Bridge Physics Program

UP Open University

UNIT I – CLASSICAL MECHANICS

Module 2 – Forces

Introduction

In the previous module, you explored the topic of Kinematics, which involves the study of
motion. However, Kinematics only provides a description of motion and does not address what
causes it. In this module, you will delve into the concept of forces and their impact on motion.
Forces are responsible for the various motions that we observe in our daily lives, such as a
jeepney coming to a stop, a leaf falling, or an airplane gliding through the sky. Moreover, you
will also gain an understanding of Newton's Laws of Motion, which forms the basis of
dynamics - the study of forces that result in motion. By the end of this module, you will have a
comprehensive knowledge of forces and their effect on motion, allowing you to comprehend
the physical world around you more accurately.
Objectives

After working on this module, you should be able to:

1. Grasp the concept of force,
2. Define mass and inertia,
3. Define net force, external force, and system,
4. Understand Newton’s three laws of motion,
5. Draw free-body diagrams,
6. Solve problems on friction, and
7. Solve problems involving simple harmonic motion

TOPIC 4 - Force and Free-Body Diagram

Force is an essential concept in physics that describes the interaction between two bodies that
result in a push or a pull. For example, when you lift a book, your muscles exert an upward
force on the book. Similarly, when you pull a rope that's attached to a carabao, you create
tension in the rope that pulls the water buffalo.

As an object moves through the air, it experiences multiple forces acting on it. For instance,
when a mango leaf falls through the air, Earth exerts a downward pull known as gravitational
force, while the air exerts an upward force called air resistance. Additionally, when you stand
on the floor, the floor provides an upward supporting force called the normal force.

Another type of force that objects experience is frictional force, which opposes motion between
two surfaces in contact. For instance, when you slide a block of wood across a table, the table
exerts a frictional force against the block of wood, slowing it down until it stops moving.

The study of forces and their effects is a critical part of physics. Sir Isaac Newton, an
Englishman, is widely regarded as the father of modern physics. In 1687, he published a book
known as The Principia, which laid out the fundamental laws of motion and began the modern
study of physics as a scientific discipline.

Here are some recommended YouTube videos on forces and free-body diagrams:

✓ "Forces and Free Body Diagrams" by Michel van Biezen: This video introduces forces and
free-body diagrams, explaining how to draw them and use them to solve problems. It includes
examples of forces in action and practical applications.
✓ "Introduction to Forces and Free Body Diagrams" by Tyler DeWitt: This video provides a
clear and concise explanation of forces and free-body diagrams. It uses real-world examples to
illustrate the concept and includes sample problems to help viewers practice their skills.
✓ "Forces and Free Body Diagrams" by Khan Academy: In this video, Khan Academy's Sal
Khan explains the basics of forces and free-body diagrams. He uses simple graphics and
 animations to illustrate key concepts and provides several examples of how to apply them in
practice.
✓ "How to Draw a Free Body Diagram" by The Organic Chemistry Tutor: This video
provides a step-by-step guide on how to draw a free-body diagram. It includes several examples
and explains how to identify and label the different forces acting on an object.
✓ "Forces and Free Body Diagrams Explained - Physics" by FuseSchool - Global
Education: This video provides a clear explanation of forces and free-body diagrams, using real-
world examples to illustrate key concepts. It includes several practice problems and quizzes to
help viewers test their understanding.

If you prefer to have a more detailed discussion on this topic, you can read the following
chapters in textbooks:
✓ Chapter 4.1 of College Physics by Paul Peter Urone & Roger Hinrichs (p. 135)
✓ Chapter 5.1, 5.7 of University Physics Vol. 1 by Samuel J. Ling, Jeff Sanny &
William Moebs (pp. 208-212, 247-251)

Here are some tips to keep in mind when drawing a free-body diagram:

