In the name of the Holy Trinity – Amen

Upper Nile University

Faculty of Public and Environmental Health

Department of Environmental Health

fourth Year
Course: (Environmental Pollution)

EHD 213
Credit Hrs. 3

Prepared by. Stephen Anter Kuach MPH

Juba - South Sudan

2023

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Course Objectives
By the end of this course, the students will:
- Define the term “pollution” and identify the types of pollution.
- Describe the major categories and sources of pollutant.
- Understand fundamental physical, chemical and biological processes that
affect transport and fate both human induced and natural pollutants in the
environment.
- Recognize the health effects and socio-economic impact of the
environmental pollution on individuals and communities.
- Identify the qualification and analytical methods of environmental
pollutants.
- Identify the means of control and prevention.
Course content:
1. Basic concepts and definitions (pollution, pollutant, contamination,
contaminant, environment).
2. Types of pollutants
3. Types of pollution:
a. Air pollution NOx, Sox, Co, Hydrocarbons, Particulate matter, oxidants,
Global warming, ozone depletion, acid rain.
b. Water pollution
c. Soil pollution and Food contamination.
d. Noise pollution.
e. Radiological pollution.
f. Electromagnetic pollution.
g. Pollution with Heavy Metals
h. Pollution with pesticides.
4. Environmental and socio-economic impacts of pollutants.
5. Health effects of environmental pollution
6. Measurements of environmental pollutants.
7. Environmental legislations and international conventions.
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 Basic concepts and definitions
Pollution:
Pollution is an undesirable change in the physical, chemical or biological
characteristics of air, water and soil that may harmfully affect the life of human
being and his environment or create a potential health hazard of any living
organism.
Pollutants: They are agents that are present in harmful concentrations and
causing pollution.
A pollutant may include any chemical or geochemical substance (dust,
sediment, grit etc.), biotic component or its product, or physical factor (heat,
noise, etc.) that is released intentionally by man into the environment in such a
concentration that may have adverse harmful or unpleasant effects or as result
of natural phenomena (volcano eruptions, etc.)
Contamination: It is the act of contaminating or making something impure or
unsuitable by contact with something unclean, bad, etc.
Contaminant: It is a substance that makes something less pure or makes it
poisonous. a
Contaminants are substances in land, air or ground that are potentially
hazardous to the environment or human health.
Environment: Is sum total of all living things (animals, plants, etc.) and non-
living elements (abiotic elements including water, land, sunlight, rocks and air)
and their effects that influence human life.
Environmental Pollution: Environmental Pollution is the release of harmful
substances or energy into the environment (naturally or through man activities)
in quantities that damage the health of living beings and the resources.
Environmental Degradation: is the deterioration, damage of the environment
through depletion of resources such as air, water and soil; the destruction of
ecosystems and the extinction of wildlife.
Differences between Contamination and Pollution
1. Degree of Damage in Contamination vs Pollution
The degree of damage is typically higher among pollution cases as compared
to contamination since pollutants often disturb ecosystems. On the other hand,

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contaminants do not usually inhibit life cycles. For 3 ENVIRONMENTAL
POLLUTION instance, water pollution due to mercury kills marine life while
water contamination due to a faecal matter does not pose much danger.
2. Environment in Contamination vs Pollution
Pollution is mostly associated with the environment whereas contamination
may occur in a certain body or substance.
3. Source of Contamination and Pollution
Pollution is caused by man whereas contamination may be brought about by
man or contaminants may be inherently present in the environment. For
instance, pollutants are commonly present in the byproducts of manufacturing
industries while contaminants are already in the soil, water, and animal wastes.
Types of Pollutants
There are many types of pollutants:
a) Based on the source or genesis pollutants can be of the following types:
- Natural pollutants: pollutants which have their sources from nature. For
example, emission of sulphur dioxide due to volcanism, methane emission
from wetlands, release of arsenic from rocks in groundwater etc. natural
pollutants originating from geological sources.
- Manmade pollutants or anthropogenic pollutants: pollutants emitting due to
human activities are termed as anthropogenic pollutants. For example, smoke
gases coming out of industries and vehicles, release of toxic chemicals from
industry into waterbodies etc.
b) Based on their state pollutants can be of the follow types:
- solid pollutants (asbestos, sludge, metal wastes etc.)
- liquid pollutants (oil slicks, fluorides, dissolved solids etc.)
- gaseous pollutants (carbon di oxide, nitrogen oxides, carbon monoxides etc.)
c) Pollutants may also be divided based on areas polluted:
- Air pollutants (particulate matter, gases, smokes etc.)
- Water pollutants (pesticides, metals, suspended solids etc.)
- Soil pollutants (chemical fertilizers, garbage, radioactive wastes etc.)

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d) Based on location, the pollutants can be classified as:
- Point source pollutants: when the pollutants come out from a specific
location or source which are visible. For example, stack of factories, sewer
discharge drains etc. As they are always visible hence are easily identifiable and
manageable.
- Non- point source pollutants: pollutants coming out from various sources
without any specific source are termed as non -point source pollutants. For
example, pesticides and fertilizers run off from agricultural field. The run off can
be lateral known as surface run off or can be vertical or downward through
percolation of pollutants in the groundwater. Nonpoint source pollutants are
difficult to identify and quantify.
They can be further subdivided as:
- Rural non- point pollutants: Rural non-point source pollutants are mainly
due to agricultural activities, for example, pesticides, fertilizers, insecticides
etc.
- Urban non- point pollutants: Whereas, urban non-point source pollutants can
come out from residential complexes, small-scale industries and large-scale
industries. Several point and non-point source pollutants.
e) Concept of primary and secondary pollutant
- Primary pollutants are directly emitted into the environment in potentially
harmful forms. For example, nitrogen oxide, arsenic, cadmium, lead, radon gas
etc.
- Secondary pollutants are products of one or two primary pollutants. They are
not directly emitted from the pollution sources. Classic example is formation of
tropospheric ozone and photo chemical smog, sulphur trioxide.
f) Based on degradability, pollutants can be classified into:
- Nondegradable pollutants These are the materials and poisonous substances
like aluminium cans, mercuric salts, long chain phenolics, DDT etc. that either
do not degrade or degrade only very slowly in nature. They are not cycled in
ecosystem naturally but by subsequent movement in food chains and
biogeochemical cycles. ii.

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- Biodegradable pollutants: They are the domestic wastes that can be rapidly
decomposed under natural condition. They may create problems when they
accumulate.
g) Based on their composition they can be classified into
- Chemical Pollutants: Chemical pollution refers to the contamination of our
environment with chemicals that are not found there naturally. it includes:
(heavy metals, solvents, others). ii. iii.
- Physical pollutants: it includes (suspended solids, immiscible liquids,
Substances that impart a taste, or colour to the water, Radiation, Noise etc.)
- Biological pollutants: Biological pollutants are organisms that may be
harmful to other forms of life, but they have to be ingested to have any effect.
it includes (pathogenic, bacteria, Viruses, Protozoa, Helminths, other biological
pollutants, Pollen grains, etc.)

Air pollution

Definition of Air pollution:

It is the presence of un desirable solid or gaseous particles in the air in

quantities that are harmful to human health and the environment.

Sources of air pollution

- Natural sources are those that are caused due to natural phenomena. Ex:
Volcanic eruptions, Forest fires, biological decay, Pollen grains, Marshes,
Radioactive materials.
- Artificial sources are those which are created by man activities. Ex:
Thermal power plants, Vehicular emissions, Fossil fuel burning, agricultural
activities etc.
Classification of Air Pollutants

1. Primary pollutants: They are those products of natural events which

emitted in the atmosphere in the harmful form from natural sources such as
fires and volcanic eruptions or from human activities which are emitted
directly into the atmosphere, such as SO2, CO, NO2 etc.
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2. Secondary pollutants: They are those that are formed by interaction of
primary pollutants with each other or with normal components of the air
forming new pollutants e.g., H2SO4, HNO3, O3, NO2, NO3 etc. when NO3 react
with moisture in the atmosphere gives Nitric acid.

Difference between primary and secondary pollutants

Secondary pollutants Secondary

Primary pollutants
pollutants

Secondary pollutants are the result of

Primary pollutants are directly emitted
chemical and photochemical reactions
from the sources to the atmosphere
of primary pollutants

Primary pollutants can affect living Secondary pollutants can affect living
things directly and indirectly (by forming things directly. Although, they can also
secondary pollutants) affect indirectly via some intermediate

They are usually unstable pollutants They are usually stable or inert

These pollutants damage living These pollutants damage the ecological

organisms system

These pollutants are complicated to stop

These pollutants can be control by
because of the interlinked chemical
reducing anthropogenic emissions
reactions

Examples of primary pollutants are;

Examples of secondary pollutants are;
particulate matter (PM), hydrocarbons
tropospheric ozone (O3), peroxy nitrates
(CH), carbon monoxide (CO), sulfur
(PAN), acid rain, nutrient enrichment
dioxide (SO2), nitrogen oxides (NOx),
compounds, photochemical oxidants,
volatile organic compounds (VOCs), and
secondary particulate matter (SPM), etc
heavy metals, etc

Examples of Air pollutants and their effects on man and its Environment

1. Carbon monoxide
CO is a colorless, odorless, nonirritating, poisonous gas, major pollutant of an
urban air, produced from incomplete combustion.

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Source of carbon monoxide: incomplete combustion of fossil fuels (more than
77% comes from motor vehicle exhaust) Other sources include the internal
combustion engines of chainsaws and leaf blowers, as well as charcoal heaters,
such as barbeques, wood stoves, gas water heaters, gas stoves, fuel-fired
heaters, fireplaces. Using equipment that does not work properly can also
produce extra carbon monoxide.

