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Unlocking insights of oil derivatives with terahertz spectrum analysis: the

hybrid refractive index rectangular core photonic crystal fiber perspective
sensing

Article in Journal of Optics (India) · December 2023

DOI: 10.1007/s12596-023-01520-3

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https://doi.org/10.1007/s12596-023-01520-3

RESEARCH ARTICLE

Unlocking insights of oil derivatives with terahertz spectrum

analysis: the hybrid refractive index rectangular core photonic
crystal fiber perspective sensing
A. H. M. Iftekharul Ferdous1 · Sheikh Zannat E. Noor1 · P. Kalpana Devi2 · K. R. Kavitha3 · G. Anitha4 ·
T. Jayakumar5 · Khalid Sifulla Noor1 · Rosni Sayed1 · Md. Ariful Islam1 · Ahmed Nabih Zaki Rashed6 ·
Shaik Hasane Ahammad7

Received: 2 October 2023 / Accepted: 27 October 2023

© The Author(s), under exclusive licence to The Optical Society of India 2023

Abstract This study clarifies unlocking insights of oil
derivatives with terahertz spectrum analysis: the hybrid
refractive index rectangular core PCF perspective sensing
with near-field scanning. This model constructs and mathe-
matically explores a rectangular core PCF for deployment in
petrochemical sensing. The use of circular air holes reduces
fabrication difficulty. The objective is to detect diverse sub-
stances using terahertz range electromagnetic radiation. The
COMSOL Multiphysics toolset employs FEM methods to
examine the two different sensing and regulating aspects of
the aforementioned sensor. The numerical analysis is per-
formed in the core hole utilizing petrol, diesel, and kerosene.
With a high relative sensitivity, the sensor beat prior experi-
ments. The study shows the sensitivity of 97.71%, 98.23%,
and 97.01% for kerosene, diesel, and petrol, respectively.
Similarly, confinement loss for kerosene is 1.209 × ­10–11
in x-axis, 2.65 × ­10–11 in y-axis for diesel 2.46 × ­10–12 in
x-axis, 2.53 × ­10–12 in y-axis, for petrol 9.25 × ­10–11 in x-axis,
2.90 × ­10–10 in y-axis, which is lower than in earlier studies.
Our recommended sensor also exhibits substantial effective
area of 9.44 × ­10–08 ­m2 as well as a modest effective mate-
rial loss (EML) of effective material loss for kerosene is
0.004065 ­cm−1 in x-axis, 0.012673 ­cm−1 in y-axis, for diesel
0.0036226 ­cm−1 for x-axis, 0.11388 ­cm−1 for y-axis, and for
petrol 0.00471 ­cm−1 for x-axis, 0.01433 ­cm−1 for y-axis.
This petrochemical sensor guarantee the highest level of sen-
sitivity in the gas, oil, construction, automotive, health care,
and cosmetics industries.

* A. H. M. Iftekharul Ferdous Md. Ariful Islam

digonto_eee3@yahoo.com milon17pust@gmail.com
1
* G. Anitha Department of Electrical and Electronic Engineering,
anipsg09@gmail.com Pabna University of Science and Technology, Pabna 6600,
Bangladesh
* Ahmed Nabih Zaki Rashed
2
ahmed_733@yahoo.com Department of ECE, Vel Tech Rangarajan Dr. Sagunthala R
& D Institute of Science and Technology, Chennai, India
* Shaik Hasane Ahammad
3
ahammadklu@gmail.com Department of ECE, Sona College of Technology, Salem,
India
Sheikh Zannat E. Noor
4
aobony227@gmail.com Department of ECE, Saveetha School of Engineering,
SIMATS, Chennai, India
P. Kalpana Devi
5
drkalpanadevip@veltech.edu.in Department of Mechatronics Engineering, KCG College
of Technology, Chennai, India
K. R. Kavitha
6
kavithakrece@gmail.com Electronics and Electrical Communications Engineering
Department, Faculty of Electronic Engineering, Menoufia
T. Jayakumar
University, Menouf 32951, Egypt
jaisep1984@gmail.com
7
Department of Electronics and Communication
Khalid Sifulla Noor
Engineering, Koneru Lakshmaiah Education Foundation,
khalidsifullahpusteee180207@gmail.com
Vaddeswaram, Guntur 522502, India
Rosni Sayed
rosnisayed@gmail.com

