Introduction

Mechanical Vibrations
 What is vibration?
• Vibrations are oscillations of a system about an equilbrium position.
Vibration…

It is also an
everyday
phenomenon we
meet on
everyday life
 Vibration …
Useful Vibration Harmful vibration
Compressor
Noise
Testing

Destruction

Wear
Ultrasonic
cleaning

Fatigue
Vibration parameters

All mechanical systems

can be modeled by
containing three basic
components:
spring, damper, mass

When these components are subjected to constant force,

they react with a constant
displacement, velocity and acceleration
 Free vibration
• When a system is initially disturbed by a displacement, velocity
or acceleration, the system begins to vibrate with a constant
amplitude and frequency depend on its stiffness and mass.
• This frequency is called as natural frequency, and the form of
the vibration is called as mode shapes

Equilibrium pos.
Forced Vibration

If an external force applied to a

system, the system will follow the
force with the same frequency.
However, when the force
frequency is increased to the
’ system’s natural frequency,
amplitudes will dangerously
increase in this region. This
phenomenon called as
“Resonance”
Watch these …
Bridge collapse:
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=j-zczJXSxnw
Hellicopter resonance:
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=0FeXjhUEXlc
Resonance vibration test:
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=LV_UuzEznHs
Flutter (Aeordynamically induced vibration) :
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=OhwLojNerMU
 Modelling of vibrating systems

Lumped (Rigid) Modelling Numerical Modelling

Element-based
methods
(FEM, BEM)

Statistical and Energy-

based methods
(SEA, EFA, etc.)
 Because running in the International Space
Station might cause unwanted vibrations, they
have installed a Treadmill Vibration Isolation
System.

2 - 10
 • Mechanical vibration is the motion of a particle or body which
oscillates about a position of equilibrium. Most vibrations in
machines and structures are undesirable due to increased stresses
and energy losses.

• Time interval required for a system to complete a full cycle of the

motion is the period of the vibration.

• Number of cycles per unit time defines the frequency of the vibrations.

• Maximum displacement of the system from the equilibrium position is the

amplitude of the vibration.

• When the motion is maintained by the restoring forces only, the vibration
is described as free vibration. When a periodic force is applied to the
system, the motion is described as forced vibration.

• When the frictional dissipation of energy is neglected, the motion

is said to be undamped. Actually, all vibrations are damped to
some degree.
19 - 11
 Free Vibrations of Particles. Simple Harmonic
• If a particle is displaced through a distance x from its
Motion equilibrium position and released with no velocity, the
m

particle will undergo simple harmonic motion,

ma  F  W  k  st  x   kx
mx  kx  0
• General solution is the sum of two particular solutions,
 k   k 
x  C1 sin t   C2 cos t 
 m   m 
 C1 sin n t   C2 cos n t 
• x is a periodic function and n is the natural circular
frequency of the motion.

• C1 and C2 are determined by the initial conditions:

x  C1 sin nt   C2 cos nt  C2  x0
v  x  C1 n cos nt   C2 n sin nt  C1  v0  n
19 - 12
 Free Vibrations of Particles. Simple Harmonic
Motion

x  xm sin nt    xm  v0  n 2  x02  amplitude

  tan 1 v0 x0 n   phase angle

2
n   period
n
1 n
fn    natural frequency
n 2
19 - 13
 Free Vibrations of Particles. Simple Harmonic
Motion
• Velocity-time and acceleration-time curves can be
represented by sine curves of the same period as the
displacement-time curve but different phase angles.

x  xm sin nt   
v  x
 xm n cos n t   
 xm n sin n t     2
a  x
  xm n2 sin n t   
 xm n2 sin n t     

19 - 14
 Simple Pendulum (Approximate
• Results Solution)
obtained for the spring-mass system can be
applied whenever the resultant force on a particle is
proportional to the displacement and directed towards
the equilibrium position.

