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 Chapter 7

Formation Damage and Permeability Impairment

Associated with Chemical and Thermal
Treatments: Future Challenges in EOR
Applications

Asep Kurnia Permadi, Madi A. Naser, Leksono Mucharam, Sudjati Rachmat

Institut Teknologi Bandung

Atsushi Kishita
Tohoku University, Japan

ABSTRACT
Enhanced oil recovery (EOR) refers to any reservoir process used to change the existing
rock/oil/brine interactions in the reservoir in order to increase the oil recovery (Sheng,
2011). The two most common EOR methods that have been widely applied in the
petroleum industry are perhaps chemical and thermal floods. However, the economic
production of oil reservoirs with the application of one of those recovery methods has
been challenged by damages and resulting permeability impairments in the formation
surrounding the wells because of the injected chemical or a very high temperature
environment. In the future, such EOR economics will require an in-depth understanding
and considerations of the specific mechanisms of formation damage which are unique to
the type of the EOR methods applied.

This chapter presents a brief description of some of the dominant mechanisms of

permeability impairment which may occur in low API-gravity oil-producing zones. These
include chemically and thermally induced formation damages which production and
reservoir engineers, as well as geologists and geophysicists, should be aware of when
planning exploitation programs for oil plays.

1. INTRODUCTION
Damage is anything that obstructs the normal flow of fluids into the well and then
to the surface. It may appear in the formations, perforations, lift system, tubulars, or as
restrictions along the flow path. Formation damage specifically refers to obstructions in the
near-wellbore region of the rock matrix. Correctly identifying an obstruction to the flow is

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critical to its successful removal. The type of fluid used in a treatment often depends on the
damage being addressed. Acids can be used when plugging is a problem, but solvents are
used for organic deposits. In sandstone reservoirs, knowing the damage mechanism is
especially important because the damage must be removed to regain matrix permeability.
In carbonate rocks, damage identification is less critical because new flow channels are
created to bypass the damage. Not all types of damage require a removal treatment. Some
types will clean up during production. Some production impairments are misconstrued as
damage when they are actually the result of poor well design and can be remedied with
operational changes. Although a matrix treatment focuses on treating the rock matrix, the
chemicals can also treat damage in the wellbore tubulars or in the gravel pack.
Currently, more operating companies are focusing on the exploitation of
increasingly challenging oil and gas reservoirs in tighter, deeper, and more depleted
conditions. Disappointing production or injection results from an oil or gas well can be
related to a number of factors which may be difficult to diagnose. Some of these may
center on poor inherent natural reservoir quality characteristics, others on mechanical
considerations surrounding the condition and type of the wellbore obtained, and still
others under the nebulous catch-all of “formation damage” which often (and sometimes
unjustly) absorbs the majority of the blame for the poor results of many projects including
enhanced oil recovery (EOR).
A new definition of EOR has been recently proposed by Sheng (2011). He proposed
that EOR should refer to any reservoir process which changes the existing rock/oil/brine
interactions in the reservoir. It has often been found that the application of EOR through
such processes may result in damages and permeability impairments in the formation
surrounding the wells. Formation damage in oil and gas wells resulting from the application
of EOR, especially in chemical and thermal driven operations, is difficult to quantify in many
cases. This is due to the inability of reservoir engineers to retrieve exact samples and
conduct detailed measurements on the area of interest. The samples are usually
represented by a volume of rock surrounding the wellbore that is generally several
thousand meters below the surface of the earth.
However, ongoing research over the years has led to the development of a variety
of techniques which allow the use of available information to obtain a much better
indication of the type and degree of damage to which different reservoirs may be sensitive,
and therefore, operating practices can be adjusted to attempt to minimize or reduce these
permeability reducing factors (Bennion, 2002). This would include information obtained
from data such as production and pressure data, pressure transient test data, log data,
fluid and PVT data, core and special core data, and cuttings data. On the other hand, there
has been substantial research conducted to understand the mechanisms of formation
damage caused by chemical and thermal EOR applications. The studies involving ample
interdisciplinary knowledge and expertise have been carried out especially for
understanding of the processes via laboratory and field testing (Civan, 2000).