Health effects: CO is highly poisonous to humans and most animals:

- when inhaled it reduces ability of red blood cells to carry oxygen to

body cells and tissues.
- leads to headache and anemia.
- At high levels it causes coma, irreversible brain damage.
- People who breathe high levels of CO can develop vision problems
- reduced ability to work or learn
- reduced manual dexterity, and difficulty performing complex tasks.
At very high levels, CO is poisonous and can cause death.
Environmental effects: When carbon monoxide is emitted into the
atmosphere it effects the amount of greenhouse gases, which are linked to
climate change and global warming. This means that land and sea temperature
increases changing to ecosystems, increasing storm activity and causing other
extreme weather events.

2. Oxides of Nitrogen
Types of nitrogen oxides: there are seven known oxides of nitrogen which
include; NO, NO2, NO3, N2O, N2O3, N2O4 and N2O5. Nitric oxide (NO) and
Nitrogen dioxide (NO2) are important in air pollution study.

Sources of NOx: Almost all NOx emissions are in the form of NO, which has no
adverse health effects. However, NO can be oxidized to NO2, which in turn
may react with hydrocarbons in the presence of sunlight to form
photochemical smog, which is injurious.

Nitrogen Dioxide: It is a reddish-brown irritating gas that causes

photochemical smog. In the atmosphere, it gets converted into nitric acid
(HNO3). It is caused by burning fossil fuels in industries and power plants.

Nitrogen Dioxide (NO2) is one of a group of highly reactive gases known as

oxides of nitrogen or nitrogen oxides (NOx). Other nitrogen oxides include

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nitrous acid and nitric acid. NO2 is used as the indicator for the larger group of
nitrogen oxides.

NO2 primarily gets in the air from the burning of fuel. NO2 forms from
emissions from cars, trucks and buses, power plants, and off-road equipment.

Health effects include lung irritation and damage. Environmental effects

involve acid deposition leading to damage of trees, lakes, soil and ancient
monuments. NO2 can damage fabrics.

NO2 can irritate airways in the human respiratory system. exposures to NO2
over short periods can aggravate respiratory diseases, particularly asthma,
leading to respiratory symptoms (such as coughing, wheezing or difficulty
breathing).

Environmental effects NO2 and other NOx interact with water, oxygen and
other chemicals in the atmosphere to form acid rain. Acid rain harms sensitive
ecosystems such as lakes and forests. The nitrate particles that result from
NOx make the air hazy and difficult to see though. This affects the many
national parks that we visit for the view. NOx in the atmosphere contributes to
nutrient pollution in coastal waters.

NO2 along with other NOx reacts with other chemicals in the air to form both
particulate matter and ozone. Both of these are also harmful when inhaled due
to effects on the respiratory system.

3. Sulphur Dioxide
SO2, is a colorless irritating gas or liquid with a strong, choking odor that is
formed by combustion of Sulphur containing fossil fuels such as coal and oil. In
the atmosphere it is converted into Sulphuric acid which is a major component
of acid deposition.
Sources of Sulphur dioxide: Most of the sulfur dioxide released into the
environment comes from electric utilities, especially those that burn coal.
Some other sources of sulfur dioxide include petroleum refineries, cement
manufacturing, paper pulp manufacturing, and metal smelting and processing
facilities. Locomotives, large ships, and some non-road diesel equipment
currently burn high-sulfur fuel and release sulfur dioxide into the air. In nature,
volcanic eruptions can release sulfur dioxide into the air.

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Health effects Short-term exposure to high levels of sulfur dioxide can be life-
threatening. Generally, exposures can cause a burning sensation in the nose
and throat. Also, exposure can cause difficulty breathing, including changes in
the body's ability to take a breath or breathe deeply, or take in as much air per
breath.

Long-term exposure to sulfur dioxide can cause changes in lung function and
aggravate existing heart disease. Longer exposures can also aggravate existing
heart and lung conditions.

People with asthma may be sensitive to changes in respiratory effects due to

SO2 exposure at even low concentrations. Sulphur dioxide is not classified as a
human carcinogen (it has not been shown to cause cancer in humans).
Environmental effects Acid rain can damage trees and plants, inhibit plant
growth, and damage sensitive ecosystems and waterways. Sulfur dioxide also
contributes to the formation of thick haze and smog.
4. Suspended Particulate Matter
(SPM): Includes a variety of particles and droplets (aerosols) that can be
suspended in atmosphere for short to long periods.
sources for SPM include burning coal in power and industrial units, burning
diesel and other fuels in vehicles, agriculture, unpaved roads, construction, etc.
Health effects include nose and throat irritation, ling damage, bronchitis,
asthma, reproductive problems and cancer.
Environmental Effects include reduced visibility and acid deposition. Acid
deposition may lead to damaged trees, soils and aquatic life in lakes.
5. Photochemical smog
Photochemical smog refers to a chemical reaction of sunlight, nitrogen oxides,
and organic compounds in the atmosphere. This smog is visible as a brown
haze. Furthermore, this smog depends on the primary pollutants and also on
the formation of secondary pollutants.

The primary pollutants of the photochemical smog include; nitrogen oxides,

particularly nitric oxide and nitrogen dioxide, and organic compounds. The
major secondary pollutants consist of peroxyacetyl nitrates, tropospheric
ozone, and aldehydes.

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Process of Photochemical Smog Formation

The formation of photochemical smog consists of three main ingredients,

these ingredients are nitrogen oxides, hydrocarbons, and sunlight.

Health effects include breathing problems, cough, eye, nose and throat
irritation, heart diseases, reduced resistance to colds and pneumonia. cause
eye irritation.

Environmental effects
- damage to plants and trees.
- reduces visibility.
- The atmospheric radicals interfere with the nitrogen cycle by stopping
ground level ozone from being eliminated. Ground level ozone proved to
be extremely toxic to human beings.
- shortness of breath.
6. Lead
Lead (Pb) is an elemental heavy metal found naturally in the environment as
well as in manufactured products. Lead can be released directly into the air, as
suspended particles.

Lead that is emitted into the air can be inhaled or can be ingested, primarily
through contact with contaminated soils or other surfaces.

Sources: The major sources of lead emissions today are ore and metals
processing, particularly lead smelters, engines of aircraft operating on leaded
aviation gasoline. Other stationary sources include waste incinerators and
lead-acid battery manufacturers.
Health effects: Once taken into the body, lead distributes throughout the body
in the blood and accumulates in the bones. Depending on the level of
exposure, lead can adversely affect the nervous system, kidney function,
immune system, reproductive and the cardiovascular system. Lead exposure
also affects the oxygen-carrying capacity of the blood.

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Environmental Effects: Lead is persistent in the environment and accumulates
in soils and sediments through deposition from air sources, direct discharge of
waste streams to water bodies, mining, and erosion. Ecosystems near point
sources of lead demonstrate a wide range of adverse effects, including losses
in biodiversity, changes in community composition, decreased growth and
reproductive rates in plants and animals, and neurological effects in
vertebrates.

7. Acid rain
Acid rain, or acid deposition, is a broad term that includes any form of
precipitation with acidic components, such as sulfuric or nitric acid that fall to
the ground from the atmosphere in wet or dry forms. This can include rain,
snow, fog, hail or even dust that is acidic.

Acid rain is made up of highly acidic water droplets due to air emissions, most
specially the sulfur and nitrogen emitted by vehicles and manufacturing
processes.

The acidic deposition takes place in two ways:

- wed deposition: wed deposition is any form of precipitation which

removes acids from atmosphere and places them on the surface of the
earth.
- Dry deposition: dry deposition of polluting particles and gases sticks to
the ground through dust and smoke.
Causes of acid rain:

The causes of acid rain are sulfur and nitrogen particles which get mixed with
the wet components of rain.

Sources

These particles are found in two ways, either man-made as emissions that are
given out from industries or by natural causes like lightning strike in the
atmosphere releasing nitrogen oxides and volcanic eruptions releasing g sulfur
oxide.

The regular clean rain and carbon dioxide react together to form weak
carbonic acid which is not extremely harmful. H2O + CO2 = H2CO3.

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Effects of acid rains:

- It causes respiratory problems to animals and humans.

- It affects aquatic ecosystem. It alters the chemical composition of the
water, to a form which is actually harmful to the aquatic ecosystem.
- It causes the corrosion of water pipes, which further results in leaching
of heavy metals such as iron, lead and copper into drinking water.
- It is harmful to animals, plants and the monuments that are made up
of stones and metals.
- It washes away all nutrients which are required for growth of and
survival of plants.

8. Ozone layer
Ozone: It is a desirable gas in the upper layers of atmosphere as it absorbs the
UV radiation of sunlight. It has the potential to absorb around 97- 99% of the
harmful ultraviolet radiations coming from the sun that can damage life on
earth.

The lower layer of ozone: is mainly found in the lower portion of the earth’s
atmosphere. The layer near the earth surface is poisonous. It makes poisonous
chemicals by photochemical reactions

Scientists have discovered a hole in the ozone layer over Antarctica. This has
focused their concern on various environmental issues and steps to control
them.

Cause of ozone depletion:

The main reasons for ozone hole are:

- chlorofluorocarbons.
- Carbon tetrachloride
- Methyl bromide
- Hydrochlorofluorocarbons. These compounds are released by
solvents, spry aerosols, refrigerators, air-conditioners, etc.

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Effects of Ozone depletion

Any significant decrease in the amount of ozone in the stratosphere results in

the amount of UV radiation reaching the Earth's surface leading to harmful
effects on all living organisms.

Effects on human health

Reddening of skin in sun-shine (Sun burn)

Skin cancer
Reduction in body's immunity to disease
Eye disorders like cataracts and blindness
Effects on other living organisms

UV rays are particularly harmful to small plants and animals living in the
sea called 'plankton'. Plankton forms the base of ocean food chain
UV rays damage certain crops like rice which is the staple food for many
people in the world
UV radiation can damage polymers used in paint, clothing and other
materials
Sunburn, cataract, aging of the skin and skin cancer are caused by ozone.
Effect on environment

Vast quantities of methane trapped beneath the frozen soil of

Alaska and polar region can be affected by raise of temperature.
There could be several adverse effects of global warming.
With a warmer earth the polar ice caps will melt causing a rise in
ocean levels and flooding of coastal areas.
In countries like Bangladesh or the Maldives this would be
catastrophic. If the sea level rises by 3m., Maldives will disappear
completely beneath the waves.
The rise in temperature will bring about a fall in agricultural
produce.
Changes in the distribution of solar energy can bring about
changes in habitats.
Prevention of ozone layer depletion:

Avoid using CFCs

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 Minimize use of vehicles
Use of Eco-friendly clean products.