13
Vol.:(0123456789)

Keywords Petrochemical · Effective material loss · Total
loss · Numerical aperture · Birefringence
Introduction
Terahertz frequencies, typically span from 0.1 to 10 THz,
bridges the distance across microwave and far-infrared spec-
trums. Due to its special qualities, such as its capacity for
unique interactions with matter, its non-destructive nature,
and its potential for imaging, communication, and materials
research, the THz domain is important in optics and many
other scientific and technical applications. Terahertz radia-
tion is still being investigated and used in a variety of sectors
by researchers. Furthermore, most chemical and biological
materials have a molecular resonance in the THz range. This
has caused the THz realm to catch the attention of scholars
all around globe for a number of uses, such as waveguid-
ing and sensing devices [1]. Photonic crystals are a novel
class of optical media that are represented by manufactured
or natural structures that are based on periodic modulation
of the refractive index [2]. Particularly, sensitive sensors
that possess an exceptionally extensive detecting band have
become more crucial recently for accurately determining
the concentrations of dangerous chemicals, environmental
contaminants, and biological analytes [3]. PCF can achieve
distinctive characteristics that traditional fibers cannot be
due to their intrinsic adaptability, like unlimited single-
mode dissemination, significant birefringence, great non-
linear characteristics, etc. The natural filling and modifica-
tion of materials like fluids, gases, along with alloys are
also made possible by its porous nature that has led to a
vibrant research area in the field of optical fibers and tech-
nologies. A number of PCF sensors have been suggested
thus far, like gas [4], liquid [5], biological [6], magnetic field
[7], strain [8] sensors, etc. Petrochemicals (e.g., gasoline or
diesel) have seen increased use as the vehicle industry has
grown. As a result, the lifespan of every single automobile is
impacted by the standard of the fuel that goes into them [9].
Automobile and equipment manufacturers, as well as refin-
ers, have been looking into new ways to meet the increas-
ingly stringent anti-pollution regulations. Fuel adulteration
is a major impediment to this progress [10]. Compared to
index-guided PCFs, a hollow-core PCF exhibits greater
immediate relationship with light and matter within the hol-
low channels. Recently, scientists have displayed an aptitude
in using other liquids or gases to fill holes in the core or clad-
ding [11]. Ademgil and Haxha demonstrated a liquid sensor
based on PCF with a relative sensitivity of 23.8% [12]. A
microarray-based elliptical core PCF sensor was found to
have a sensitivity of 29.5% by Asaduzzaman [13]. A hybrid
PCF technique was suggested by researchers for chemicals
detection, and a sensitivity of 49.2% was found [14]. An
13
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additional novel PCF sensor featuring a sensitivity of 53.5%
was put forward by Arif et.al [15]. Regarding liquid sensing
applications [16], Chowdhury and his colleagues suggested
a porous-core PCF sensor exhibiting a relative sensitivity of
61.5% and little CL. A 63.5 percent sensitive acid sensor got
revealed by Podder et al. [17]. In 2020, it was recommended
to develop a completely novel PCF-based biosensor with
fluid injection [18], where researchers managed to reach an
ideal sensitivity of 87% when the scientist characterized a
hollow, elliptical core comprising THz-sensing analytes, and
having a CL of ­10–4 dB/ cm. V. Kaur and S. Song created
a system with the three to four sensing rings mentioned in
the core, resulting in extremely high sensitivity, as well as a
spiraling cladding layout that traps a substantial amount of
power in the core area, lowering net confinement loss.
The suggested method, in three to four ring designs,
shows extraordinarily excellent relative sensitivity (95.40%,
93.13%) and minimum CL 7.108 × ­10–08, 2.47 × ­10–08 dB/
cm, respectively [19]. Habib et al. provided an enhanced
PCF that used a hollow rectangular core to have relative sen-
sitivities of 86%, 88%, and 89% for sensing water, benzene,
and water, respectively, at 1.7 THz [18–20]. Again research-
ers, presented a hexagonal core fiber with relative sensitivi-
ties greater than 96% and EML’s in the order of 1­ 0–3[21].
Bulbul and colleagues developed and statistically assessed
a new PCF-based fuel adulteration sensor which featured
an ultralow CL in the range of ­10–14 dB/cm and an effective
material loss in the range of 1­ 0–3 ­cm−1. The suggested sensor
detects kerosene-adulterated petrol with a relative sensitiv-
ity of 98.68–98.83% at 2.5 THz and kerosene-adulterated
diesel with a sensitivity of 98.83–98.90% at the identical
frequency [22–25]. Hossain proposed a square core design
with 97% and CL in the order of 1­ 0–14 [9]. This study intro-
duced a new rectangular core-based hybrid chemical sensor
that was used to build a sensor that could detect petrol, die-
sel, and kerosene. The suggested layout achieved maximum
relative sensitivity of 97.7% for petrol, 98.2% for diesel, and
97.01% for kerosene at the 2.2-THz ideal frequency, with
a very tiny effective material loss of 4.06 × ­10–03 ­cm−1 for
petrol, 3.62 × ­10–03 ­cm−1 for diesel, and 4.71 × ­10–03 ­cm−1
for kerosene. Furthermore, the model recommended offers a
broad spot size of 2.04 × ­10–04 µm for petrol, 2.01 × ­10–04 µm
for diesel, and 2.07 × ­10–04 µm for kerosene, as well as a
numerical aperture of 0.293 for each. Recently, researchers