1. Identify the object: First, identify the object that you want to draw a free-body diagram for.
This object is often referred to as the "system" in physics.
2. Isolate the object: Isolate the object from its surroundings and draw it as a simple dot or a box.
This will help you focus on the forces acting on the object.
3. Identify the forces: Identify all the forces acting on the object, including weight, normal force,
tension, friction, and any other forces that may be present. Label each force with a descriptive
name.
4. Draw the forces: Draw each force as an arrow, starting from the object and pointing in the
direction of the force. The length of the arrow should be proportional to the magnitude of the
force.
5. Label the forces: Label each force arrow with its magnitude and the units of measurement.
6. Choose a coordinate system: Choose a coordinate system and draw axes if needed. This can
help you keep track of the directions of the forces and solve problems more easily.
7. Check your diagram: Double-check your diagram to make sure all forces have been included
and are labeled correctly. Make sure the forces are drawn in the correct direction, and that the
arrows are proportional to the force magnitudes.

Drawing a free-body diagram can seem intimidating at first, but with practice, it becomes
easier. By following these tips, you'll be able to draw accurate and informative free-body
diagrams to help you solve physics problems.
Example 1: A carabao pulling a sled with kids, harvest and field supplies.

http://manipudkadagitieditor.blogspot.com/2018/05/kalgaw-iti-apayao.html

Example 2: Babywearing

https://www.pinterest.ph/pin/735142339157231270/
Example 3. Let's say you are pushing a book across a table. In this scenario, the force you apply
to the book is a pushing force, and the force exerted by the table on the book is a frictional force.
The book itself has its weight force acting downwards due to gravity. To analyze this situation,
you would create a free-body diagram that shows all the forces acting on the book:

• A force vector pointing to the right to represent the pushing force you are applying.
• A force vector pointing to the left to represent the frictional force of the table acting
against the book's movement.
• A force vector pointing downwards to represent the weight of the book acting against
the table's surface.
• A force vector pointing upwards to represent the normal force perpendicular to the
surface of the table.

The free-body diagram allows you to visualize and analyze the forces acting on the book in a
simplified manner. By applying Newton's laws of motion, you can then determine the resulting
motion of the book.

TOPIC 5 - Newton’s Laws of Motion

Newton's laws of motion describe the relationship between an object's motion and the forces
acting on it. They are:

1. Newton's first law: Newton's first law of motion, also known as the law of inertia, states
that an object at rest will remain at rest, and an object in motion will remain in motion at
a constant velocity unless acted upon by an external force. In simpler terms, this means
that an object will not change its state of motion unless a force is applied to it. For
example, if you push a stationary object, it will begin to move, and if you stop pushing
it, it will eventually come to a stop.
2. Newton's second law: Newton's second law of motion relates the force applied to an
object to its acceleration. The formula for this law is F = ma, where F is the force applied
to an object, m is its mass, and a is its acceleration. This law states that the acceleration of
an object is directly proportional to the force applied to it and inversely proportional to
its mass. In simpler terms, this means that a more massive object requires more force to
accelerate than a less massive object. For example, if you push a small ball and a large
ball with the same force, the small ball will accelerate more than the large ball because it
has less mass. Mass is the quantity of matter in a substance while inertia is the tendency
of a body to remain at rest or in motion.
3. Newton's third law: Newton's third law of motion states that for every action, there is an
equal and opposite reaction. This means that when two objects interact, the force exerted
by one object on the other is equal in magnitude and opposite in direction to the force
exerted by the other object on the first. In simpler terms, this means that when you push
against a wall, the wall is pushing back against you with an equal and opposite force.
Newton's laws of motion have been critical to our understanding of the behavior of objects in
motion. These laws have been used to explain a wide range of phenomena, from the motion of
planets to the behavior of atoms. By understanding these laws, we can better understand the
physical world around us and develop new technologies that rely on the principles of motion.