9. Global warming
Global warming refers to the increase in the temperatures of the global surface
causing various effects on the climate of the world. Changes in the climate will
include change in the patterns of rain fall, rise in the sea level. This affects lives
of many organisms within the surface.

Effects of the global warming:

Rise in temperature.
Threats to the ecosystem
Spread of diseases
High mortality rate: due to increase in floods, tsunamis and other
natural calamities
Loss of natural habitat of plants and animals.
Increase of evaporation of water and changes in the patterns of
precipitation.
Glaciers and sea ice will also experience various changes as result of the
warming.
Changes on the agricultural production.
Causes of global warming:

Green-house gas effects

the volcano eruptions.
Increase in population means more people breathing this leads to an
increase in level of carbon dioxide which is the primary cause of global
warming
Human activities which in turn causes various changes in the
atmospheric gases.
Deforestation which involves cutting down of trees at very high rates.
Burning of fossil fuels
Radiation from the earth is usually reflected back to the earth by the
cloud in this causes further warming. The green- house gases normally
comprise of carbon dioxide, ozone, methane and water vapor.

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Solution to global warming

✓ Use of renewable energy: using solar power, wind power.

✓ Recycle: ensure that all waste materials, including paper, plastics,
aluminum, glass
✓ Use less power: turn off lights and unplug appliances when they
are not in use.
✓ opt for sustainable transportation: walk, bike, carpool, use of
electric vehicles.

10.Particulate matter
Particulate matters are microscopic solid matter suspended in the atmosphere.

Classification of particulate matter: Particulate matter is classified according

to its particle size into two:

1- PM 2.5 are particles with a diameter of 2.5 microns or less.

2- PM 10 are coarse particles with diameter of 10 micrometers or less.
As a reminder, 1 micron = .001 millimeter.
Sources of Particulate Matter:

1. Primary particulate matter: those emitted as such into the

atmosphere, come from both outdoor and indoor sources.
Indoor: are produced by common indoor activities such as tobacco smoke,
cooking, burning candles or oil lamps.

Outdoor: come mainly from vehicle exhaust but also from other operations
that involve the burning of fuels such as wood, oil coal, agriculture and natural
sources such as forest and grass fires.

2. Secondary particulate matter: they are formed in the air by physical and
chemical reactions such as sulfur dioxide, nitrogen oxides, ammonia
(NH3) and volatile organic compounds.
Effects of fine particles on health

1- Short-term health effects:

irritation of eyes, nose and throat
Coughing
Sneezing
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 Runny nose
Shortness of breath

2- Long-term health effects

In the long-term exposure, the impact of particulate matter includes;
aggravation of asthma, cough and bronchitis in children, reduction of lung
function, reduction of life expectancy by about 2-5 years, cardiovascular
diseases, respiratory diseases and lung cancer.

How to reduce emissions of fine particles?

However, there are basic solutions that everyone can adopt to limit particulate
emissions:

✓ Avoiding high traffic roads

✓ Avoid using incense, candles, room spray
✓ Varying cooking methods
✓ Ventilate after and during cleaning.

11.Hydrocarbons
Hydrocarbons are organic compounds that are entirely made up of only kinds
of atoms-carbon and hydrogen. Hydrocarbons are colorless gases that have
very weak odors.

Classification and types of hydrocarbons

1- Saturated hydrocarbons:
2- Unsaturated hydrocarbons
3- Cycloalkanes
4- Aromatic hydrocarbon
5- Alicyclic hydrocarbon.
Uses of hydrocarbons

➢ They are used as fuel (liquefied petroleum gas, liquefied natural

gas).
➢ Manufacturing of drugs and dyes as a starting material.
➢ They serve as lubricating oil and grease.

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Effects hydrocarbon on the environment

➢ They can impact the ecosystem through oil exploration,

extraction, transportation, storage, refining and processing. In
addition to oil leakage from pipes and tanks and oil spilling into
oceans.
➢ When hydrocarbon affect the environment, they, migrate from
the soil to groundwater, string bacteria and microorganisms break
down the mix into smaller parts.
➢ Some of them evaporate directly into the atmosphere, some of
them remain in the soil for long period causing severe damage to
the ecosystem and life of living organisms.
➢ contamination of Drinking water and nutrients causing health
problems, massive degradation and destruction of plants’
habitats.
Effects hydrocarbon on human health

they affect nervous system

they affect the immune system
they affect skin, eyes, lungs and blood
some of them (benzene) are carcinogen causing cancer
some affect reproduction system and the developing fetus in
animals.
Protection against hydrocarbon

✓ reporting any oil spills or leakage in the environment.

✓ Avoid exposure to the products of petroleum refining process.
Harmful effects of air pollution

Effects on Human Health

• Lead damages the brain and central nervous system, kidneys and brain
Mercury brings nervous disorders, memory loss, irritation, tremor
• Human health is also severely affected by particulates in the
atmosphere. The particulates can cause nasal irritation and swelling. It
can also cause a running nose.
• Air pollution is also linked to lung damage and limited lung function

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 • Air pollution can also have an inflammatory effect on the heart – it can
elevate blood pressure and aggravate pre-existing conditions of the
heart.
• The risk of death significantly increases with long term exposure to
polluted air. For instance, people susceptible to heart diseases are at
higher risk
• Dust particles induces stuffy noses, sore throats, dry cough, burning
eyes, chest pain, asthma and chronic bronchitis.
• Carbon monoxide induces headaches, dizziness, loss of vision, decreased
muscular coordination and severe effects on the baby of a pregnant
woman
Effects on Plants
1. They damage leaves: Ground-level ozone and other harmful pollutants we
breathe in have a visible impact on plant leaves. They can cause chlorosis, or
they may even turn leaves yellow, which decreases the concentration of
chlorophyll. Consequently, the plant isn’t able to produce its own food or
energy, and may even die.
2. They hinder flowering: Plants exposed to pollution and smog usually flower
and blossom later, as they’re stressed and use all the available resources to
fight pollutants and survive. This can be observed when looking at flowers,
trees, and other plants located near busy roads. Plants exposed to vehicle
exhausts typically blossom much later.
3. They damage roots If plants absorb pollutants or live in acidic soil, they may
find it hard to survive. Acidic soil has lots of aluminum ions which damage
roots and prevent the plant from taking vital ions and nutrients from it.
4. They damage stomata You have never heard of this term? Well, stomata are
small pores on leaves, and they serve as a tool for exchanging gases with the
atmosphere. The more pollution in the immediate surrounding of the plant,
the smaller the stomata, which has a negative impact on the process of
exchanging gases and hampers photosynthesis.
5. They prevent plants from growing Harmful chemical compounds like
nitrogen oxides, ozone Sulphur, and carbons can damage plants in a number of
ways, including their stunted growth. How is it possible? Ozone creates holes
in the atmosphere. As a result of it, ultraviolet light passes through the

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atmosphere and is able to destroy plants. This also prevents photosynthesis
and plant growth.
6. They contribute to global warming Everybody knows that plants are able to
absorb carbon dioxide. Unfortunately, the more the plants are damaged and
affected by the air pollution, the less carbon dioxide they take in.
Consequently, it goes into the atmosphere and destroys the ozone layer. This
accelerates global warming and climate change.
Effects on Materials

- Mixing of air pollutants and moisture in air causes acid rains which in
turn damages the buildings, monuments and statues.
- They also affect the aquatic life specifically fishes
- Ozone in the atmosphere can cause cracking of rubber.
Control measures of Air Pollution

However, control of contaminants at their source level is a desirable and

effective method through preventive or control technologies.

Source control

✓ Using unleaded petrol

✓ Using fuels with low Sulphur and ash content Dept.
✓ Encouraging people to use public transport, walk or use a cycle as
opposed to private vehicles
✓ Ensure that houses, schools, restaurants and playgrounds are not
located on busy streets
✓ Plant trees along busy streets as they remove particulates, carbon
dioxide and absorb noise
✓ Industries and waste disposal sites should be situated outside the city.
✓ Catalytic converters should be used to help control emissions of carbon
monoxide and hydrocarbons
Control measures in industrial

✓ Emission rates should be restricted to permissible levels by each and

every industry
✓ Incorporation of air pollution control equipment in design of plant
layout must be made mandatory

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 ✓ Continuous monitoring of the atmosphere for pollutants should be
carried out to know the emission levels.
Techniques used for prevention of Air pollution
1. Filters: filter remove particulate matter from the gas stream. Bag
house filter system is the most common and it is made up of cotton
fibers. When polluted gas passed through it, then polluted gas are
deposited on cotton fibers.
2. Electrostatic scrubber: the emitting dust is charged with ions and
ionized particulate matter is collected on oppositely charged surface.
The collected particles are removed by shaking the surface.
3. Scrubbers: Scrubbers are wet collectors. They remove aerosol from a
stream of gas either by collecting wet particle on a surface followed
by their removal on the particles are wetted by scrubber liquid.

Acid rain

Acid rain, or acid deposition, is a broad term that includes any form of
precipitation with acidic components, such as sulfuric or nitric acid that fall to
the ground from the atmosphere in wet or dry forms. This can include rain,
snow, fog, hail or even dust that is acidic.

Acid rain is made up of highly acidic water droplets due to air emissions, most
specially the of sulfur and nitrogen emitted by vehicles and manufacturing
processes.