are working on PCF sensor to determine the purity of petro-
chemicals. Because impure petrochemical fuel is damaging
to our environment because it emits dangerous gases that
contaminate our atmosphere and drinking water, earth soil is
also partially polluted. The application of PCF sensors in the
petrochemical industry promotes environmental preserva-
tion, process optimization, and safety. They make it possible
to identify leaks, emissions, and abnormalities in regular
operations early on, which helps to avert mishaps, reduce
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the negative effects on the environment, and guarantee the
effective production of petrochemical goods. The concept for
a petrochemical sensor comprises a simple structure with a
rectangular core with an elongated air hole at the top surface.
This THz PCF has the potential to soon become very helpful
in the fuel industry.
In our concept, we build a hybrid cladding with a rectan-
gular core PCF sensor that has a high sensitivity in sensing
petrochemicals like petrol, diesel, and kerosene. This type of
sensor can protect us from corrupted businessmen or farms
who combine high-grade petrochemical with low-grade pet-
rochemical to increase profits. This sensing device has the
potential to significantly reduce dangerous gas emissions.
This paper has introduced a photonic crystal fiber sensor
with a very high sensitivity for sensing petrol, kerosene, and
diesel than other existing sensors. Especially for diesel, we
have achieved a maximum relative sensitivity of 98.23%,
which is better than others. This sensor can sense the purity
of petrol, diesel, and kerosene more accurately, which will
revolutionize the petrochemical industry. In the future, the
use of PCF in petrochemical detection could lead to a num-
ber of exciting new research and development paths. PCFs
are suitable for sensing applications such as petrochemical
detection since they are special optical fibers with a lot of
design freedom.
Methodology
In this study, Fig. 1 depicts the geometric perspectives of the
sensor projection based on the hybrid PCF. The core region
of the HC-PCF features a rectangular-shaped air hole, which
gives better light confinement. In the cladding area, it con-
tains two rectangular air holes in the upper and lower side
of the core, which is surrounded by the air holes arranged
Fig. 1  Representation of proposed rectangular core PCF in cross sec-
tionally
in a hybrid pattern. The rectangular shape of the core offers
better light confinement compared to other shapes.
The rectangular core’s width and length are obviously
Influenced by the spacing P across the air holes. Our objec-
tive is to attain heightened relative sensitivity while minimiz-
ing confinement loss while maintaining equal divergences,
within a working region of 2.2 THz when P = 170 μm is
shown in Fig. 2. In THz regime operations, a range of poly-
mer materials such as TOPAS, ZEONEX, etc., are utilized
as fiber composition, which provide higher sensitivity and
lower confinement loss.
To enhance light confinement and simplify the fabrica-
tion process, an air-filling fraction (AFF) value of 0.95 is
employed where AFF is defined as the ratio of M to P, where
M represents the size of the air holes in the area of the clad-
ding, and “P” denotes the measurement of the space across
the air holes’ centers in close proximity. The rectangular air
hole in the core is represented by length and width, respec-
tively, as L and W, where L = 3 × P and W = P × AFF. Our
developed structures have round and elliptical air holes,
which ensures that they can be manufactured using exist-
ing sol–gel and extrusion techniques. The region of core is
occupied by three non-identical chemical fluids like petrol
(n = 1.418), kerosene (n = 1.44), and diesel (n = 1.46). The
region of cladding made of a material called TOPAS, which
enables the sensor to accomplish a high level of relative
sensitivity and lower confinement losses.
The drawing’s unfilled center reveals a tight confinement
of light, creating a fascinating composition. The relation-
ships between the transmitted field and the detected item.
This would provide an obvious indication of relative sen-
sitivity. The electric power arrangement is shown in Fig. 2
for a specific set of factor permutations. A PML boundary’s
limitation has been included into our model. PML was clas-
sified as an element based on aeolotropic permittivity and
permeability characteristics. PML is applied to the model’s
external boundary to absorb any shocks that enter. This
detector’s waveguide’s PML and outer ring are made of
Zeonex. It has numerous benefits, including a steady RI,
low EML, and high temperature rudeness. The anticipated
PCF dimension is 10% thinner than the PML’s diameter.
Results and analyses
The petrochemical substance that must be evaluated has
been stuffed at the core air hole in suggested sensor. After
testing fluid has been injected, an illumination source with a
particular frequency is turned on to send an electromagnetic
signal across the core. The COMSOL Multiphysics software
has been employed for modeling the recommended struc-
ture. The whole topology of the design is represented by a
triangular mesh. The total amount of elements is 22,052, the
13
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Fig. 2  a Power allocation for kerosene at 2.2 THz, x-polarization and y-polarization. b Power allocation for diesel at 2.2 THz, x-polarization
and y-polarization. c Power allocation for petrol at 2.2 THz, x-polarization and y-polarization