If you prefer to have a more detailed discussion on this topic, you can read the following
chapters on textbooks from OpenStax:
✓ Chapter 4 of College Physics by Paul Peter Urone & Roger Hinrichs (pp. 136-160)
✓ Chapter 5 of University Physics Vol. 1 by Samuel J. Ling, Jeff Sanny & William
Moebs (pp. 213-246)
✓ Chapter 5 of Physics for Dummies by Steven Holzner (pp. 63-80)

There are also some detailed problem-solving strategies on:

✓ Chapter 4.6 of College Physics by Paul Peter Urone & Roger Hinrichs (pp. 153-155)
✓ Chapter 6.1 of University Physics Vol. 1 by Samuel J. Ling, Jeff Sanny & William
Moebs (pp. 266-268)
Here are some great YouTube videos on Newton's Laws of Motion:

✓ "Newton's Laws of Motion - Physical Science" by It's AumSum Time: This video
provides a clear and concise explanation of each of Newton's laws, using simple examples and
illustrations.
✓ "Newton's Three Laws of Motion" by Bozeman Science: This video is a bit more detailed
and geared towards high school and college-level students. It covers each of Newton's laws in
depth and includes plenty of examples.
✓ "The Science of NFL Football: Newton's First Law of Motion" by NBC Learn: This
video uses the sport of football to illustrate Newton's first law of motion, which states that an
object at rest will remain at rest unless acted upon by an unbalanced force.
✓ "The Physics of Car Crashes" by Veritasium: This video explores the physics behind car
crashes and how they relate to Newton's laws of motion. It's a bit more advanced, but it's a
fascinating watch.
✓ "Newton's Laws of Motion Explained with Simple Demonstrations" by Learn
Engineering: This video provides a series of simple demonstrations that help to illustrate each of
Newton's laws, making them easier to understand and remember.

Example 4: Newton's First Law of Motion: Imagine a big block of ice sliding on a smooth floor.
If you give it a push, it will slide across the floor until it eventually comes to a stop due to
friction with the air and the surface of the floor. However, if there were no external forces acting
on it (such as friction or air resistance), it would continue to slide in a straight line at a constant
velocity forever.
Example 5: Newton's Second Law of Motion: If you push a shopping cart with a certain amount
of force, it will accelerate at a certain rate. If you push it with twice the force, it will accelerate at
twice the rate. On the other hand, if you push a heavier cart with the same force, it will
accelerate more slowly than the lighter cart.

Example 6: Newton's Second Law of Motion: If a force of 10 Newtons is applied to a 2-kilogram

object, its acceleration will be 5 m/s^2 (acceleration = net force / mass). Conversely, if the same
force is applied to a 4-kilogram object, its acceleration will be 2.5 m/s^2.

Example 7: Newton's Third Law of Motion: For every action, there is an equal and opposite
reaction: When you jump off a diving board, you push down on the board with your feet.
According to Newton's Third Law, the board will push back up on you with an equal and
opposite force. This upward force is what propels you into the air. Another example is when a
bird flies by flapping its wings. The bird pushes the air down with its wings, and the air pushes
the bird up with an equal and opposite force, allowing it to stay aloft.

Here are some tips for solving problems involving Newton's laws of motion:

1. Draw a diagram: Drawing a clear and accurate diagram of the situation can help you
visualize the problem and identify the forces at play. Label each force with its direction
and magnitude.
2. Identify the forces: Identify all the forces acting on the object and their direction. This
will help you apply Newton's laws of motion correctly.
3. Break forces into components: Sometimes forces act at an angle to the direction of
motion. In such cases, it's helpful to break the forces into their horizontal and vertical
components so you can calculate their effect on the motion of the object.
4. Use free-body diagrams: Free-body diagrams are diagrams that show all the forces
acting on an object without any other objects in the way. They are a great tool for
analyzing forces and can help you visualize the problem more easily.
5. Apply Newton's laws of motion: Once you've identified the forces acting on the object,
you can use Newton's laws of motion to solve the problem. Make sure you apply the
correct law to the situation.
6. Check your answer: After you've solved the problem, double-check your answer to
make sure it makes sense. Does the direction of the acceleration match the direction of
the net force? Does the magnitude of the acceleration make sense based on the forces
involved?