The acidic deposition takes place in two ways:

a) wed deposition: wed deposition is any form of precipitation which

removes acids from atmosphere and places them on the surface of the
earth.
b) Dry deposition: dry deposition of polluting particles and gases sticks to
the ground through dust and smoke.
Causes of acid rain:

21
The causes of acid rain are sulfur and nitrogen particles which get mixed with
the wet components of rain. Sulfur and nitrogen particles which get mixed with
water are found in two ways, either man-made as emissions that are given out
from industries or by natural causes like lightning strike in the atmosphere
releasing nitrogen oxides and volcanic eruptions releasing g sulfur oxide.

The regular clean rain and carbon dioxide react together to form weak
carbonic acid which essentially by itself is not extremely harmful. H2O + CO2 =
H2CO3.

Effects of acid rains:

- It causes respiratory issues in animals and humans.

- When acid rain falls down and flows into the rivers and ponds it affects
the aquatic ecosystem. It alters the chemical composition of the water,
to a form which is actually harmful to the aquatic ecosystem to survive
and causes water pollution.
- Acid rain also causes the corrosion of water pipes, which further
results in leaching of heavy metals such as iron, lead and copper into
drinking water.
- Acid rain is harmful to animals, plants and the monuments.
- It damages the buildings and monuments made up of stones and
metals.
- It washes away all nutrients which are required for growth of and
survival of plants.
Prevention of Acid Rain

- The only precaution that we can take against acid rain is having a check
at the emission of oxides of nitrogen and sulfur.
- Being responsible citizens, one should be aware of the harmful effects
they cause and of the industries which give out nitrogen and sulfur
compound wastes unethically.

Ozone layer

Ozone: It is a desirable gas in the upper layers of atmosphere as it absorbs the

UV radiation of sunlight. But near the earth surface it is a poisonous gas. It
makes poisonous chemicals by photochemical reactions.

22
The ozone layer: is mainly found in the lower portion of the earth’s
atmosphere. It has the potential to absorb around 97- 99% of the harmful
ultraviolet radiations coming from the sun that can damage life on earth.

Scientists have discovered a hole in the ozone layer over Antarctica. This has
focused their concern on various environmental issues and steps to control
them.

Cause of ozone depletion: The main reasons for ozone hole are:

- chlorofluorocarbons.
- Carbon tetrachloride
- Methyl bromide
- Hydrochlorofluorocarbons. These compounds are released by
solvents, spry aerosols, refrigerators, air-conditioners, etc.
Effects of Ozone depletion

Ozone layer protects all life forms on Earth from the Sun's harmful UV
radiation. Any significant decrease in the amount of ozone in the stratosphere
results in the amount of UV radiation reaching the Earth's surface leading to
harmful effects on all living organisms.

Effects on human health

Reddening of skin in sun shine (Sun burn)

Skin cancer
Reduction in body's immunity to disease
Eye disorders like cataracts and blindness
Effects on other living organisms

UV rays are particularly harmful to small plants and animals living in the
sea called 'plankton'. Plankton forms the base of ocean food chain
UV rays damage certain crops like rice which is the staple food for many
people in the world
UV radiation can damage polymers used in paint, clothing and other
materials
Sunburn, cataract, aging of the skin and skin cancer are caused by ozone.

23
Effect on environment

In the polar region temperature rises caused by global warming

would have disastrous effects. Vast quantities of methane are
trapped beneath the frozen soil of Alaska.
There could be several adverse effects of global warming.
With a warmer earth the polar ice caps will melt causing a rise in
ocean levels and flooding of coastal areas.
In countries like Bangladesh or the Maldives this would be
catastrophic. If the sea level rises by 3m., Maldives will disappear
completely beneath the waves.
The rise in temperature will bring about a fall in agricultural
produce.
Changes in the distribution of solar energy can bring about
changes in habitats.
When the permafrost melts the methane that will be released can
accelerate the process of global warming.
Prevention of ozone layer depletion:

Avoid using CFCs

Minimize use of vehicles
Use of Eco-friendly cleaning products.

Global warming

Global warming refers to the increase in the temperatures of the global surface
causing various effects on the climate of the world. Changes in the climate will
include change in the patterns of rain fall, rise in the sea level. This affects lives
of many organisms within the surface.

Effects of the global warming:

Rise in temperature.
Threats to the ecosystem
Spread of diseases
High mortality rate: due to increase in floods, tsunamis and other
natural calamities
Loss of natural habitat of plants and animals.
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 Increase of evaporation of water and changes in the patterns of
precipitation within the earth’s surface.
Glaciers and sea ice will also experience various changes as result of the
warming.
Changes on the agricultural production.
Causes of global warming:

Green-house gas effects

the volcano eruptions.
Increase in population means more people breathing this leads to an
increase in level of carbon dioxide which is the primary cause of global
warming
Human activities which in turn causes various changes in the
atmospheric gases.
Deforestation which involves cutting down of trees at very high rates.
Burning of fossil fuels
Radiation from the earth is usually reflected back to the earth by the
cloud in this causes further warming. The green- house gases normally
comprise of carbon dioxide, ozone, methane and water vapor.
Solution to global warming

✓ Use of renewable energy: using solar power, wind power.

✓ Recycle: ensure that all waste materials, including paper, plastics,
aluminum, glass
✓ Use less power: turn off lights and unplug appliances when they
are not in use.
✓ opt for sustainable transportation: walk, bike, carpool, use of
electric vehicles.

Particulate matter

Particulate matters are microscopic solid matter suspended in the atmosphere.

Classification of particulate matter: Particulate matter is classified according

to its particle size into two:

25
 - PM 2.5 are particles with a diameter of 2.5 microns or less.
- PM 10 are coarse particles with diameter of 10 micrometers or less.

As a reminder, 1 micron = .001 millimeter.

Sources of Particulate Matter:

2. Primary particulate matter: those emitted as such into the

atmosphere, come from both outdoor and indoor sources.
Indoor: are produced by common indoor activities such as tobacco smoke,
cooking, burning candles or oil lamps.

Outdoor: come mainly from vehicle exhaust but also from other operations
that involve the burning of fuels such as wood, oil coal, agriculture and natural
sources such as forest and grass fires.

3. Secondary particulate matter: they are formed in the air by physical and
chemical reactions such as sulfur dioxide, nitrogen oxides, ammonia
(NH3) and volatile organic compounds.
Effects of fine particles on health

3- Short-term health effects:

irritation of eyes, nose and throat
Coughing
Sneezing
Runny nose
Shortness of breath

4- Long-term health effects

In the long term, the impact of particulate matter can be more important such
as aggravation of asthma, cough and bronchitis in children, reduced lung
function, reduced life expectancy cardiovascular diseases, respiratory diseases
and lung cancer.

Thus, children, the elderly, pregnant women and people with respiratory
problems may be particularly sensitive to fine particles. Average, particulate air
pollution reduces global life expectancy by about 2 to 5 years.

How to reduce and measure fine particles emissions?

26
However, there are basic solutions that everyone can adopt to limit particulate
emissions:

✓ Avoiding high traffic roads

✓ Avoid using incense, candles, room spray
✓ Varying cooking methods
✓ Ventilate after and during cleaning.

Hydrocarbons

Hydrocarbons are organic compounds that are entirely made up of only kinds
of atoms-carbon and hydrogen. Hydrocarbons are colorless gases that have
very weak odors. The existence of hydrocarbon is seen in plants and animals,
they make up 98% of natural crude rubber.

Classification and types of hydrocarbons

6- Saturated hydrocarbons:
7- Unsaturated hydrocarbons
8- Cycloalkanes
9- Aromatic hydrocarbon
10- Alicyclic hydrocarbon.
Uses of hydrocarbons

➢ They are used as fuel (liquefied petroleum gas, liquefied natural

gas).
➢ Manufacturing of drugs and dyes as a starting material.
➢ They serve as lubricating oil and grease.
Effects hydrocarbon on the environment

➢ They can impact the ecosystem through oil exploration,

extraction, transportation, storage, refining and processing. In
addition to oil leakage from pipes and tanks and oil spilling into
oceans.
➢ When hydrocarbon affect the environment, they, migrate from
the soil to groundwater, string bacteria and microorganisms break
down the mix into smaller parts.

27
 ➢ Some of them evaporate directly into the atmosphere, some of
them remain in the soil for long period causing severe damage to
the ecosystem and life of living organisms.
➢ contamination of Drinking water and nutrients causing health
damage, massive degradation and destruction of plants, habitats.
Effects hydrocarbon on human health

they affect nervous system

they affect the immune system
they affect skin, eyes, lungs and blood
some of them (benzene) are carcinogen causing cancer
some affect reproduction system and the developing fetus in
animals.
Protection against hydrocarbon

✓ reporting any oil spills or leakage in the environment.

✓ Avoid exposure to the products of petroleum refining process.

Water Pollution and pollution sources.

It has been suggested that it is the leading worldwide cause of deaths and
diseases, and that it accounts for the deaths of more than 14,000 people
daily. An estimated 700 million Indians have no access to a proper toilet, and
1,000 Indian children die of diarrheal sickness every day. Some 90 % of China’s
cities suffer from some degree of water pollution, and nearly 500 million
people lack access to safe drinking water. In addition to the acute problems of
water pollution in developing countries, industrialized countries, continue to
struggle with pollution problems as well.

Definition of water pollution

Water pollution is the presence of excessive amounts of a hazard (pollutants)
in water in such a way that it is no long suitable for drinking, bathing, cooking
or other uses.

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Types of water pollutants

There are several types of water pollutants, they can be classified in to

following classes:

1) Organic pollutants: Waste water from food processing industries,

municipal and domestic sewage etc. usually organic wastes from these
sources is biodegradable. But synthetic nonbiodegradable organic
wastes like synthetic fibers, plastics, solvents and volatile organic
compounds are also important organic pollutants. These pollutants
persist in water bodies and are extremely harmful for aquatic organisms.
Oil is another organic pollutant which can severely affect the water
quality
2) Inorganic substances like metals, several salts, minerals, nutrients
suspended solids dissolved solids consists of inorganic pollutants. These
can severely affect the water chemistry and quality.
3) Suspended solids and sediments are generated from the erosion of soil
mainly. They consist of clay, silt and sand particles. They increase the
turbidity of water and hence affects the light penetration.
4) The pathogenic (can be bacteria or viruses) microorganisms come into
water body through sewage discharge as a major source or from
slaughterhouses. Pathogens can cause water borne diseases, such as
cholera, typhoid, dysentery, polio and infectious hepatitis in human.
5) Thermal pollutants are hot water discharge from thermal power plant,
nuclear power plants or industries where water is used as coolant.
Thermal pollution changes the water body temperature and hence
affects the Demand Oxygen content.
6) Radioactive pollutants are radioactive substances discharged from the
medical, agricultural, nuclear industry and are mostly carcinogenic.