13
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minimum element quality is 0.4922, the average element
quality is 0.8295, the element area ratio is 0.02009, the mesh
area is 2.0106, and the mesh vertex count is 11,121, with
triangles 22,052, edge elements 2660, and vertex elements
260. These factors are required to comprehend sensing char-
acteristics like as sensitivity, confinement loss, EML, NA,
and effective area.
Figure 3 depicts a triangular mesh that is thought to
encapsulate the complete layout of the object. One of three
oils (such as pure fuel, kerosene, or diesel) is used as the
detecting analyte. Following that, modeling is performed
at various operation phases ranging from 1.4 to 2.8 THz.
We initially run pure petrol through the PCF sensor to
test numerous sensing parameters such as sensitivity, spot
size, effective area, EML, confinement loss, and so on.
Following that, we run kerosene and diesel through the
fiber sensor in the same manner. It is crucial to investigate
any PCF-based sensor’s THz frequency range band rela-
tive sensitivity. The precision of sensing is defined by the
sensor’s sensitivity (r). The ratio of fundamental power
(f) determines its size. Any optical fiber-based sensor’s
relative sensitivity being the primary parameter used to
assess its performance. The Beer–Lambert law stipulates
that the relative sensitivity varies proportionately as the
variation in the degree of radiation–matter coupling. A
PCF’s relative sensitivity describes how efficiently their
optical characteristics adjust to environmental modifica-
tions, especially variations in temperatures or pressure. A
PCF sensor’s relative sensitivity could change based on
its particular design, setup, and intended use. In order to
Fig. 3  Suggested hexagonal core PCF mesh visualization
ascertain a sensor’s sensitivity under varied circumstances,
engineers and scientists frequently calibrate and character-
ize them. This enables precise and trustworthy readings in
practical applications. Compared to conventional optical
fibers, PCF has a greater degree of sensitivity because of
its broad surface and tiny core diameter. Use the equation
below to get the relative of any sensor [22, 23]:
nr
r= × p% (1)
neff
whereas together with the neff, which stands for guided
mode RI, and p, which can be estimated utilizing the pro-
cedure that follows [23], n r determines the RI for each
fuel (i.e., nr = 1.418 for petrol, nr = 1.44 for kerosene, and
nr = 1.46 for diesel):
( )
∫sample Re Ex Hy − Ey Hx dxdy
p= ( ) (2)
∫total Re Ex Hy − Ey Hx dxdy
In this case, H x and H y stand in for magnetic realm
fields components along the x and y routes, whereas Ex
and Ey stand for electromagnetic field aspects in the x and
y routes. Figure 4a depicts the sensitivity contour consid-
ering pitch modification. Light confinement increases as
the pitch parameter increases (100–210 µm), reaching a
maximum at 170 µm. Figure 4b demonstrates a sensitiv-
ity graph considering variations in frequency. The recom-
mended PCF-based RI sensor has undergone computa-
tional evaluation in the 1.4–2.8 THz range. At its optimum
pitch and frequency, the sensor’s sensitivity was 97.71% in
x-pole, 97.26% in y-pole for kerosene, 98.23% in x-pole,
97.79% in y-pole for diesel, and 97.01% in x-pole, 96.50%
in y-pole for petrol. Plotting the power of optical reaction
against specimen or light enclosure reveals how it rises
with frequency and reaches a maximum at 2.2 THz. One
important parameter in PCF sensors that may be adjusted
to create particular optical characteristics and sensing abil-
ities is the air-filling fraction. It is a crucial component of
PCF fabrication and design because it enables customiza-
tion of PCF sensors to fulfill the demands of diverse appli-
cations, such as biological sensing, telecommunications,
and environmental monitoring. In Fig. 4c, we can see that
by increasing the value of Aff, the RS of the suggested
detector can be increased consistently at optimum pitch
and frequency, but there is a problem there that an exces-
sive increase in Aff causes fabrication difficulties, which
means that it increases the chance of air-hole overlapping.
That’s why the Aff is chosen 0.95 as optimum condition.
Effective material loss (EML) and confinement loss are
two distinct forms of losses that are being found for the
planned sensor. Every time light passes through the core,
13