Remember, practice makes perfect! The more problems you solve, the better you'll get at
applying Newton's laws of motion to different situations.
TOPIC 6 - Friction

Friction is a force that opposes motion between two surfaces that are in contact. It is a common
force in our daily lives and plays a vital role in many physical systems. In this module, we will
discuss the key concepts and equations related to friction.

There are three types of friction that can act on an object:

1. Static friction: the force that opposes the initiation of motion between two surfaces that
are in contact.
2. Kinetic friction: the force that opposes the motion of an object that is already in motion.
3. Rolling friction: the force that opposes the motion of an object that is rolling along a
surface.

Coefficient of Friction:
The coefficient of friction is a dimensionless constant that describes the relationship between the
force of friction and the normal force (the force that acts perpendicular to the surface on which
an object rests). The formula for the coefficient of friction is:
μ = Ff/N
where μ is the coefficient of friction, Ff is the force of friction, and N is the normal force.

Static Friction:
The force of static friction is equal to the force applied to an object until the force exceeds the
maximum value of static friction. The maximum value of static friction is given by:
Fmax = μsN
where μs is the coefficient of static friction and N is the normal force. If the applied force exceeds
the maximum value of static friction, the object will start to move, and kinetic friction will take
over.

Kinetic Friction:
The force of kinetic friction is proportional to the normal force and the coefficient of kinetic
friction. The formula for kinetic friction is:
Fk = μkN
where Fk is the force of kinetic friction, μk is the coefficient of kinetic friction, and N is the
normal force.

Applications of Friction:
Friction has numerous practical applications in our daily lives, including:
Brakes in vehicles: Friction is used to slow down or stop the motion of a vehicle by applying
friction between the brake pads and the wheels.
Tires on the road: Friction between the tires and the road surface is essential for the vehicle's
stability and control.
Walking: Friction between our feet and the ground allows us to walk without slipping.
Cutting and grinding: Friction is used in cutting and grinding operations to remove material
from a surface.

Friction is a force that opposes motion between two surfaces that are in contact. Understanding
the types of friction, coefficient of friction, and applications of friction is important in many
physical systems. By understanding friction, we can design and optimize systems that rely on
friction and improve our daily lives.

If you prefer to have a more detailed discussion on this topic, you can read the following
chapters on textbooks from OpenStax:
✓ Chapter 5.1 of College Physics by Paul Peter Urone & Roger Hinrichs (pp. 175-181)
✓ Chapter 6.2 of University Physics Vol. 1 by Samuel J. Ling, Jeff Sanny & William
Moebs (pp. 281-293)
✓ Chapter 6 of Physics for Dummies by Steven Holzner (pp. 81-98)

Here are some excellent YouTube videos on Friction:

✓ "Friction: Crash Course Physics #6" by Crash Course: This video provides a comprehensive
introduction to friction, including the difference between static and kinetic friction, the factors
that affect friction, and how friction is useful in everyday life.
✓ "Introduction to Friction" by Khan Academy: In this video, Sal Khan explains the basics of
friction, including the difference between kinetic and static friction, the coefficient of friction, and
how to calculate the force of friction.
✓ "Frictional Force" by Bozeman Science: This video provides a detailed explanation of
frictional force, including the types of friction and how they affect motion, as well as how to
calculate frictional force using equations.
✓ "Friction Explained - The Science Behind Friction" by Learn Engineering: This video
provides a comprehensive overview of friction, including the types of friction, the factors that
affect friction, and the applications of friction in everyday life.
✓ "Sliding Friction: The Physics of Sliding Friction" by Michel van Biezen: This video
focuses on sliding friction and provides a detailed explanation of the factors that affect sliding
friction, including the normal force, the coefficient of friction, and the surface area of contact.

Example 8: A 10 kg box is pushed across a table with a force of 20 N. The coefficient of kinetic
friction between the box and the table is 0.3. Calculate the acceleration of the box.