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 Formation damage is typically categorized as either natural or induced. Natural
damages occur primarily as a result of producing reservoir fluids. Induced damages result
from an external operation performed on the well, such as drilling, well completion, repair,
stimulation treatment, or an injection operation. In addition, some induced damages,
completion operations or design problems can also trigger natural damage mechanisms.
Natural damages include fines migration, swelling clays, water-formed scales, organic
deposits, like paraffins or asphaltenes, and mixed organic and inorganic deposits. Induced
damages include plugging, caused by entrained particles such as solids or polymers in
injected fluids; wettability changes, caused by injected fluids or oil-base drilling fluids;
emulsions, precipitates or sludges, caused by acid reactions, bacteria and water blocks. In
the case of applying EOR methods, major formation damage mechanisms may be divided
into two major categories. Considering the most common EOR methods, these are
chemically-induced formation damage and thermally-induced formation damage (Bennion,
2002; Civan, 2000).
The following sections summarize some of the common mechanisms of formation
damage which should be considered, especially when completing heavy oil reservoirs. A
general overview of many of the potential types of formation damage which production
and reservoir engineers, as well as geologists and geophysicists, should be aware of when
planning exploitation programs for oil plays is presented. They also overview the potential
techniques that may be considered as attempts to reduce or eliminate some of the
concerns associated with these particular formation damage mechanisms. Technology
exists in numerous situations to allow an accurate determination of the types of damage to
which a given reservoir is susceptible. These techniques have been, and still will be,
potential as topics for future research in the related areas.

2. CHEMICALLY-INDUCED FORMATION DAMAGE

Formation damage can occur in oil and gas wells during drilling, completion, and
following chemical and thermal treatments. It adversely impacts well performance and
significantly affects the economics of damaged wells. It is essential to understand the
various mechanisms of formation damage after applying chemical treatments and how to
identify field problems and then how to solve them. It is important to understand how
cleaning fluids will interact with the formation brines, rock, and oil. Improper design of
chemical treatments can result in a new and more difficult type of damage to remove.
Chemically-induced formation damage mechanisms would fall into three broad
classifications (Bennion, 2002; Civan, 2000):
1. Adverse rock-fluid interactions:
a) Clay swelling
b) Clay deflocculating
c) Chemical adsorption (polymer, ionic)
d) Formation dissolution
2. Adverse fluid-fluid interactions:

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 a) Paraffins and waxes
b) Emulsions
c) Solids (asphaltenes, precipitates, scales, hydrates, diamondoids)
3. Wettability alterations in the near-wellbore region.

2.1 Adverse Rock-Fluid Interactions

2.1.a Clay Swelling
Clay swelling has long been recognized as one of the major causes for formation
damage in hydrocarbon reservoirs. In conventional oil production, most of the clay-related
problems occur in the near well region and are associated with well operations (drilling,
completion, workover, etc.). In the case of EOR, the potential of formation damage is much
greater because incompatible injection fluids often cause clay swelling or fines migration;
therefore impairing the formation permeability. Even formations which do not contain
smectite can have smectite-related formation damage because smectite clays can be
synthesized through mineral/fluid reactions during thermal recovery (Gunter et al., 1988;
Gunter et al., 1994).
The effect of clay swelling on reservoir quality is usually characterized through
coreflood experiments. In coreflood experiments, a decrease in permeability (or an
increase in injection pressure) is used as a measure of formation damage. However,
coreflood experiments require a relatively large amount of materials (core plugs) and are
time consuming. In addition, the cause of formation damage may not be completely
resolved by coreflood tests because the permeability damage cannot only be a result of
clay swelling but also of other mechanisms e.g. fines migration and mineral growth (Reed,
1968; Sydansk, 1984; Amaefule et al., 1984).
Zhihong et al. (1997) has provided an excellent review on this subject by using an
X-ray diffraction (XRD) method for a clay swelling study. The information can be
represented by a set of swelling diagrams in which the solution composition responsible for
osmotic swelling and formation damage is delineated. The swelling diagram can be used to
determine the compatibility between shale and drilling fluids, between swelling clays and
drilling filtrate or completion fluids, and between swelling clays and flooding fluids used in
EOR. The effects of temperature and pressure on clay swelling have also been quantified
using this method. Temperature and fluid pressure (p o – pf) have a significant effect on clay
swelling. In this case, the greater the differential pressure, the less the clay swells (Zhihong
et al., 1997; Zhou, 1995).
The classic mechanism of formation damage involves the interaction and
hydration of hydrophilic materials such as smectite or mixed layer clays reacting with fresh
or low salinity water. The expansion and sloughing of these clays can cause severe
reductions in permeability depending on the amount and location of the clay in the pore
system. Figure 7.1 illustrates the phenomenon of clay swelling. The problem is especially
severe if the clay is lining the pore throats since only a small amount of expansion can
result in a very large reduction in permeability in this configuration. High salinity fluids,

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glycols, cationic polymers and amines, and other inhibitors are often used to maintain clays
of this type in a contracted or dehydrated state (Krueger, 1988).