• Consider tangential components of acceleration and

force for a simple pendulum,

 Ft  mat :  W sin  ml

g
  sin   0
l
for small angles,
g
    0
l
   m sin n t   
2 l
n   2
n g
19 - 15
 Simple Pendulumg (Exact Solution)
An exact solution for   sin  0
l
l  2 d
leads to n  4 
g 0 1  sin 2  2 sin 2 
m

which requires numerical solution.

2K  l
n   2 
  g

19 - 16
 Concept Question
The amplitude of a
vibrating system is
shown to the right.
Which of the
following statements
is true (choose
one)?
a) The amplitude of the acceleration equals the
amplitude of the displacement
b) The amplitude of the velocity is always opposite
(negative to) the amplitude of the displacement
c) The maximum displacement occurs when the
acceleration amplitude is a minimum
2 -d)
17 The phase angle of the vibration shown is zero
 Sample Problem 19.1
SOLUTION:
• For each spring arrangement, determine
the spring constant for a single
equivalent spring.

• Apply the approximate relations for the

harmonic motion of a spring-mass
system.

A 50-kg block moves between vertical

guides as shown. The block is pulled
40mm down from its equilibrium position
and released.
For each spring arrangement,
determine a) the period of the vibration,
b) the maximum velocity of the block,
and c) the maximum acceleration of the
block.
19 - 18
 Sample Problem 19.1
SOLUTION:
k1  4 kN m k2  6 kN m
• Springs in parallel:
- determine the spring constant for equivalent spring

- apply the approximate relations for the harmonic

motion of a spring-mass system
k 104 N/m
n    14.14 rad s
m 20 kg
2
n   n  0.444 s
n

P  k1  k2 vm  x m  n
P  0.040 m 14.14 rad s  vm  0.566 m s
k  k1  k2

 10 kN m  104 N m am  x m an2
 0.040 m 14.14 rad s 2 am  8.00 m s2

19 - 19
 Sample Problem 19.1in series:
• Springs
k1  4 kN m k2  6 kN m
- determine the spring constant for equivalent spring

- apply the approximate relations for the harmonic

motion of a spring-mass system

k 2400N/m
n    6.93 rad s
m 20 kg
2
n   n  0.907 s
n

vm  x m  n
P  k1  k2  0.040 m 6.93 rad s  vm  0.277 m s
P
k  k1  k2 am  x m an2

 10 kN m  104 N m  0.040 m 6.93 rad s 2 am  1.920 m s 2

19 - 20
 Free Vibrations of Rigid Bodies
• If an equation of motion takes the form
x   n2 x  0 or    n2  0
the corresponding motion may be considered
as simple harmonic motion.

• Analysis objective is to determine n.

• Consider the oscillations of a square plate

 W b sin   mb  I
but I  12  
1 m 2b 2  2b 2  2 mb 2 , W  mg
3
3g 3g
  sin     0
5b 5b
3g 2 5b
then  n  , n   2
5b n 3g
• For an equivalent simple pendulum,
19 - 21 l  5b 3
 Sample Problem 19.2 SOLUTION:
• From the kinematics of the system, relate
the linear displacement and acceleration
k to the rotation of the cylinder.

• Based on a free-body-diagram equation

for the equivalence of the external and
effective forces, write the equation of
motion.

A cylinder of weight W is suspended as • Substitute the kinematic relations to arrive

shown. at an equation involving only the angular
Determine the period and natural displacement and acceleration.
frequency of vibrations of the cylinder.

19 - 22
Sample Problem 19.2
SOLUTION:
• From the kinematics of the system, relate the linear
displacement and acceleration to the rotation of the cylinder.
x  r   2 x  2r
 
   a  r  r a  r

• Based on a free-body-diagram equation for the equivalence of

the external and effective forces, write the equation of motion.
 M A   M A eff : Wr  T2 2r   ma r  I
but T2  T0  k  12 W  k 2r 
• Substitute the kinematic relations to arrive at an equation
involving only the angular displacement and acceleration.

