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Chemical Composition of Cells

organic compounds: compounds that contain carbon atoms covalently bonded to oxygen, hydrogen,
nitrogen, sulfur or phosphorous.
Large organic molecules (macromolecules) (polymers) molecules consisting of small molecules
(monomers) joined in a set sequence.

Polymer Proteins Starch/glycogen/cellulose Nucleic acids carbohydrates

monomers amino acids glucose nucleotides monosaccharides

**Nucleotides: pentose sugar and phosphate group and nitrogen bases

**Fats and oils are not polymers, but contain glycerol and fatty acids.

1) Carbohydrates (CH2O)
the carbohydrates can be monomer or polymer
a) Monosaccharides: consist of simple sugars (the simplest class of
carbohydrates) (Ex: glucose , galactose , fructose )
b) Disaccharides: are double sugars, consisting of two monosaccharaides joined
by a covalent bond (Ex: sucrose , lactose , maltose)
c) Polysaccharides: composed of many sugar building blocks and they are
considered as a macromolecules (Ex: starch , cellulose , glycogen)

depending on the location of the carbonyl group, monosaccharides classified:

Glucose + Glucose
a) Aldose (aldehyde sugar) Maltose
b) ketose (ketone sugar) Sucrose Glucose + Fructose
Lactose Galactose + Glucose

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2) Lipids

**they are generally not big enough to be considered macromolecules

**Lipids share an important trait >> they are hydrophobic

**they consist mostly of hydrocarbons >> which form non-polar covalent bonds

**There are 3 types of lipids that are most biologically important:

1- fats --- 2- phospholipids --- 3- steroids

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1-Fats: (triacylglycerol or triglyceride) is constructed from 2 kinds of smaller molecules:

Glycerol (1) --- - fatty acids (3)

2- phospholipids:
Glycerol (1) --- - fatty acids (2) ----phosphate group (1)

3- steroids : four fused rings

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3) Proteins :
Proteins are constructed from the same set of 20 amino acids
The bond between amino acids is called a peptide bond
Polypeptides range in length from a few amino acids to a
thousand or more

Each specific polypeptide has linear sequence of amino acids

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4) vitamins: Vitamins are complex chemical compounds of high molecular weight that are
essential to normal growth and health maintenance. For example: vitamin C (ascorbic acid)
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Reagents: chemicals will be used to test for the presence of these molecules.

Principle of reagent: If a color change is observed, the test is positive, indicating that a
particular molecule is present. If color change is not observed, the test is negative, and the
molecule is not present.

For carbohydrates :

A- Benedict Test for Reducing Sugars (copper sulfate in sodium hydroxide solution) (blue)
** Carbohydrates are classified as reducing and non-reducing sugars.
** The reducing sugars contain free aldehyde or free ketone groups
** The non-reducing sugars have aldehyde or ketone groups either bound to other groups or
are modified.

Note: all monosaccharides and all disaccharides (except sucrose) regard as reducing sugar.

Principle of benedict
oxidizes aldehyde or ketone groups by reducing copper from (Cu+2 + to Cu+ ) forming a red
precipitate, Cu2O.
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the test shows the amount of reducing sugar present in the solution. A reaction with a small amount of
reducing sugar turns the solution green. A solution with a large amount of reducing sugar will give red-
orange color.

Green  yellow  orange  red (according to the increasing of the amount of reducing sugar)

Chemical reaction between reducing sugar and Benedict reagent:

Glucose + CuSo4 → Gluconic acid + Cu2O

(red ppt)

Tube Substances Reagent Result Conclusion

A 5% glucose Benedict Positive – color change Reducing sugar

**Always shakes the starch solution before use.

**We use a boiling water with benedict. In all steps
**we use HCL to convert sucrose into monosaccharides
**we use NaOH to neutralize HCL

B- Lugol's Test (IKI) For Starch (Iodine Test): ( )

** The test is used to distinguish starch from Mono-, di-, and other polysaccharides.
** Starch is a polymer of glucose in which the chains are coiled up in a particular way so
it can interact with iodine molecules in Lugol's solution to give a distinctive.
** we don’t use boiling with IKI

Starch + IKI Blue-black

Cellulose + IKI Violet brown to red brown
Glucose + IKI Red color

Tube Substances Reagent Result Conclusion

A 5% glucose Lugol's Negative-no color change No starch present

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For lipids we use Emulsification

Emulsification: is the mechanical breakdown and dispersal of large globules into smaller droplets.
** This process is important to some vital processes like fat digestion.
** An emulsifier contains molecules with polar and nonpolar ends. When the nonpolar ends are attached
to the nonpolar fat, the polar ends are exposed. Since the polar ends are soluble in water, the fat is
dispersed.
** For example bile salts that secreted from the liver are composed of the salts of 4 different kinds of free
bile acids facilitate formation of micelles processing of dietary fat.
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For proteins we use:

A. Ninhydrin Test:

Ninhydrin is a reagent that reacts with free amino groups (-NH2) of an amino acid or a protein.

Ninhydrin + proteins (except proline) Blue purple

Ninhydrin + amino acids Purple (because increasing number of free amino group)

** we use boiling with ninhydrin test.

B. Biuret Test: (blue color)

Biuret reagent contains a strong solution of sodium or potassium hydroxide (NaOH or KOH) and a very
small amount of very dilute copper sulfate (CuSO4) solution. The reagent changes color in the presence of
a protein and peptides, because the amino group complexes with the copper ions.

Biuret + protein Violet color

Biuret + polypeptides Pink or rose

** to Make solution alkaline we adding sodium hydroxide (NaOH).

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For vitamins : we use indophenol reagent

Indophenol + ascorbic acid (vitamin c) Fading blue

Indophenol - ascorbic acid (vitamin c) Dark blue

** The number of droplets of the compound is directly proportional to the concentration of

vitamin C.
** lemon > orange > tomato
** color of indophenol change into pink pr the same or juice or colorless

1- What is the purpose of the test tube containing distilled water in each test?

 because the distilled water is control negative always.

2- Why is glucose called a reducing sugar?

a) Because it contains a free aldehyde group

b) because the glucose has a free anomeric carbon in the end of ring
c) because it capable to forming one in solution through isomerism
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For carbohydrates :

Benedict Blue

Starch + IKI Blue-black

Lugol’s (IKI) Cellulose + IKI Violet brown to red brown
Glucose + IKI Red color / brown

For proteins :

Ninhydrin + proteins Blue purple

ninhydrin (except proline)
Ninhydrin + amino Purple (because increasing number of free amino group)
acids

Biuret Biuret + protein Violet color

Biuret + polypeptides Pink or rose

For vitamins:

Indophenol + ascorbic acid (vitamin c) Fading blue

Indophenol - ascorbic acid (vitamin c) Dark blue