Figure 7.1 - Expansion of swelling clays (After Bennion et al., 1995).

2.1.b Clay Deflocculating

Another potentially significant damaging mechanism of permeability impairment
in unconsolidated sandstone reservoirs containing heavy oils is clay deflocculation.
Formation clays respond to inadequate salinity waters by swelling or deflocculating. Both
mechanisms cause clay particle release, entrainment, and then particle entrapment; thus,
reducing the permeability of the formation. Many studies have evidenced the existence of
a critical salt concentration below which a drastic decrease of permeability occurs. Two
important parameters have been widely studied i.e. salinity and nature of the salt (Kia et
al., 1987).
On the other hand, it is well-known that divalent cations are generally more
effective than monovalent cations in flocculating clays. However, among the monovalent
cations, potassium has a particular status and is considered to have properties equivalent
to those attributed to calcium. It follows that in order to explain permeability damage, both
factors, total salinity and nature of salts, must be considered together; consequently,
simple rules are difficult to establish to predict rock/fluid compatibility with petroleum
brines containing cations with opposite effects (Vaidya et al., 1990).
It has been observed that the permeability of an initially brine saturated core is
abruptly reduced when the brine flow is switched rapidly to a low salinity brine. In fact, it
has been shown that permeability reduction after a water shock is due to an ion exchange
process involving surface cations and the protons in water. This ion exchange mechanism
can predict and explain the permeability observations (Souto, 1994; Souto et al., 1993).
Such an effect of exchangeable cations is more general. Previous researchers have pointed
out the effect of the nature of the brine composition and the exchangeable cations on the

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permeability (Dahab et al., 1989). But, very few studies take into account simultaneously
the dynamic process of flow and chemical reaction (Sayegh et al., 1990; Scheuerman et al.,
1990). From these points of view, however, it follows that permeability reduction cannot
be interpreted without knowing the transient water composition resulting from ion
exchange together with the flocculating properties of the cations towards the rock
minerals; the detrimental permeability effects can be avoided by adjusting the water
compositions (Brigitte et al., 1994).
Clay deflocculation is less understood but often a more common occurrence than
clay swelling and represents a disruption of electrostatic bonds which are holding the clays
together in a bound or flocculated state. Clay deflocculation is caused by a disruption of the
electrostatic forces holding the surfaces of individual clay units that are attracted to each
other as well as the walls of the pore system in a bunched or “flocculated” state. A rapid
salinity shock, change in divalent ion concentration from high to low, or rapid transitions in
pH (generally to a more caustic state) can all induce deflocculation. Kaolinite is an example
of non-water sensitive clay which can be deflocculated under certain situations.
Deflocculation is inhibited by avoiding cationic and pH shocks as it is schematically
illustrated in the following Figure 7.2 (Bennion, 2002; Bennion et al., 1995; Bennion et al.,
1994).

Figure 7.2 - Clay deflocculation (After Bennion et al., 1995).

2.1.c Chemical Adsorption

Polymers and other high molecular weight materials present in some fluids may
become bound or adsorbed on the surface of the formation matrix and clays, and by virtue
of their large molecular size, cause restrictions in flow area and hence permeability. This is
especially a problem in lower quality formations as illustrated in Figure 7.3. Oxidants, such

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as sodium hypochlorite or enzyme solutions specifically tailored to attack a given polymer
substrate, are commonly used to reduce and desorb the polymer in these types of
situations (Bennion, 2002; Bennion et al., 1995).

Figure 7.3 - Illustration of polymer adsorption effects in low and

high permeability porous media (After Bennion, 2002).

2.1.d Formation Dissolution

Certain formation components (halite, various shales, anhydrite, etc.) may have
limited to high solubility in water-based fluids. This can result in poor gauge hole formation
washouts or collapse in certain conditions as well as the release of mobile and potentially
damaging fines. Oil-based fluids, inhibited fluids, or saturated ionic systems are often used
to combat these issues (Bennion, 2002).