 
Wr  12 W  2kr 2r   mrr  12 mr 2
8k
   0
3m
8k 2 3m  n 1 8k
n  n   2 fn  
19 - 23
3m n 8k 2 2 3m
 Sample Problem 19.3
SOLUTION:
• Using the free-body-diagram equation for
the equivalence of the external and
effective moments, write the equation of
motion for the disk/gear and wire.
W  20 lb
• With the natural frequency and moment of
 n  1.13 s  n  1.93 s inertia for the disk known, calculate the
torsional spring constant.
The disk and gear undergo torsional
vibration with the periods shown. • With natural frequency and spring
Assume that the moment exerted by the constant known, calculate the moment of
wire is proportional to the twist angle. inertia for the gear.
Determine a) the wire torsional spring
• Apply the relations for simple harmonic
constant, b) the centroidal moment of
motion to calculate the maximum gear
inertia of the gear, and c) the maximum
velocity.
angular velocity of the gear if rotated
through 90o and released.
19 - 24
 Sample Problem 19.3
SOLUTION:
• Using the free-body-diagram equation for the
equivalence of the external and effective moments,
write the equation of motion for the disk/gear and
wire.  M   M  :  K   I 
O O eff
K
W  20 lb     0
I
 n  1.13 s  n  1.93 s
K 2 I
n  n   2
I n K

• With the natural frequency and moment of inertia for

the disk known, calculate the torsional spring
constant. 2
1  20  8 
I  12 mr 2      0.138 lb  ft  s
2
2  32.2  12 

0.138
1.13  2 K  4.27 lb  ft rad
K
19 - 25
 Sample Problem 19.3
• With natural frequency and spring constant
known, calculate the moment of inertia for the
gear. I
1.93  2 I  0.403 lb  ft  s2
4.27

• Apply the relations for simple harmonic motion to

W  20 lb
calculate the maximum gear velocity.
 n  1.13 s  n  1.93 s
   m sin nt    mn sin nt m   mn

 m  90  1.571 rad

 2  2 
 m   m    1.571 rad  
K 2 I 
 n  1.93 s 
n  n   2
I n K
m  5.11rad s
K  4.27 lb  ft rad

19 - 26
Group Problem Solving
SOLUTION:
• Using the free-body and kinetic diagrams,
write the equation of motion for the
pendulum.

• Determine the natural frequency and

moment of inertia for the disk (use the
small angle approximation).

• Calculate the period.

A uniform disk of radius 250 mm is
attached at A to a 650-mm rod AB of
negligible mass which can rotate freely
in a vertical plane about B. If the rod is
displaced 2°from the position shown
and released, determine the period of
the resulting oscillation.
19 - 27
 Group Problem Solving
Draw the FBD and KD of the pendulum (mbar ~ 0).

Bn Bt

 l
r
man
mat

I
mg
Determine the equation of motion. *Note that you could also do
this by using the “moment” from
M B  I B at, and that at = l

2 - 28
 
mgl sin   I  ml 2  mgl sin   I   lmat
 Group Problem Solving
Find I, set up equation of motion
using small angle approximation

mgl sin   I  ml 2  
1 2
I  mr , sin   
2
1 2 2
2 mr  ml   mgl  0
 
Determine the natural frequency
gl
n2 
 r2
2
 l2  Calculate the period

(9.81)(0.650) 2
 n   1.676 s
1
(0.250) 2
 (0.650) 2 n
2
 14.053  n  1.676 s
2 - 29
n  3.7487 rad/s
 Concept Question

In the previous problem, what

would be true if the bar was
hinged at A instead of welded
at A (choose one)?

a) The natural frequency of the oscillation would be larger

b) The natural frequency of the oscillation would be larger
c) The natural frequencies of the two systems would be
the same
19 - 30
 Principle of Conservation of Energy
• Resultant force on a mass in simple harmonic motion
is conservative - total energy is conserved.
T V  constant 1 mx 2  12 kx 2  constant
2
2
x   n2 x 2 
• Consider simple harmonic motion of the square plate,
T1  0 
V1  Wb 1  cos   Wb 2 sin 2  m 2 
 12 Wb m2