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Sources of Water pollution

The most significant sources of water pollution are:

• Sewage (Waste Water): The sewage water carries pathogens, other

harmful bacteria, and chemicals that can cause health problems and
thereby diseases.
• Agricultural Pollution: Chemical fertilizers and pesticides are used by
farmers to protect crops from insects and bacteria. However, when
these chemicals are mixed up with water, they produce harmful
pollutants for plants and animals.
• Oil Pollution: Oil spill poses a huge threat to marine life when a large
amount of oil spills into the sea and does not dissolve in water. It
causes problems for local marine, wildlife, including fish, birds, and
sea otters.
• Industrial Waste: Industries produce a tremendous amount of waste,
which contains toxic chemicals and pollutants, causing air pollution
and damage to our environment and us.
• The burning of fossil fuels: Fossil fuels like coal and oil, when burnt,
produce a substantial amount of ash in the atmosphere. The particles
which contain toxic chemicals when mixed with water vapor result in
acid rain.
• River dumping and Marine Dumping: The garbage produced by
households in the form of paper, plastic, food, aluminum, rubber,
glass, is collected and dumped into the rivers and seas., they not only
cause water pollution but also harm aquatic animals.
• Solid waste: Solid waste pollution is unsightly and damaging to the
health of aquatic ecosystems and can harm wildlife directly. Many
solid wastes, such as plastics and electronic waste, break down
and leach harmful chemicals into the water, making them a source of
toxic or hazardous waste.
• Toxic waste
radioactive, explosive, carcinogenic (causing cancer), mutagenic (caus
ing damage to chromosomes), teratogenic (causing birth defects), or
bio accumulative (that is, increasing in concentration at the higher
ends of food chains). Sources of toxic chemicals include improperly
disposed wastewater from industrial plants and chemical process
facilities (lead, mercury, chromium) as well as surface

30
 runoff containing pesticides used on agricultural areas and suburban
lawns
• Sediment: Sediment (e.g., silt) resulting from soil erosion or
construction activity can be carried into water bodies by
surface runoff. Sediment interferes with the penetration
of sunlight and upsets the ecological balance of a body of water.
Also, it can disrupt the reproductive cycles of fish and other forms
of life.
• Thermal pollution: Heat is considered to be a water pollutant
because it decreases the capacity of water to hold
dissolved oxygen in solution, and it increases the rate
of metabolism of fish. Valuable species of game fish (e.g., trout)
cannot survive in water with very low levels of dissolved oxygen.
• Pesticides, herbicides and fertilizers: Excess phosphorus in fertilizer
causes serious eutrophication. Apart from fertilizers, detergent is also
very toxic to marine life when washed into water. Some insecticides
like DDT are particularly dangerous when allowed into bodies of
water because its concentration increases along the food chain.
• Industrial waste dumped into waters: industrial wastes are the
major pollutants of agnatic habitats.
• Heavy metal: they produce devastating effects on aquatic
environments.
- Pollution of ground water through drilling activities
- Flooding during rainy season which carries waste deposits into waters.

Prevention of water pollution includes the following ways:

- Wash your car far away from any storm water drains.
- Don’t throw trash, chemicals or solvents into sewer drains
- inspects your septic system every 3 – 5 years
- avoid using pesticides and fertilizers that can run off into water systems
- use non-toxic cleaning materials
- clean up oil and other liquid spills with kitty litter and sweep them up
- Don’t wash paints brushes in the sink.
- Regulation and monitoring are an effective way of pollution
management.

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 Soil pollution

Soil pollution is a global threat that is particularly serious in regions like

Europe, Eurasia, Asia and North Africa, as indicated by the Food and
Agricultural Organization of the United Nations (FAO). The FAO also affirms
that both intense and even moderate degradation is already affecting one
third of the world's soil. Moreover, recovery is so slow that it would take 1,000
years to create a few centimeters layer of arable soil.

Definition of soil pollution: Soil pollution, also called soil contamination, refers
to the degradation of land due to the presence of chemicals or other man-
made substances in the soil.

Types of Soil Pollution:

FAO distinguishes between two types of soil pollution:

1- Specific pollution: accounted for by particular causes, occurring in small

areas the reasons can be easily identified. Land pollution such as this is
normally found in cities, old factory sites, around roadways, illegal
dumps and sewage treatment stations.
2- Widespread pollution: covers extensive areas and has several causes
the reasons for which are difficult to identify. Cases such as these involve
the spreading of pollutants by air-ground-water systems and seriously
affect human health and the environment.

Sources of soil pollution

1. Agricultural activities. agricultural areas can be grouped as: pesticides,

mineral fertilizers, organic fertilizers (manure and sewage sludge),
wastewater for irrigation, plastic materials such as films for mulching
and greenhouses, drip irrigation tubes and empty packaging, and rural
wastes. Industrial processes. including mining and manufacturing
historically have been leading causes of soil pollution. Industrial areas
typically have much higher levels of trace elements and organic
contaminants. This is due to intentional and unintentional releases from
industrial processes directly into the environment.
2. Acid rain. When pollutants in the air such as sulfur dioxide and nitrogen
oxide mix with rain acid rain occurs, which has been found to impact soil

32
 negatively by dissolving important nutrients and even changing the soil’s
structure.
3. Petroleum hydrocarbon pollution of soil is a widespread global
environmental concern. Crude oil and petroleum products including
gasoline, diesel or lubricants can be released into the environment
through accidents, managed spills, or as unintended by-products of
industrial, commercial or private actions; causing local and diffuse
pollution to the environment
4. Sewer sludge. Sewage plants also contribute to soil pollution owing to
how they dispose of sewage sludge from domestic and commercial
waste. The sewage sludge is usually treated before being disposed of
into land or water bodies.
5. Mining and Smelting sources. Mining activities cause soil pollution on a
large scale. The operations cause a change of the landscape and expose
the previously undisturbed soils to the elements of weather.
6. Biological agents. Soil gets a large amount of human, animal and bird
excreta, which constitute a major source of land pollution by biological
agents.
7. Urban waste. Most developing countries have a problem controlling the
disposal of municipal garbage. The garbage is dumped anyhow and
contains wastes such as food waste, plastics, industrial wastes, e-waste,
and general household wastes.
8. Radiation. In nature, there are radioactive minerals that contribute to
soil pollution such as radionuclides of radon-222 and Radium -226,
Thorium, Uranium, isotopes of Potassium (K-40) and Carbon (C-14) are
commonly found in soil, rock, water and air. All the radionuclides
deposited on the soil emit gamma radiations.
9. Deforestation. Though not a direct contributing factor to soil
pollution, deforestation leads to the removal of the shield that protects
the soil against the agents of erosion. The exposed soil is easily eroded
and exposed to artificial chemical pollutants from the air, wind, and rain.

Effects of soil pollution

The most important effects of soil pollution according to IPBES and the FAO are
indicated below:

1- Damage to health: Soil pollutants enter our body through the food
chain, causing illnesses. Moreover, the spread of antibiotics in the
environment increases the pathogens' resistance to these drugs.

33
 2- Poorer harvests: Soil pollution agents jeopardize world food security by
reducing the amount and quality of harvests.
3- Climate change: From 2015 to 2050, 69 gigatons of CO2 will be emitted
as a result of land use change and land degradation, a figure that
represents 17% of current greenhouse gas emissions each year
4- Water and air pollution: Soil degradation affects the quality of air and
water, particularly in developing countries.
5- Population displacement: Soil degradation and climate change will have
driven between 50 and 700 million people to emigrate by 2050.
6- Species extinction: Soil contamination is one of the main causes that
could trigger the sixth mass extinction event in history —wildlife
populations fell by 69% between 1970 and 2018, according to WWF's
Living Planet Report.
7- Desertification: The number of inhabitants in the most arid areas of the
earth could account for 45 % of the world's population in 2050, while
world wetland areas have decreased in size by 87 % over the last three
centuries.
8- Toxic dust (such as silica dust) can cause respiratory problems or even
lung cancer

Control of soil pollution

✓ Management of soil wastes include collection and categorization of

wastes. Recovery of resources like scrap metals, plastics, etc., for
recycling and reuse and safe disposal with a minimum environmental
hazard is to be followed.
✓ Other notable methods of waste disposal include incineration
(burning in the presence of oxygen) and pyrolysis (burning in the
absence of oxygen).
✓ Afforestation and reforestation should be undertaken on a large scale
to prevent soil erosion and loss of soil nutrients.
✓ Public awareness. People should be made aware through informal
and formal public awareness programs on health hazards and
environmental education. Ex: Mass media, educational institutions
and voluntary agencies can achieve this.
✓ Ban on toxic chemicals. The chemicals and pesticides like DDT, BHC,
etc., which are fatal to plants and animals, should be banned. Nuclear

34
 explosions and improper disposal of radioactive wastes should also
be banned.

Noise pollution

Noise is undesirable and unwanted sound. Not all sound is noise. What may be
considered as music to one person may be noise to another. It is not a
substance that can accumulate in the environment like most other pollutants.
Sound is measured in a unit called the ‘Decibel’.

Definition of Noise Pollution: Noise may be defined as an unwanted and

unpleasant sound that may have adverse effects on animals and human-
beings.

Sound waves cause eardrums to vibrate, activating middle and inner organs
and sending bioelectrical signals to the brain.