2.2 Adverse Fluid-Fluid Interactions

2.2.a Paraffins and Waxes
Many heavy crude oils contain a high concentration of asphaltene. This may not
necessarily be a significant problem if the asphaltenes are peptized (suspended or
solubilized in the crude oils). It is only when the asphaltenes are destabilized and flocculate
from solution as solid bodies that significant reductions in both in-situ permeability and
plugging in surface production and treating equipment may become problematic.
Asphaltenes are typically destabilized by reductions in temperature and pressure or by
contact with precipitative agents such as unsequestered hydrochloric acid or a variety of
organic materials, such as non-compatible oils or diesels, or gaseous treating agents, such
as LPG or carbon dioxide gas. Most heavy crude oils do not naturally destabilize
asphaltenes with normal reductions in temperature or pressure but may be fairly
susceptible to the formation of asphaltic sludge when contacted with some of the
aforementioned precipitative agents (Bennion et al., 1995).

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 Therefore, before any type of acidization or chemical stimulation treatment is
attempted, it is usually advisable to conduct extensive compatibility tests to ensure that
the formation of either asphaltic-based sludge or emulsions does not occur in-situ upon
contact with the potential stimulation or treating fluid. Paraffins are more problematic in
some situations with heavy oils and are generally controlled by reductions in temperature.
In many situations, paraffin problems tend to be more of a production issue rather than a
downhole issue. Generally, at reservoir temperature conditions the temperature remains
sufficiently high enough to inhibit the formation of crystalline waxes.
Detailed cloud and pour point measurements can be undertaken on produced
heavy crudes to ascertain the precipitation characteristics of the crudes. In addition, solid
hydrocarbon analysis to quantify the fraction of white versus black wax can be undertaken
to ascertain whether wax treatments are better accomplished using thermal or chemical
suppression treatment methods. Thomas et al. (1966) and Zhou et al. (1996) provide
additional insight into the methods of the prediction and mitigation of problems associated
with solids precipitation in porous media.
Many oils exhibit low “cloud point” temperatures which can result in the
precipitation of crystalline in non-alkane based solid hydrocarbons, or “waxes,” from
solution in the oil. These solids can result in the formation of bridging plugs of paraffin at or
near the perforations (common in high drawdown elevated GOR wells due to localized
cooling near the perforations because of Joule-Thompson expansion effects) as well as in
tubing and surface equipment. Often treated with solvents, diluents, heat, or crystal
inhibitors, wax deposition can be extremely damaging in many situations. Although wax
deposition tends to be reversible with the application of heat, generally a much higher
temperature level is required than the original level at which the paraffin precipitated to
fully drive it back into solution in the reservoir oil (Krueger, 1988; Hayatdavoudi et al.,
1996; Hammani et al., 1997).

2.2.b Emulsions
Emulsions often occur in oilfield operations. Emulsions are a problem associated
with many heavy oil operations where both oil and water are simultaneously being
produced. With the formation of emulsions in-situ at elevated temperatures in porous
media with respect to water and oil emulsions, two different types of emulsions are
possible: the water-in-oil emulsion, which tends to be the most problematic as it exhibits
very high apparent viscosity in comparison to clean oil, and the less problematic oil-in-
water emulsion. The water-in-oil emulsions are generated by a number of documented
phenomena including turbulence, the presence of sand, silt or dispersed fines, paraffins,
iron sulphide, asphaltenes and resins, a variety of organic acids, and cyclic and aromatic
hydrocarbon compounds (Bennion et al., 1993).
The major problem associated with the formation of water-in-oil emulsions is the
extremely high viscosity exhibited by these fluids. Over four orders of magnitude increases
in viscosity caused by the generation of stable water-and-oil emulsions have been

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documented in the literature. Some examples in recent laboratory evaluations illustrated
produced emulsion from Battrum area firefloods with reservoir temperature viscosities in
the range of approximately 35,000 mPa.s in comparison to clean oil viscosities from the
same field of 190 mPa.s. The formation of emulsions downhole results in the generation of
a high viscosity block which can impair fluid flow towards the wellbore. Research generally
indicates that although emulsions do tend to form in-situ in porous media, the majority of
the extremely tight and highly viscous emulsions that are often encountered on surfaces
appear to be generated in downhole pumping and surface transfer equipment (Bennion et
al., 1995).
A variety of potential agents may result in the formation of stable in-situ
emulsions. One of these agents is hydrochloric acid which, in a spent form, particularly in
the presence of high concentrations of acid, can spontaneously emulsify with many heavy
oils to generate extremely viscous emulsions which may result in a temporary or
permanent blocking effect in the near wellbore region.
The most common type of problematic emulsion is the “water internal emulsion”
in which small droplets of water are encapsulated in a continuous external oil phase as
shown schematically in Figure 7.4. These types of emulsions can exhibit very high viscosity
(up to 2 – 4 orders of magnitude above clean, non-emulsified oil); consequently, the
formation of permeability-inhibiting “emulsion block” may result. Poorly designed spent
acids are a common offender in this area. “Foamy oil” would also fall into the category of a
stabilized emulsion where the oil forms the external phase and small bubbles of trapped
gas from the internal phase. Usually associated with high viscosity “heavy” oils, these fluids
have been documented to have viscosities substantially higher than non-foamy fluids
(Bennion, 2002).