Fig. 4  Relative sensitivity of sensing sample as a pitch at f = 2.2 THz
and b difference of frequency at preset pitch 170 µm c Aff at f = 2.2
THz and pitch = 170 µm
some light escapes and travels via the cladding’s air pas-
sages and the solid components next to its core. Confine-
ment loss can be caused by a number of things, includ-
ing as bends in the fiber, inconsistencies in the air-hole
pattern, PCF structure flaws, and interactions with other
materials that interfere with light direction. A negative
confinement loss can negatively impact PCF sensor perfor-
mance. The quantity of light available for interaction with
the sensing device or for detection at the fiber’s output
end is decreased by higher confinement loss. In sensing
applications, this may result in decreased sensitivity and
13
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Fig. 5  Confinement loss of the sensing fluid with variation in a pitch
at f = 2.2 THz and b frequency for preset pitch 170 µm
signal strength. Carefully tuned PCF designs can reduce
confinement loss. In order to enhance the confinement of
light within the core, the proper sizes, shapes, and lat-
tice structures of the air holes must be chosen. Reducing
confinement loss can also be achieved by using accurate
fabrication methods and low-loss materials. This formula
can be used to compute CL, which is the percentage of
electrical energy present in cladding air holes [24]:
40𝜋 ( ) 106 dB
Lc = img neff × (3)
ln (10)𝜆 m
In this situation, the fictitious part of EMI is designated
as Img neff, and its wavelength of operation has been iden-
tified by λ. As seen in Fig. 5a, the value of CL decreases
fast for various pitches as the pitch in µm increases Fig. 5b
exhibits an illustration of the relationship involving CL
and THz frequency. This states that when frequency and
pitch increase, the value of CL falls. In the perfect situa-
tion, CL is 1.20 × ­10−11 dB/m in x-pole, 2.65 × ­10−11 dB/m
in y-pole for kerosene, 2.46 × ­ 10 –12 dB/m in
x-pole, 2.53 × ­1 0 –12
dB/m in y-pole for diesel and
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9.25 × ­10–11 dB/m in x-pole, 2.90 × ­10–10 dB/m in y-pole