Solution: The force of friction acting on the box is equal to the coefficient of kinetic friction
multiplied by the normal force (which is equal to the weight of the box). So, the force of friction
is 0.3 * 10 kg * 9.8 m/s^2 = 29.4 N. The net force on the box is the force applied minus the force of
friction, which is 20 N - 29.4 N = -9.4 N (negative because it opposes the motion). Using F = ma,
we can solve for the acceleration, which is -9.4 N / 10 kg = -0.94 m/s^2 (negative because the box
is decelerating).
Example 9: A car is traveling at a constant speed of 20 m/s on a level road. The coefficient of
rolling friction between the tires and the road is 0.02. What is the force of rolling friction acting
on the car?

Solution: The force of rolling friction is equal to the coefficient of rolling friction multiplied by
the normal force (which is equal to the weight of the car). Since the car is traveling at a constant
speed, the net force on the car must be zero, so the force of rolling friction must be equal and
opposite to the force of the engine. Assuming no other forces are acting, the force of rolling
friction is 0.02 * weight of the car. If we assume the weight of the car is 1000 kg, then the force of
rolling friction is 0.02 * 1000 kg * 9.8 m/s^2 = 196 N.

Example 10: A block of mass 5 kg is placed on a rough incline plane that makes an angle of 30
degrees with the horizontal. The coefficient of static friction between the block and the plane is
0.5. What is the minimum force required to prevent the block from sliding down the plane?

Solution: The force of gravity acting on the block is mg = 5 kg * 9.8 m/s^2 = 49 N. The normal
force acting on the block is equal to the component of the weight perpendicular to the plane,
which is mg cos (30 degrees) = 5 kg * 9.8 m/s^2 * cos (30 degrees) = 42.4 N. The maximum force
of static friction is equal to the coefficient of static friction multiplied by the normal force, which
is 0.5 * 42.4 N = 21.2 N. To prevent the block from sliding down the plane, the force applied
parallel to the plane must be greater than or equal to the force of static friction, which is 21.2 N.
Using trigonometry, we can find the minimum force required, which is 21.2 N / sin (30 degrees)
= 42.4 N.

From these examples, we can learn several things about friction:

➢ Friction is a force that opposes motion between two surfaces in contact.
➢ The coefficient of friction is a measure of the resistance to motion between two surfaces
in contact and can vary depending on the materials and conditions involved.
➢ The force of friction can be calculated using the coefficient of friction and the normal
force acting on an object.
➢ Friction is a significant factor in determining the performance and efficiency of many
mechanical systems, and reducing friction can lead to improvements in energy efficiency
and lifespan.
TOPIC 7 - Simple Harmonic Motion

Simple harmonic motion (SHM) is a type of oscillatory motion where the restoring force is
directly proportional to the displacement from the equilibrium position. In this module, we will
discuss the key concepts and equations related to SHM.

Equation of Motion:

The equation of motion for an object undergoing SHM can be represented as:
x(t) = A cos (ωt + φ)
Where x(t) is the displacement of the object at time t, A is the amplitude of the motion (the
maximum displacement from the equilibrium position), ω is the angular frequency (2π times
the frequency of the motion), and φ is the phase angle (the initial position of the object at t=0).

Period and Frequency:

The period of an object undergoing SHM is the time it takes to complete one full cycle of
oscillation. The frequency of the motion is the number of cycles completed per unit time. The
period and frequency are related by the equation:
T = 1/f
where T is the period and f is the frequency.

Amplitude and Energy:

The amplitude of the motion represents the maximum displacement from the equilibrium
position. The energy of an object undergoing SHM is constant and is equal to the sum of its
kinetic energy and potential energy. The potential energy of the system can be represented by:
U(x) = (1/2) kx^2
where k is the spring constant and x is the displacement from the equilibrium position.

Damping:
Damping is the process of reducing the amplitude of an oscillating system over time. Damping
can be either underdamped, critically damped, or overdamped. In underdamped systems, the
amplitude decreases gradually over time. In critically damped systems, the amplitude decreases
quickly, but without oscillations. In overdamped systems, the amplitude decreases quickly, and
the system takes a long time to return to equilibrium.