Measurement of noise

The noise is usually measured either by

i) Sound Pressure or
ii) ii) Sound Intensity.
The Sound intensity is measured in Decibel (dB), which is tenth part of the
longest unit “Bel” named after Alexander Graham Bell. Noise level above 120
dB is considered harmful to human-beings.

Sources of Noise Pollution: The different sources associated with noise

pollution are:

industrial machinery
road, rail and air transport
loudspeakers,
construction equipment.
household appliances, crackers etc.

35
Effects of Noise Pollution:

Noise pollution can bring about adverse effects such as:

1. Auditory effects
Auditory fatigue -- Whistling & buzzing in ears (noise level - 90dB)
Deafness -- Permanent hearing loss (noise level- 100dB)
2. Tinnitus
Persistent sound in one or both ears.
Tinnitus is often experienced as a high-pitched hiss, ring, buzz, or roar.
It is usually continuous, but it may pulsate, and the beats may coincide
with the heartbeat.
3. Non auditory effects
Interference with speech communication - 50dB
Annoyance, ill temper, bickering
loss in working efficiency
- tiredness, deterioration or complete loss of ability to work.

4. Physiological disorders
Neurosis, anxiety, hypertension, increased sweating, giddiness, nausea,
fatigue, visual disturbance, reduces depth and quality of sleep, peptic ulcers,
increases cholesterol level resulting in constriction of blood vessel, Low weight
children to mothers.

Effects of noise against animals

Noise negatively impacts wildlife, both on land and in the sea. Noise pollution
can cause various physical and behavioral issues in animals and increase their
stress.

For example, road traffic noise can make it difficult for frogs and songbirds to
communicate with each other, especially during mating season. This can
reduce their ability to reproduce or force them to flee their habitats.

Underwater noise from shipping, energy production, construction and other

activities is also a concern. Research shows that hearing damage in whales can
harm their ability to communicate with each other and find food.

36
Control measures of noise pollution

Noise pollution can be controlled

1. At source level – Can be done by

i) Designing and fabricating silencing devices in air craft engines,
automobiles industrial machines and home appliances,
ii) By segregating the noisy machines
2. During Transmission – can be achieved by adding insulation and sound-
proofing to doors, around industrial machinery. Zoning urban areas to
maintain a separation between residential areas and zones of excessive
noise.
3. Protecting the exposed person
4. creating vegetation cover Plants absorb and dissipate sound energy and
thus act as Buffer Zone.
5. Trees should be planted along highways, schools and other places.
Planting vegetation to absorb and screen out noise pollution – Trees can
act as a noise barrier
6. The industries should be established away from residential areas.
7. The use of loudspeakers and bursting of crackers should be restricted.
8. awareness among people about the harmful effects of noise and the
need to control it.
9. Soundproofing: Adding insulation strategically around the home can
help muffle sounds from other rooms, neighbors, or outside. Rugs,
carpets, and curtains may also help
10. Through law: (Silence Zones must be created near Schools, hospitals,
Indiscriminate use of loudspeakers at public places should be
banned/restricted by laws, Restriction on unnecessary us e of horns and
vehicles plying without silencers).

Radiological pollution

Definition of Radiological pollution

is the deposition of, or presence of radioactive substances on surfaces or

within solids, liquids, or gases (including the human body), where their
presence is unintended or undesirable.

37
Radioactivity occurs when the nuclei of unstable atoms (radionuclides) attempt
to become stable and, in the process, emit energy in the form of ionizing
radiation. Each radionuclide has a specific type of radiation emitted by its
nucleus.

Radioactive Pollution Types

This exposure may be categorized according to its frequency as follows:

1. Continuous pollution: This occurs through constant exposure to

radioactive waste from nuclear reactors, uranium mines, nuclear test
facilities, and even excessive exposure to sunlight. Such exposure is
continuous since radioactive waste is constantly produced.
2. Occasional pollution: This type of pollution occurs from periodic tests
on radioactive materials such as detonations of nuclear bombs and
experimental research on radioactive matter. Therefore, this radioactive
pollution only occurs when such activities are being conducted.
3. Accidental pollution: Accidents are likely to happen at some point as has
been seen in the past. When experimental tests on radioactive
substances go wrong or nuclear meltdowns occur, the resulting
radioactive pollution is unintended and unforeseen.

Sources of pollution

1. Naturally occurring radioactivity

On average, 82% of this radiation comes from natural sources, A variety
of radionuclides (or radioactive materials) occur naturally in the environment.
Elements like uranium and thorium, and their decay products, are present in
rock and soil. Natural sources such as:
a. The Earth: The Earth is a source of terrestrial radiation. Radioactive
materials (uranium, and thorium and potassium-40 isotope) exist
naturally in soil and rock.
b. Cosmic radiation: is radiation produced when primary photons and
alpha particles from outside the solar system interact with components
of the earth´s atmosphere. A second source of cosmic radiation is the
release of charged particles from the sun, which become significant
during periods of solar flare (sun storm).
c. Human Internal Radiation: Our bodies also contain natural
radionuclides. Potassium 40, crucial for life, is one example. The total

38
 average dose from natural internal sources of radiation is approximately
40 mrem per year. carbon-14, which is present in all living organisms,
are continuously created by cosmic rays
2. Artificial sources. 18% of sources from anthropogenic sources, such as:

a. Nuclear Accidents from nuclear energy generation plants: Until now,

five large nuclear accidents with significant consequences for the
wider environment and population have occurred. Three of those
occurred in nuclear facilities
- (Three Mile Island, US, 1979
- Chernobyl, Soviet Union, 1986
- and Fukushima, Japan, 2011
- in military facilities Kyshtym, 1957
- and Windscale, Great Britain, 1957.

b. The use of nuclear weapons of mass destruction: In the period

1945–1980, global superpowers such as the US, Soviet Union, Great
Britain, France, and China performed 520 nuclear airburst tests Long-
lived radionuclides Cs-137 and Sr-90 are still present in the soil today
due to this, while C-14 is partially still present in plants, and H-3, to a
lesser extent, in precipitation and surface waters.
The use of missiles and atomic bombs in 2nd World War. The effect of
those two strikes in Hiroshima and Nagasaki. Hiroshima strike was in
6/8/1945, it caused children born with complications such as mental
retardation, disorder and cancer, killing 140,000 people, raising the
temperature to more than 400 C.

c. Handling and disposal of nuclear waste. Radioactive waste is

produced through mining radioactive ores, nuclear power plants, and
the production of nuclear weapons. This waste cannot be treated in
the traditional sense before safe disposal, and can only be stored in
remote areas to allow for its slow decay. Unfortunately, the
radiation from this waste often finds its way into water sources, soil,
and even the air.

d. Mining radioactive ores. mining of radioactive ores, such as uranium

and plutonium, also produces radioactive waste. Radioactive ores are
chemically unstable and thus tend to release radiation during

39
 crushing and processing, which contaminates the surrounding land,
air, and water.

e. Spillage of radioactive chemicals: spillages over oceans when ships

hit glaciers and end up releasing chemicals on waterways and in the
atmosphere such as petroleum products which have a significant
level of radiation.
f. Tests on radiation: chemotherapy, cancer curative health initiative,
uses radiation to prevent further growth of cancer cells as well as
keeping the immune system strong. Despite this, scientists have been
exposed to radiation leading to their death or other complications.
g. Harmful exposure to X-rays. Although X-rays are useful in clinical
imaging, frequent exposure to this high-frequency energy is
dangerous. The gamma rays passing through a person's body may
cause radiation sickness or burns in high quantities.

Effects of Radioactive pollution

1- Genetic mutations (changes): it leads to damage of DNA strands leading

to the genetic break up over time. It leads to cancer.
2- Diseases: cancer is the most dominant radiation-related disease. Others
including leukemia, anemia, hemorrhage and premature deaths as well
as others such as cardiovascular complications.
3- Soil infertility: Radioactive substances in the soil react together with the
various nutrients leading to the destruction of those nutrients thus
rendering the soil infertile and highly toxic. Such soil leads to the harvest
or crops that are contaminated with radiation.
4- Cell destruction: radioactive pollution has diverse effects, such as the
alteration of cells. radiation distorts the cells leading to permanent
damage of various organs and systems.
5- Burns: radiation isn’t easy to feel, but it is easy to realize that you have
been affected by it. The immediate presence of burns, red lesions sores
is evidence. To make it worse this can lead to skin cancer.
6- Effects on wildlife: herbivores, such as cattle, when grazing the
contaminated land, the deposited Ce – 13 and l – 131 get accumulated
on the animal tissues in large amount.

40
 7- Effects on plants: the plants are also exposed to radiation, and the
damage is mostly done due to the increased ultraviolet waves. Different
plants get affected differently.
8- Effects on Marine life: radionuclides can be detected in the soft tissues
or on the bone’s fishes. The sea – weed used in bread was said to have
radioisotope of ruthenium. The shelled fishes and the tissues of fishes
are contaminated with radionuclides.
Control of radioactive pollution

1. Proper disposal of radioactive waste: Radioactive waste still has

some level of radiation. it cannot be incinerated or buried. Since
there is a likelihood of seepage, this waste should be stored in heavy
and thick concrete container. Another option is dilute the radiation
since storage may not be possible.
2. Proper labeling: it is important for any radioactive material to be
labeled and the necessary precautions advised on the content of the
label. The reason for this is because radiation can enter the body by a
mere touch of radioactive material. Containers with such elements
should be well labeled in order to make one use protective gear
when handling them.
3. Banning of nuclear tests: These tests though done in the deserts, end
up escaping from one ecosystem to another, eventually affecting the
lives of many people.
4. Alternative energy sources: It is high time for its uses to be
discontinued and for the world to perhaps focus on alternative and
environmentally friendly energy sources such as renewable sources
of energy namely sola, hydro-electric and wind power.
5. Proper storage: they should be stored properly to ensure no seeping
or leakage during handling. Proper storage means no harm and can
minimize cases of accidental leakage.
6. Reusing: radioactive material can be recycled and used for other
reactor as fuel thereby protecting the environment.