for petrol of the sensing fiber.
Understanding EML in relation to PCF sensor is essen-
tial since it has direct impact on the sensor’s functionality.
Effective material loss can impact the sensor’s performance
by reducing its sensitivity and signal-to-noise ratio. Mini-
mizing effective material loss is essential to enhance the
sensor’s efficiency and accuracy. Longer light paths within
the PCF are made possible by a decreased effective material
loss, which can improve sensing applications’ sensitivity and
signal-to-noise ratio. On the other hand, greater material
loss can restrict the sensing window and lower measure-
ment precision. In the context of a photonic crystal fiber
(PCF) sensor, “effective material loss” refers to overall loss
pf optical energy that occurs within the PCF due to various
causes such as absorption and scattering as it propagates
through the fiber. It quantifies how much optical power is
attenuated or absorbed by the PCF material and other fac-
tors like as impurities or structural flaws. The EML can be
calculated by [25]:
( )1
𝜀0 2
∫A n𝛼mat |E|2 dA
𝛼eff =
𝜇0 max (4)
2 ∫ALL Sz dA

where αmat is loss coefficient of background material and

modal electric field’s symbol is E. Figure 6a and b depicts
the variation of EML across different terahertz frequen-
cies and pitches under varied structural and operational
parameters. The following plot shows the diminishing char-
acteristics of the loss for longer cores. Zeonex`s lengthier
core’s ability to absorb power decreases as more light may
pass through it with less resistance. As previously shown,
through the core, greater-frequency radiation is consistently
severely limited. Thus, we observed in frequency increases
and EML of recommended detector lowers in Fig. 6b.
At 2.2 THz and 170 µm pitch the sensor fiber exhibits a
0.004065 ­cm−1 in x-axis and 0.012673 ­cm−1 in y-axis for
kerosene, 0.0036 ­cm−1 in x-axis and 0.01138 ­cm−1 in y-axis
for diesel, and 0.0047 ­cm−1 in x-axis and 0.0143 ­cm−1 in
y-axis for petrol EML, which is extremely low.
The effective region of the sensor fiber is being explored
for various operational settings. The entire region over
which every optical signal travels is measured as effective
area. Effective area is also the cross-sectional plane of the
fiber where the optical power is distributed. As a result of
their unique microstructure and complete inner reflection
combined with optical band gaps phenomenon, PCFs can
confine light. PCFs can have a substantially lower effective
area than standard fibers because to its confinement, making
them appropriate for an extensive variety of operations. The
formula demonstrated beneath might be used to get effective
area [23, 26]:
Fig. 6  EML of chosen sensing reagent to be a consequence of a pitch
for a preset frequency 2.2 THz and b frequency at fixed pitch 170 µm
[∫ I(r)rdr]2
Aeff = [ (5)
]2
∫ I 2 (r)rdr
where I(r) =|E|2 denotes the scattering of the electric field of
the detecting fluid. Figure 7 demonstrates the effective area
that comprises this PCF across different frequency ranges
and pitches. The greater-frequency signals is enclosed
inside the core, as illustrated in Fig. 7b, and the effective
area reduces when the operational frequency rises. Figure 7a
shows the opposite characteristics with variation in pitch. At
2.2 THz, the sensor fiber’s effective area at optimum pitch
is for kerosene 6.29 × ­10–08 ­m2 in x-pole, 6.49 × ­10–08 ­m2
in y-pole, for diesel 6.28 × ­10–08 ­m2 in x-pole, 6.34 × ­10–08
­m2 in y-pole, and for petrol 6.31 × ­10–08 ­m 2 in x-pole,
6.65 × ­10–08 ­m2 in y-pole.
The numerical aperture (NA) of a sensor, a critical regu-
lating parameter, governs the maximum acceptance angle
of an optical fiber for light that enters the sensor. It defines
the maximum angle at which light can enter or exit the fiber
while remaining correctly guided. NA has an expanse of
0.1 to 0.5 and has no units. The layout of air spaces or other
shortcomings that make up the photonic crystals latticework
as well as variations in RI between the materials used for the