Applications of SHM:
SHM has numerous practical applications in our daily lives, including:
Clocks: Pendulum clocks use SHM to keep time.
Springs: Springs in car suspensions and shock absorbers undergo SHM to provide a smoother
ride.
Musical instruments: Many musical instruments, such as guitars and pianos, use strings that
undergo SHM to produce sound.
Seismology: Seismometers use SHM to detect and measure earthquakes.
Simple harmonic motion is a type of oscillatory motion where the restoring force is directly
proportional to the displacement from the equilibrium position. Understanding the equations
and concepts related to SHM is important in many physical systems. By understanding SHM,
we can design and optimize systems that rely on oscillatory motion and improve our daily
lives.

If you prefer to have a more detailed discussion on this topic, you can read the following
chapters on textbooks from OpenStax:
✓ Chapter 16.3 of College Physics by Paul Peter Urone & Roger Hinrichs (pp. 611-620)
✓ Chapter 15.1 of University Physics Vol. 1 by Samuel J. Ling, Jeff Sanny & William
Moebs (pp. 744-753)
✓ Chapter 12 of Physics for Dummies by Steven Holzner (pp. 189-204)

Here are some excellent YouTube videos on Simple Harmonic Motion:

✓ "Simple Harmonic Motion" by Khan Academy: This video provides a clear and concise
introduction to simple harmonic motion, including definitions and examples.
✓ "Simple Harmonic Motion" by Bozeman Science: This video explains simple harmonic
motion in detail, including the mathematics behind it.
✓ "Simple Harmonic Motion: Crash Course Physics #16" by Crash Course: This video
provides a fun and engaging introduction to simple harmonic motion, including real-life
examples.
✓ "Simple Harmonic Motion and Springs" by MIT OpenCourseWare: This video provides an
in-depth explanation of simple harmonic motion in the context of springs.
✓ "Simple Harmonic Motion Explained" by The Organic Chemistry Tutor: This video
provides a detailed explanation of simple harmonic motion, including mathematical derivations
and example problems.

Example 11: A mass-spring system: Consider a mass attached to a spring that is suspended
vertically. If the mass is pulled down and released, it will oscillate up and down with simple
harmonic motion. The quantities involved here are:
Amplitude (A): The maximum displacement from the equilibrium position.
Period (T): The time taken for one complete oscillation.
Frequency (f): The number of oscillations per unit time.
Angular frequency (ω): The rate of change of the phase of the oscillation with respect to time.
Displacement (x): The position of the mass at any given time.
Velocity (v): The rate of change of displacement with respect to time.
Acceleration (a): The rate of change of velocity with respect to time.
Example 12: Pendulum motion: Consider a simple pendulum consisting of a mass suspended
by a string. If the mass is displaced and released, it will oscillate back and forth with simple
harmonic motion. The quantities involved here are:
Amplitude: The maximum displacement from the equilibrium position.
Period (T): The time taken for one complete oscillation.
Frequency (f): The number of oscillations per unit time.
Angular frequency (ω): The rate of change of the phase of the oscillation with respect to time.
Displacement (θ): The angle that the string makes with the vertical at any given time.
Velocity (v): The rate of change of displacement with respect to time.
Acceleration (a): The rate of change of velocity with respect to time.

References

Walker, Halliday and Resnick (2014). Fundamental of Physics, 10th Ed. (Extended), John Wiley
& Sons, USA.
Giancoli, Douglas C. Physics: Principles with Applications 7th Edition
Nolan, Peter J. Fundamentals of College Physics
Tipler, Paul A. Physics for Scientists and Engineers 6th Edition
Young, Hugh D & Freedman, Roger A. University Physics 15th Edition
Serway, Raymond A & Jewett Jr., John W. Physics for Scientists and Engineers with Modern
Physics 9th Edition