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 Electromagnetic Pollution
An electromagnetic wave is a combination of oscillating electric and magnetic
fields moving through space at the speed of light. Electromagnetic waves can
be generated by accelerating a charged particle.
What is electromagnetic pollution?

Electromagnetic radiation is the propagation of electric and magnetic waves

through space that appear in various forms.

Public Health and Environment Context

All forms of radiation constitute one of the environmental determinants of
health.
- Exposure to man-made electromagnetic fields (EMF) is on the
increase due to electricity demand, ever-advancing technologies
and changes in social behaviors.
- Everyone is exposed to a complex mix of weak electric and
magnetic fields, including sources such as mobile phones, home
appliances and telecommunications and broadcasting installations.
- Globally, an estimated over 3.7 billion uses of mobile phones and
the number keeps growing.
- These fields are used to transmit information over long distances
and form the basis of telecommunications and broadcasting all over
the world.
- 5G stands for “fifth generation is 40–60 times faster than current
mobile technology.
- The increase in overall exposure to radio waves when 5G is added
to an existing network is a concern to the public

Generation of Electromagnetic waves

Electromagnetic waves are generated by devices and things that involve
electricity and voltage. In some cases, electromagnetic fields are unwanted
side effects of high voltage cables, transformers or large motors in factories.
Other times, electromagnetic waves are voluntarily generated to create
wireless connections such as 5G, 4G, WIFI, TV, radio, radar, wireless networks.

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Forms of EMFs:
EMF exists in various forms:
1. Static magnetic fields (30-50 Hz) e.g., medical imaging devices
2. Extremely Low Fields (ELF) (up to 300 Hz) e.g high-voltage overhead
power cables, Household appliances.
3. Intermediate fields (300 Hz to 10 MHz) e.g anti-theft devices operated
at the exits of shops, induction hotplates, VDU.
4. Radio Frequency (RF) radiation (10 MHz to 300 GHz) e.g
telecommunications antennae and mobile phones, WLAN.

Effects of electromagnetic pollution

1. Low-frequency electromagnetic exposure poses little danger to human
health.
2. Long-term exposure to it could be harmful, especially to the nervous
system and cognitive function of the brain. It has also been found that
exposure to high levels of high-frequency radiation can damage DNA and
human cells, which is unlikely in everyday life, given that the levels are
not high enough to endanger the health.
Symptoms of electromagnetic pollution
Some of the possible symptoms are:
• sleep disorders (insomnia)
• burning and tingling of the skin;
• headaches;
• lack of concentration;
• depression and depressive symptoms;
• fatigue;
• changes in memory;
• irritability;
• dizziness;
• loss of appetite;
• weight loss;
• restlessness and anxiety;
• nausea
Sources of electromagnetic pollution

Sources of low-frequency electromagnetic fields are:

h. high-voltage lines,
i. electrical installations or household appliances (refrigerator,
television, radio, microwave oven or any other appliance connected
to the outlet).
j. universities and research institutes;
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 k. electrical equipment installation and maintenance companies;
l. electricity production and distribution companies;

Sources of high-frequency fields are:

m. the transmitters used for radio and TV transmissions
n. antennas for mobile communications,
o. fixed wireless telephones
p. radars.
q. 5G/4G/3G communication towers;
r. medical applications: MRI, diathermy, electrosurgery;
s. non-destructive testing companies.
t. electrochemical companies;
u. welding companies.
Protective measures against magnetic pollution

there are some recommendations, with the role of minimizing exposure to

radiation and reducing possible harmful consequences:
• When using a mobile phone, the safest way to limit electromagnetic
pollution is to use speakerphone mode or Bluetooth. This means
emitting a lower level of radiation.
• It is also not recommended to use the mobile phone in elevators,
cars, trains or airplanes, because it consumes more energy and emits
more radiation in closed metal spaces.
• It is safer to use LED or incandescent bulbs instead of CFLs.
• LCD TVs are recommended over plasma TVs because they emit much
less radiation.
• It is recommended to unplug electrical appliances in the house when
they are in use. Anything plugged into an outlet produces a strong
electromagnetic field, and when unplugged they no longer have the
same effect. An example of this is laptops, so it's good to use them on
battery mode and then put them away while they're charging.
• Disconnecting your Wi-Fi router when not in use is an effective
protection measure against electromagnetic pollution.
• It is recommended to avoid placing mobile phones nearby, especially
during sleep.

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 Pollution with heavy metals

Definition of HM
Heavy metals is a collective term that refers to a group of metals and
metalloids with an atomic density greater than 4 g/cm3 or 5 times or more
than water.

Examples of heavy metals:

Lead (Pb), nickel (Ni), chromium (Cr), cadmium (Cd), arsenic (As), mercury (Hg),
selenium (Se), zinc (Zn) and copper (Cu) are the most popular heavy metals.

Sources of HM
1. Natural sources: Natural emissions of HMs occur under numerous and
certain environmental conditions:
➢ Volcanic eruptions
➢ sea-salt sprays
➢ forest fires
➢ rock weathering
➢ biogenic sources and particles of wind-borne soil are included in these
pollutants.
2. Anthropogenic sources
➢ Industries
➢ Irrigation
➢ Drainage
➢ mining and metallurgical processes
➢ as well as runoff, also contribute to the release of pollutants into various
compartments of the ecosystem.
➢ Car exhaust that releases lead; smelting that releases arsenic, copper
and zinc.
➢ insecticides that release arsenic and the burning of fossil fuels that
release nickel, vanadium, mercury, selenium and tin are some essential
anthropogenic causes that contribute significantly to heavy metal
pollution in the environment.
Uses of heavy metal

their use depends on the general characteristics of heavy metals such as:
➢ electrical conductivity and reflectivity or some other general
characteristics such as its density, its strength, and its durability.

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 ➢ Other uses depend on the quality of the particular element,
➢ their biological role as nutrients
➢ poisons or some other specific atomic properties. Some examples of the
atomic properties include partially filled d or f orbital that enables the
formation of coloured complexes.
➢ military ordnance: tungsten and uranium are used in armour plating and
armour piercing projectiles, as well as in nuclear weapons to increase
the efficiency.
➢ in nuclear science, which take the advantage of their relatively high
density.
➢ in situation requiring maximum weight in minimum space.
➢ denser materials absorb more radioactive emissions than the lighter
ones,
➢ heavy metals are useful for radiation shielding and to focus radiation
beams in linear accelerators and radiotherapy applications.

Impact of heavy metal contamination on soil

Low concentration of heavy metals indicates high microbial activity and growth
and thus high microbial biomass and high quantity of the metals in the soil
indicates very low microbial growth and thus results in low microbial biomass.

Impact of heavy metals contamination on plants

The higher we use fertilisers and pesticides in the soil for the plants to grow
better and to protect them from the insects and the weeds the higher the
chemicals will reach the soil and will be absorbed by the plants or vegetable
that are grown in that particular soil.

Impact of heavy metals contamination of water

Water contamination by HMs is a critical environmental issue that adversely
affects plants, animals and human health. Also at very low levels, heavy metals
are highly harmful to marine species. These elements may cause significant
physiological changes in the body and histopathological changes in the tissues
of aquatic organisms, such as fish.
Common Metals in Road Runoff

• Lead: leaded gasoline, tire wear, lubricating oil and grease,

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 • Zinc: tire wear, motor oil, grease, brake emissions, corrosion of
galvanized parts
• Iron: auto body rust, engine parts
• Copper: engine parts, brake emissions
• Cadmium: tire wear, fuel burning, batteries
• Chromium: air conditioning coolants, engine parts, brake emissions
• Nickel: diesel fuel and gasoline, lubricating oil, brake emissions
• Aluminium: auto body corrosion

Pollution with Pesticides

Definition of Pesticides:

Pesticides are chemical substances used on agricultural land but also in private
gardens, along railways, and in other public areas.

Benefits of Pesticides
The major advantage of pesticides is that they can save farmers. By protecting
crops from insects and other pests. However, below are some other primary
benefits of it.

• Controlling pests and plant disease vectors.

• Controlling human/livestock disease vectors and nuisance organisms.
• Controlling organisms that harm other human activities and structures

Classification of pesticides

In general, there are three main ways to classify them:

Classification based on:

(i) mode of action

(ii) targeted pest species
(iii) chemical composition of pesticides
Classification based on the mode of action

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Pesticides are classified based on the way they act to bring about the desired
effect in this classification. They are classified as

1- Non-systemic pesticides: those that do not appreciably penetrate plant

tissues and consequently not transported within the plant vascular
system.
2- Systemic pesticides: are those that effectively penetrate plant tissues
and transported within the plant vascular system to bring about the
desired effect.
Classification based on the targeted pest species

1. Insecticides – insects
2. Herbicides – plants
3. Rodenticides – rodents (rats & mice)
4. Bactericides – bacteria
5. Fungicides – fungi
6. Larvicides – larvae

Classification based on the chemical composition

In this type of classification, pesticides are characterized regarding their

chemical nature and active ingredients.

According to chemical properties, pesticides can be generally divided into

about seven types, including organochlorines, organophosphorus, carbamates,
pyrethroids, amides, anilines, and azotic heterocyclic compounds.

Pesticides pollution

The intensive use of pesticide leads to an increased risk of contamination of

the environment and harmful effects on biodiversity, food security, and water
resources.

Although it is estimated that less than 0.1% of pesticide applied to crops

actually reaches the target, the rest of it enters the environment. Additionally,
many pesticides can persist for long periods in an ecosystem; organo-chlorine
insecticides, for instance, are still detectable in surface waters 30 years after
their use and had been banned. In the food chain, they meet with nontarget
organisms, including mankind. They accumulate in the body tissues of
organisms and cause a number of health problems.
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Effects of pesticides

- There is a positive relationship between high pesticide exposures and

occurrence of several types of cancer (e.g. prostate and lung)
- The increase of neurodegenerative diseases, such as Alzheimer’s and
Parkinson’s disease.
- There are also evidences that pesticides may impair endocrine function
and the immune system.
- There are some clear evidences showing the disruptions in enzymatic
function and signaling mechanisms at cellular levels.
- Pesticides affect gene expression and this may transfer to generations
through epigenetic inheritance.
- There are evidences of pesticide exposure and disorders in both
hormonal regulation imbalance and immune system activities.
- Prenatal pesticide exposure may have a permanent effect on children’s
behavior and intelligence.
- Fertility of both women and men may be decreased with increased
pesticide exposure.