T2  12 mvm2  12 I  m
2 V2  0


 12 mbm   12 23 mb 2  m
2 2

 
 12 53 mb 2 m2

T1  V1  T2  V2

19 - 31
 
0  12 Wb m2  12 53 mb 2  m2  n2  0  n  3g 5b
 Sample Problem 19.4
SOLUTION:
• Apply the principle of conservation of
energy between the positions of maximum
and minimum potential energy.

• Solve the energy equation for the natural

frequency of the oscillations.

Determine the period of small

oscillations of a cylinder which rolls
without slipping inside a curved
surface.

19 - 32
 Sample Problem 19.4
SOLUTION:
• Apply the principle of conservation of energy between the
positions of maximum and minimum potential energy.
T1  V1  T2  V2

T1  0 V1  Wh  W R  r 1  cos 

 W R  r   m2 2 
T2  12 mvm2  12 I  m
2 V2  0

 
2
1 m R  r  2  R  r  2
 m
2
 m  12 12 mr 
2  r 
 34 m R  r 2m2

19 - 33
Sample Problem 19.4
• Solve the energy equation for the natural frequency
of the oscillations.
T1  0 
V1  W R  r   m2 2 
T2  34 mR  r 2m2 V2  0

T1  V1  T2  V2

 m2
0  W R  r   34 mR  r 2m2  0
2
 m2
mg R  r   34 mR  r 2  m n 2m
2

2 g 2 3 Rr
 n2  n   2
3 Rr n 2 g
19 - 34
 Forced Vibrations

Forced vibrations - Occur

when a system is subjected to
a periodic force or a periodic
displacement of a support.

 f  forced frequency

 F  ma :
Pm sin  f t  W  k  st  x   mx W  k  st  x   m sin  f t   mx

mx  kx  Pm sin  f t mx  kx  k m sin  f t

19 - 35
 Forced Vibrations
x  xcomplementary  x particular
 C1 sin  n t  C2 cos  n t   xm sin  f t
Substituting particular solution into governing equation,
 m 2f xm sin  f t  kxm sin  f t  Pm sin  f t
Pm Pm k m
xm   
k  m 2f 1   f  n 2 1   f  n 2

mx  kx  Pm sin  f t

mx  kx  k m sin  f t
At f = n, forcing input is in
resonance with the system.
19 - 36
 Concept Question
A small trailer and its load have
a total mass m. The trailer can
be modeled as a spring with
constant k. It is pulled over a
road, the surface of which can
be approximated by a sine
curve with an amplitude of 40
mm and a wavelength of 5 m.
Maximum vibration amplitude
occur at 35 km/hr. What
happens if the driver speeds up
to 50 km/hr?

a) The vibration amplitude remains the same.

b) The vibration amplitude would increase.
c) The vibration amplitude would decrease.
2 - 37
 Sample Problem 19.5
SOLUTION:
• The resonant frequency is equal to the
natural frequency of the system.

• Evaluate the magnitude of the periodic

force due to the motor unbalance.
Determine the vibration amplitude from
the frequency ratio at 1200 rpm.

A motor weighing 350 lb is supported by

four springs, each having a constant 750
lb/in. The unbalance of the motor is
equivalent to a weight of 1 oz located 6
in. from the axis of rotation.
Determine a) speed in rpm at which
resonance will occur, and b) amplitude of
the vibration at 1200 rpm.
19 - 38
 Sample Problem 19.5
SOLUTION:
• The resonant frequency is equal to the natural
frequency of the system.
350
m  10.87 lb  s 2 ft
32.2

k  4750  3000 lb in
 36,000 lb ft
W = 350 lb
k = 4(350
k 36,000
lb/in) n  
m 10.87
 57.5 rad/s  549 rpm