13

Fig. 7  The sensing fluids’ effective area shown as function of a pitch
at a fixed frequency 2.2 THz b frequency at a fixed pitch 170 µm
core and cladding, all have an impact on a PCF’s NA. PCFs
are superior to normal fibers in terms of NA, which makes it
perfect for asymmetric optical technology, high-power lasers
emissions, and sensing. It captures lights from a wider range
of angle, which is one of the best advantages of NA. NA of
this kind of optical sensors may be determined via the fol-
lowing equation [23, 27]:
1 1
NA = √ ≈√
(6)
1+
𝜋Aeff f2
1+
𝜋Aeff
c2 𝜆2
where λ is responding wavelength, and Aeff is effective
area of sensing analyte. A higher NA suggests a PCF that
can capture and transmit more light. Higher NA PCF sen-
sors may efficiently gather light from a greater solid angle,
making them more sensitive to changes in refractive index,
temperature, or strain. Figure 8a depicts how NA responds
to pitch variations, whereas Fig. 8b illustrates how NA
responds to frequency varies. The results plainly dem-
onstrates that when pitch along with frequency increase,
numerical aperture falls in the two cases. NA of sensing
analyte is 0.293 under ideal construction conditions.
The “spot size” of a PCF sensor is the measurement of
an optic mode’s cross-sectional dimension (light distribu-
tion) inside its fiber center. It represents the area where
the majority of the strength of the guided light is concen-
trated. A PCF sensor’s spot size is affected by parameters
such as the fiber’s core size, refractive index profile, and
13
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Fig. 8  The sensing fluid’s NA shown as a function of pitch at fixed
frequency f = 2.2 THz and b at fixed pitch 170 µm
operating wavelength. The spot size in PCF sensors is
important because it controls the way the directed light
interacts with the sensing element. To optimize the inter-
action and sensitivity of the sensor, the size of the detect-
ing element or target analyte should preferably match or
overlap with the spot size. A smaller spot size suggests
a more closely confined optical mode, which can affect
sensor performance. A photonic bandgap is built by regu-
lar positioning of air holes underneath the PCF covering,
which prevents certain wavelengths from propagating.
Numerous elements, including as the fiber layout, illumi-
nation wavelengths, and the manner of functioning, have
an impact on PCF spot size. Due to the large difference in
indices between core and cladding parts, spot size in PCF
is typically smaller than that in ordinary optical fibers. The
spot size of the suggested sensor is examined last because
it is an important factor in applications requiring sensing.
A substantial spot size is preferred for sensing purposes,
and it can be determined employing a calculation as fol-
lows [23, 28]:
Weff = R × 0.65 × 1.619 × V −1.5 + 2.789 × V −6 (7)
( )
where R signifies the radius of hexagonal core and V denotes
normalized frequency value. Beyond any question, as the
frequency rises, the spot size for the sensor reduces, accord-
ing to Fig. 9b, which depicts the detecting frequency spot
size. Furthermore, if the pitch parameter increases, the spot
the sensor’s size increases as well see Fig. 9a.
J Opt
Fig. 9  The sensing analytes spot size shown as a function of pitch at
fixed frequency f = 2.2 THz and b at fixed pitch 170 µm
Here, spot size is 2.04 × ­10 –04 µm for kerosene,
2.01 × ­10–04 µm for diesel, and 2.07 × ­10–04 µm for petrol at
optimum frequency and pitch.
Birefringence in photonic crystal fiber (PCF) sensors is
the phenomena in which light moves at different speeds in
different polarization states within the fiber. This causes the
two orthogonal polarization components of light to separate
or split, resulting in different phase delays or propagation
constants for each polarization state. The recommended
PCF sensor for kerosene, diesel, and gasoline exhibits
birefringence as a result of different transmission in the
x-polarization and y-polarization paths, respectively, for a
frequency range of 1.4–2.8 THz. Figure 10 depicts the bire-
fringence for all three test analytes: kerosene, diesel, and
petrol, because of operation frequency and pitch. With rising
frequency and pitch, so does the birefringence. Kerosene has
a birefringence of 6.59 × ­10–03, diesel has a birefringence of
6.39 × ­10–03, and petrol has a birefringence of 7.20 × ­10–03.
Table 1 compares the proposed sensor layout’s efficiency
characteristics with the characteristics of already released
sensors. Considering the introduction of ever-improving
technology like 3-D printer, sol–gel interpreter, and extru-
sion technique, current production processes may readily
Fig. 10  The sensing fluids’ birefringence shown as a function of
pitch at fixed frequency f = 2.2 THz and b at fixed pitch 170 µm
manufacture the desired analyte design. A complex mold
may be produced by a 3-D printer and then evacuated using
an extrusion method [26, 27]. Though extrusion is capable
of constructing almost any structure and due to the ability to
alter the dimension, location, and structure of the air holes in
it, sol–gel technique allows for greater aesthetic versatility.
Conclusion
This study constructs and models a rectangular core-based RI
sensor for petrochemical identification using COMSOL Mul-
tiphysics. To absorb radiation released by the PCF, a PML
was used. Neither a terahertz waveguide nor a terahertz-based
chemical sensor have ever been reported for use, as far as we
are aware. A quick overview of terahertz technology and a few
terahertz waveguides are also included in this chapter. The
sensing and guiding properties of a number of THz sensors
are outlined mathematically and graphically for the readers’
advantage. The results show that at 2.2 THz frequency and
170 µm pitch, the sensitivity is 97.71% in x-pole, 97.26%
in y-pole for kerosene, 98.23% in x-pole, 97.79% in y-pole
for diesel, and 97.01% in x-pole, 96.50% in y-pole for pet-
rol, with a least EML for kerosene 0.004065 ­cm−1 in x-pole,
0.0126 ­cm−1 in y-pole, for diesel 0.0036 ­cm−1 in x-pole,
0.0113 ­cm−1 in y-pole, and for petrol 0.00471 ­cm−1 in x-pole,
0.0143 ­cm−1 in y-pole, a CL of 1.20 × ­10−11 dB/m in x-pole,
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 J Opt