Environmental conventions

Environmental conventions are mutual agreements between governments to

take action against environmental threats.

These international conventions on environment are often legally binding and

encourage nations to plan and take action against issues that affect the
environment negatively. Environment conventions can be held at national as
well as global levels.

(1) Ramsar Convention

The Ramsar Convention came into force in 1975 with a purpose to wisely keep
and use all wetlands through local and national actions and international
cooperation, as a contribution towards achieving sustainable development
throughout the world.

- It is called the Convention on Wetlands

- It was adopted in the city of Ramsar in India 1971.

- It came into force in 1975.

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Purpose of convention:
The convention works on three pillars that define the purpose of the Ramsar
Convention:
1. Wise Use – To work towards the wise use of all wetlands
2. List of the important international Wetlands – Designate suitable
wetlands under the Ramsar List to effectively manage those
3. International Cooperation – To bring cooperation internationally over
the transboundary wetlands, shared wetland systems and shared
species

(2) Stockholm convention

Stockholm Convention is a global treaty that was adopted by the Conference of
Plenipotentiaries in 2001 and came into force on 17th May 2004. It was
introduced to protect human health from harmful Persistent Organic
Pollutants (POPs) suspended in the air for a long period of time. The
convention aims to reduce or eliminate the use of POPs through the active
measures of the member states.

It is a convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants (POPs)

It was adopted in 2001 in Geneva, Switzerland.

It came into force in 2004.

Persistent Organic Pollutants

Persistent Organic Pollutants are carbon-based organic chemical substances
that display the following properties once they are released into the
environment:
1. Lifespan – They remain in the environment for long periods of time counted
in years.
2. Distribution – The natural carriers like soil, water and air distribute it
throughout the environment
3. Food Chain – They become a part of the food chain by getting accumulated
in the fatty tissue of living organisms including humans
4. Toxicity – They are termed as toxic for both humans and wildlife.
1. Bioaccumulation – The POPs get accumulated in the fatty tissues and its
concentration gets magnified. The species including at the higher level of
the food chain absorb greater concentrations of POPs and carry it along.
5. Effect – The exposure to POPs can cause:

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 1. Cancer
2. Allergies
3. Hypersensitivity
4. Damage to the central and peripheral nervous systems
5. Reproductive disorders, and
6. Disruption of the immune system
7. Endocrine disruptors

Objectives & Aims of the Stockholm Convention

1. To implement control measures for the POPs
2. To develop and implement action plans for unintentionally produced
chemicals
3. To review and update the National Implementation Plan
4. To include the new chemicals in the reporting
5. To include the new chemicals in the program for the effectiveness
evaluation

(3) United Nations Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD)

The idea of CBD is to develop national strategies for the conservation and
sustainable use of biological diversity. 196 countries are a party to the CBD.

• It was adopted in 1992

• It came into force in 1993.

The goals of the Convention are listed below:

1. Conservation of Biological Diversity

2. Sustainable use of the components of the biodiversity
3. Fair and equitable sharing of benefits arising from the genetic resources

(4) Bonn Convention

The aim of the Bonn Convention is to protect the migratory species of wild
animals and their habitats. It is the only global treaty concerning the migratory
species and works under the aegis of the United Nations Environment
Programme. The convention has legally binding agreements and non-legally
binding Memorandum of Understandings (MoUs) which are tailored according
to conservation needs.
• It is a convention on the Conservation of Migratory Species of Wild
Animals.
• It was adopted in 1979.
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 • It came into force in 1983.

(5) Vienna Convention

The purpose of the Vienna Convention is to protect the ozone layer from
depletion. 28 countries originally signed the convention on 22nd March 1985.
On 16th September 2009, Vienna Convention along with Montreal
Protocol was universally ratified and thus became the first treaties in the
history of the United Nations to achieve universal ratification.
• It is a convention for the Protection of Ozone Layer.
• It was adopted in 1985.
• It came into force in 1988.

(6) Montreal Protocol

By the late 1970s, scientists were able to prove that chemical substances that
were used in air conditioners, refrigerators, and aerosol cans were causing
damage to the ozone layer. In 1985, a huge hole was discovered in the ozone
layer over Antarctica. This hole allowed hazardous levels of ultraviolet (UV)
radiation to reach the earth’s surface.
• It is an international environment protocol on substances that deplete
the Ozone Layer.
• It was adopted in 1987.
• It came into force in 1989.

(7) Kyoto Protocol

It is an international treaty to reduce greenhouse gas emissions. Kyoto
Protocol applies to 6 greenhouse gases; carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous
oxide, hydrofluorocarbons, perfluorocarbons, sulphur hexafluoride. It is an
extension to the 1992 UNFCCC.
• It is an international protocol to reduce greenhouse gas emissions.
• It was adopted in 1997.
• It came into force in 2005.
Kyoto Protocol is based on the principle of common but differentiated
responsibilities, keeping in mind the socio-economic development of the
concerned countries and the polluter pays principle. It is one of the important
international environment protocols.

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The protocol’s first commitment period started in 2008 and ended in 2012. 36
countries had participated in the first commitment period. 9 countries opted
for flexibility mechanisms since their national emissions were greater than
their targets. Hence these countries funded emissions reductions in other
countries.
Although the 36 developed countries had reduced their emissions, global
emissions increased by 32 % from 1990 to 2010. The financial crisis of 2007-08
was one of the major contributors to the reduction in emissions.

(8) United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change

It is an international environmental treaty governing actions to combat climate

change through adaptation and mitigation efforts directed at control of
emission of Green House Gases (GHGs) that cause global warming.
• It was adopted in 1992.
• It came into force in 1994.
It has been ratified by 197 countries and is called to have a near-universal
membership. The countries that have ratified the convention are called the
UNFCCC conference of parties (COP).

(9) Rio Earth Summit

The United Nations Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED),
also known as the Rio de Janeiro Earth Summit, Rio Summit, Rio Conference,
and Earth Summit (Portuguese: ECO92), was a major United Nations
conference held in Rio de Janeiro (Brazil) from 3 to 14 June 1992. 172
governments participated, with 116 sending their heads of state or
government.
Rio Summit 1992 – Important Outcomes
The Rio Summit 1992 is also called the Earth Summit. This summit led to the
development of the following documents:
1. Rio Declaration on Environment and Development: The first
document called the Rio Declaration, in short, contained 27 principles
that were supposed to guide countries in future sustainable
development
2. 2. Agenda 21: is an action plan concerning sustainable development,
but it is non-binding.
53
 3. 3. Forest Principles: is formally called ‘Non-Legally Binding
Authoritative Statement of Principles for a Global Consensus on the
Management, Conservation and Sustainable Development of All Types
of Forests’. It makes many recommendations for conservation and
sustainable development forestry and is non-binding.

(10) UNCCD
UNCCD stands for United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification.
Established in 1994, UNCCC is a sole legally binding environment
convention that links development and environment to sustainable land
management. The UN Convention to Combat Desertification aims to combat
desertification and the ill effects of drought.
• It is a United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification.
• It was adopted in 1994.
It came into force in 1996

UNCCD – Basic Facts

• It is a legally binding convention linking development and environment
to sustainable land management.
• The UNCCD addresses particularly the arid, semi-arid & dry sub-humid
areas, called drylands, where some of the most vulnerable ecosystems
and peoples are found.
• The convention was drafted and opened for signing in 1994. It became
effective in 1996 after receiving 50 ratifications.
• The convention obliges national governments to take measures to tackle
the issue of desertification.
• The convention’s 2018 – 2030 Strategic Framework is a comprehensive
international commitment to attain Land Degradation Neutrality (LDN)
aiming at:
• The restoration of productivity of degraded land.
• Enhancing the livelihoods of people dependent on them.
• Mitigating the impact of droughts on vulnerable populations.
• The convention focuses on having a bottom-up approach to achieve its
goals, by involving the local communities.

(11) Basel Convention

Basel Convention on the Control of Transboundary Movements of Hazardous
Wastes and their Disposal is a comprehensive treaty that was adopted in 1989

54
by the Conference of Plenipotentiaries. It aims to protect the human
environment from the adverse effects of hazardous waste that is generated,
managed and disposed of in the world community. India’s Ministry of
Consumer Affairs Food and Public Distribution has announced a blanket ban on
all types of single-use plastic products in all its PSUs including Food Corporation
in India in September 2019.
• It is a convention on the Control of Transboundary Movements of
Hazardous Wastes and their Disposal.
• There are 188 members of the Basel Convention.
• It was adopted in 1989.
• It came into force in 1992.
• Prohibition of the import of the solid plastic waste

(12) UN-REDD

The United Nations Programme on Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and

Forest Degradation (UN-REDD) is a collaborative program of Food and
Agricultural Organization (FAO), United Nations Development Programme
(UNDP) & United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP).
• It is a United Nations Programme on Reducing Emissions from
Deforestation and Forest Degradation.
• It was created in 2008.

(13) Kigali Agreement

The Kigali Agreement is an amendment to the Montreal Protocol, which is an
environmental treaty signed by countries to phase out Ozone Depleting
Substances (ODSs) from the earth’s atmosphere.
• It is an amendment to the Montreal Protocol.
• It was adopted in 2016.
• It came into force in 2019.
• The Kigali Amendment to the Montreal Protocol on Substances that
Deplete the Ozone Layer entered into force on 1st January 2019,
following ratification by the required number of countries.
• The agreement aims to phase down HFCs by reducing its manufacture
and consumption.

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