Resonance speed = 549

rpm

19 - 39
 Sample Problem 19.5
• Evaluate the magnitude of the periodic force due to the
motor unbalance. Determine the vibration amplitude
from the frequency ratio at 1200 rpm.
 f    1200 rpm  125.7 rad/s
 1 lb  1 
m  1 oz     0.001941 lb  s 2 ft
 16 oz  32.2 ft s 2 

W = 350 lb Pm  man  mr 2

k = 4(350
lb/in)
 0.001941 12  
6 125.7 2  15.33 lb

n  57.5 rad/s Pm k 15.33 3000

xm  

1   f n 2 1  125.7 57.52
 0.001352 in

xm = 0.001352 in. (out of

phase)
19 - 40
 Damped Free Vibrations
• All vibrations are damped to some degree by
forces due to dry friction, fluid friction, or internal
friction.

• With viscous damping due to fluid friction,

 F  ma : W  k  st  x   cx  mx
mx  cx  kx  0

• Substituting x = elt and dividing through by elt

yields the characteristic equation,
2
c  c  k
ml2  cl  k  0 l    
2m  2m  m

• Define the critical damping coefficient such that

2
 cc  k k
   0 cc  2 m  2m n
 2m  m m
19 - 41
 Damped Free Vibrations
• Characteristic equation,
2
c  c  k
ml2  cl  k  0 l    
2m  2m  m
cc  2m n  critical damping coefficient
• Heavy damping: c > cc
x  C1e l1t  C2 e l2t - negative roots
- nonvibratory motion
• Critical damping: c = cc
x  C1  C2t  e  nt - double roots
- nonvibratory motion
• Light damping: c < cc

x  e c 2m t C1 sin  d t  C2 cos  d t 

2
c
 d   n 1     damped frequency
19 - 42
 cc 
 Concept Question
8

-2

-4

-6

-8
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3

The graph above represents an oscillation that is…

(a) Heavily damped (b) critically damped (c) lightly damped

2 - 43
 Concept Question
8

-2

-4

-6

-8
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3

The period for the oscillation above is approximately…

a) 1.25 seconds b) 2.5 Hz c) 0.6 seconds

Estimate the phase shift for the oscillationZero

2 - 44
 Forced vibrations can be caused by a test machine, by rocks on a trail, by
rotating machinery, and by earthquakes. Suspension systems, shock
absorbers, and other energy-dissipating devices can help to dampen the
resulting vibrations.

2 - 45
 Damped Forced Vibrations

mx  cx  kx  Pm sin  f t x  xcomplementary  x particular

xm x 1
 m  
Pm k 
1   f n 2 2
  2c c 
c f  n 2
magnification
factor
2c cc  f  n 
tan   
1   f  n 2
phase difference between forcing and steady state
19 - 46
response
 Group Problem Solving
SOLUTION:
• Determine the system natural
frequency, damping constant, and
the unbalanced force.

• Determine the steady state

response and the magnitude of the
motion.

A simplified model of a washing machine is shown. A bundle of wet clothes

forms a mass mb of 10 kg in the machine and causes a rotating unbalance.
The rotating mass is 20 kg (including mb) and the radius of the washer
basket e is 25 cm. Knowing the washer has an equivalent spring constant
k = 1000 N/m and damping ratio z = c/cc = 0.05 and during the spin cycle
the drum rotates at 250 rpm, determine the amplitude of the motion.