Table 1  Recommended sensor design’s performance features are compared with those of already available sensors

References PCF’s design Frequency Sensitivity (%) CL (db/m) EML(cm−1) NA

PCF [24] Single rectangular core f = 2.8 THz 89 10–8 0.022 ­cm−1 0.36
PCF [28] Heptagonal core, rotated hexacore f = 1 THz 69.20 2.13 × ­10–9 – –
PCF [29] Hexahedron core, circular cladding f = 1 THz 86.60 6.11 × ­10–8 – –
PCF [30] Air-hole cladding f = 1.5 THz 92.14 2.308 × ­10–08 – –
PCF [31] Elliptical core, rectangular cladding f = 2.8THz 80.30 – – 0.034
PCF [32] Circular cladding, elliptical core f = 1.2THz (0.8 µm) 93.3 9 .80 × ­10–13 – –
PCF [33] Hexagonal arrangement circular air hole, Wavelength, 49.3 5.583 × ­10–5 – –
Circular core 1.3 µm
PCF [34] Air-hole cladding, Elliptical core Wavelength 62.60 (water) 1.63 × ­10–7 – –
1.3 µm 65.34 (ethanol) 3.55 × ­10–8
74.50 (benzene) 6.76 × ­10–11
This PCF Rectangular core, circular cladding f = 2.2 THz 97.7 (kerosene) 1.209 × ­10–11 0.004 0.293
98.23 (diesel) 2.46 × ­10–12 0.0036
97.01 (petrol) 9.25 × ­10–11 0.00471

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