an existing well or ponding
or spreading of water for recharging
subterranean or ground water supplies
without permission of the Council.
i. Violation of or non-compliance with any
order, rules and regulation of the
Council.
j. Illegal taking or diversion of water in an
open canal, aqueduct or reservoir.
k. Malicious destruction of hydraulic
works or structures valued at not
exceeding Php5,000.00
Article 91.
A. A fine of not exceeding Three Thousand
Pesos (Php3,000.00) or imprisonment for not
more than three (3) years, or both such fine and
imprisonment, in the discretion of the Court,
shall be imposed upon any person who commits
any of the following acts:
1. Appropriation of water without
a water permit, unless such
person is expressly exempted
from securing a permit by the
provisions of this Code;
2. Unauthorized obstruction of an
irrigation canal.
3. Cultivation of river bed, sand
bar or tidal flat without
permission.
4. Malicious destruction of
hydraulic works or structure
valued at not exceeding
Twenty-Five Thousand Pesos
(Php25,000.00)
B. A fine exceeding Three Thousand Pesos
(Php3,000.00) but not more than Six Thousand
Pesos (Php6,000.00) or imprisonment exceeding
three years (3) years but not more than (6)
years or both such fine and imprisonment in the
discretion of the Court, shall be imposed on any
person who commits any of the following acts:
1. Distribution for public
consumption of water which
adversely affects the health and
safety of the public.
2. Excavation or enlargement of
the opening of a hot spring
without permission.
3. Unauthorized obstruction of a
river or waterway, or occupancy
of a river bank or seashore
without permission.
4. Establishment of a cemetery or
a waste disposal area near a
source of water supply or
reservoir for domestic or
municipal use without
permission.5. Constructing, without prior
permission of the government
agency concerned, works that
produce dangerous or noxious
substances, or performing acts
that result in the introduction
of sewage, industrial waste, or
any substance that pollutes a
source of water supply.
6. Dumping mine tailings and
sediments into rivers or
waterways without permission.
Malicious destruction of
hydraulic works or structure
valued more than Twenty-five
Thousand (Php25,000.00) but
not exceeding One Hundred
Thousand Pesos
(Php100,000.00)
C. A fine exceeding Six Thousand Pesos
(Php6,000.00) but not more than ten Thousand
Pesos (Php10,000.00) or imprisonment
exceeding six (6) years but not more than
twelve (12) years, or both such fine and
imprisonment, in the discretion of the Court,
shall be imposed upon any person who commits
any of the following acts
1. Misrepresentation of
citizenship in order to qualify
for water permit.
2. Malicious destruction of a
hydraulic works or structure,
valued at more than One
Hundred Thousand Pesos
(Php100,000.00)
OTHER PENAL PROVISIONS
Article 29
Water permits may be revoked after
due notice and hearing on grounds of
• non-use;
• gross violation of the conditions
 imposed in the permit;
unauthorized sale of water;
• willful failure or refusal to
comply with rules and
regulations or any lawful order;
• pollution,
• public nuisance or acts
detrimental to public health
and safety;
• when the appropriator is found
to be disqualified under the law
to exploit and develop natural
resources of the Philippines;
• when, in the case of irrigation,
the land is converted to non
agricultural Q purposes; and
• other similar grounds.

Article 20
• The measure and limit of appropriation
of water shall be beneficial use.
• Beneficial use of water is the utilization
of water in the right amount during the
period that the water is needed for
producing the benefits for which the
water is appropriated.

Article 25
• A holder of a water permit may
demand the establishment of
easements necessary for the
construction and maintenance of the
works and facilities needed for the
beneficial use of the waters to be
appropriated subject to the
requirements of just compensation and
to the following conditions:

Article 39
• Except in cases of emergency to save
life or property, the construction or
repair of the following works shall be
undertaken only after the plans and
specifications therefor, as may be
required by the Council, are approved
by the proper government agency;
1. Dams for the diversion or storage of
water;
2. Structures for the use of water
power;
3. Installations for the utilization of
subterranean or ground water and
4. Other structures for utilization of
water resources.