19 - 47
 Group Problem Solving

Given: m= 20 kg, k= 1000 N/m,

f= 250 rpm, e= 25 cm, mb= 10 kg
Find: xm

Calculate the forced circular

frequency and the natural circular
frequency

(2 )(250) k 1000

f   26.18 rad/s n    7.0711 rad/s
60 m 20

Calculate the critical damping constant cc and the damping constant c

cc  2 km  2 (1000)(20)  282.84 N  s/m

 c 
c  c  (0.05)(141.42)  14.1421 N  s/m
19 - 48  cc 
 Group Problem Solving
Calculate the unbalanced force
caused by the wet clothes

Pm  mb e 2f
Pm  (10 kg)(0.25 m)(26.18 rad/s)2  1713.48 N

Use Eq 19.52 to determine xm

mx  cx  kx  Pm sin  f t

Pm
xm 
k 
2
 m 2f  (c f )2
1713.48
 xm  134.8 mm
[1000  (20)(26.18)2 ]2  [(141421)(26.18)]2
1713.48 1713.48
   0.13478 m
(12,707.8)2  (370.24)2 12,713.2
19 - 49
 Concept Question
The following parameters were
found in the previous problem:
 f  26.18 rad/s
 =0.05
n  7.0711 rad/s

What would happen to the

amplitude xm if the forcing
frequency f was cut in half?

a) The vibration amplitude remains the

same.
b) The vibration amplitude would
increase.
c) The vibration amplitude would
decrease.
2 - 50
 Concept Question
Case 1
 f  26.18 rad/s
n  7.0711 rad/s

Case 2
 f  13.09 rad/s
n  7.0711 rad/s

Pm
xm 
 
2
k  m 2f  (c f )2

2 - 51
 Electrical Analogues
• Consider an electrical circuit consisting of an inductor,
resistor and capacitor with a source of alternating voltage
di q
Em sin  f t  L  Ri   0
dt C
1
Lq  Rq  q  Em sin  f t
C
• Oscillations of the electrical system are analogous to
damped forced vibrations of a mechanical system.

19 - 52
 Electrical Analogues
• The analogy between electrical and mechanical
systems also applies to transient as well as steady-
state oscillations.

• With a charge q = q0 on the capacitor, closing the

switch is analogous to releasing the mass of the
mechanical system with no initial velocity at x = x0.

• If the circuit includes a battery with constant voltage

E, closing the switch is analogous to suddenly
applying a force of constant magnitude P to the
mass of the mechanical system.

19 - 53
Electrical Analogues
• The electrical system analogy provides a means of
experimentally determining the characteristics of a given
mechanical system.

• For the mechanical system,

m1x1  c1x1  c2  x1  x2   k1x1  k 2  x1  x2   0

m2 x2  c2  x 2  x1   k 2  x2  x1   Pm sin  f t

• For the electrical system,
q q q
L1q1  R1 q1  q 2   1  1 2  0
C1 C2
q q
L2 q2  R2 q 2  q1   2 1  Em sin  f t
C2
• The governing equations are equivalent. The characteristics
of the vibrations of the mechanical system may be inferred
from the oscillations of the electrical system.
19 - 54
Degree of Freedom (DOF)
• Mathematical modeling of a physical system requires the
selection of a set of variables that describes the behavior
of the system.

• The number of degrees of freedom for a system is the

number of kinematically independent variables necessary
to completely describe the motion of every particle in the
system
DOF=1 DOF=2
Single degree of freedom (SDOF) Multi degree of freedom (MDOF)
Equivalent model of systems
Example 1: Example 2:

SDOF MDOF
DOF=1 DOF=2
Equivalent model of systems
MDOF
Example 3:
DOF= 3 if body 1 has no rotation
SDOF DOF=2 DOF= 4 if body 1 has rotation

body 1
What are their DOFs?
SDOF systems
• Helical springs
Shear stress:

Stiffness coefficient:

F: Force, D: Diameter, G: Shear modulus of the rod,

N: Number of turns, r : Radius

 Springs in combinations:
Parallel combination Series combination
Elastic elements as springs
Moment of Inertia
What are the equivalent stiffnesses?
 Example
• A 200-kg machine is attached to the end of a cantilever beam of length L= 2.5 m,
elastic modulus E= 200x109 N/m2, and cross-sectional moment of inertia I = 1.8x10–6
m4. Assuming the mass of the beam is small compared to the mass of the machine,
what is the stiffness of the beam?
Damping
• Viscous Damping