Figure 7.4 - Water-oil emulsion types (After Bennion, 2002).

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2.2.c Solids
Solids invasion is a common occurrence which happens during overbalanced
drilling and completion operations due to the fact that the hydrostatic pressure in the
circulating fluid system is usually greater than the formation pressure. The relatively high
permeability of most low API producing gravity oil horizons results in relatively large pore
throats and a significant propensity for the physical invasion of both artificial solids (i.e.
weighting agents, fluid loss control agents, or artificial bridging agents) or naturally
occurring drill solids (silicate, carbonate, dolomite or other formation fines) into the
formation.

Figure 7.5 - Mechanism of solids entrainment in most heavy oil applications

(After Bennion et al., 1995).

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 In general, many laboratory and field studies indicate that this particular
mechanism of formation damage in many openhole horizontal wells, which have been
completed in low API producing reservoirs, plays a significant role in reducing productivity.
This problem can be obviated in many situations by the appropriate design of a fluid
system with the appropriate size distribution of granular bridging agents to create an
effective, sealing, impermeable filter cake very rapidly upon the face of the formation,
thereby inhibiting continual losses of small solids and potentially damaging fluid filtrate
into the formation. A variety of bridging agents are available for this purpose including
calcium carbonate, oil soluble resins, cellulosic materials, sized salt, etc. If permanent
entrainment of the bridging agent does occur, an acceptable stimulation technique is
available to remove the bridging agent without damaging the formation. This phenomenon
is further illustrated in Figure 7.5 which shows the mechanism of solids entrainment into
homogeneous matrix type systems, which are commonly encountered in most heavy oil
applications (Bennion et al., 1995).
Another potential mechanism of permeability impairment associated with solids
entrainment can occur during water injection or water disposal operations in heavy oil
applications. Strict filtration criteria must be maintained in order to avoid long-term
plugging of the sand face by suspended solids. This phenomenon is illustrated in Figure 7.6.
The additional criteria, with respect to water filtration and water quality concerns, are
associated with water injection and disposal operations. General screening criteria suggests
that the long-term buildup of an external stable filter cake, which causes significant
reductions in permeability during water injection, can be avoided by ensuring that the
injection water is filtered to a size distribution of particulates of less than approximately
20% of the median pore throat size diameter of the target formation.

Figure 7.6 - Mechanism of Suspended Solids Entrainment

(After Bennion et al., 1995).

A wide range of organic and inorganic solids may also precipitate from reservoir
fluids and result in plugging difficulties in downhole, tubing, surface, or injection

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equipment. Organic solids would include materials, such as asphaltenes, which are high
molecular weight organics that can be precipitated from oils by reductions in temperature
or pressure, or generated by contact with incompatible oils, acids or alcohols.
Diamondoids, which are the gas reservoir equivalent of asphaltenes, hydrates, and
elemental sulfur, are another solid species which may precipitate from gases or oils
(Minnssieux et al., 1997; Piro et al., 1996). Also, a wide range of inorganic solids and scales
can be formed by mixing incompatible waters, or by changes in temperature, pressure, and
pH of a given formation water stream which is being injected or produced. Scales may be of
an acid soluble (calcite) or insoluble (gyp) nature, and can be toxic and radioactive in
certain situations. A wide range of chemical inhibitors and solvents are available for various
types of solids precipitation problems, and the selection of the proper handling technique
for a given reservoir often tends to be very situation specific (Minnssieux et al., 1997;
Jordan et al., 1995; Crowe et al., 1994).

2.3 Wettability Alterations

Many additives to oilfield fluids, particularly surfactants, deformers, corrosion
inhibitors, and some biocides, have polar adsorptive tendencies which may cause them to
establish an oil wetting condition in the region of the reservoir which they invade. Figure
7.7 illustrates the phenomenon of formation wettability alteration. The water-wet rock,
due to surface frictional drag effects associated with the motion of the water phase, tends
to have fairly low end-point relative permeability. If a rock is oil-wet, then the water can
move easily through the central portion of the pore system and effective end-point relative
permeability and water mobility are often much higher. If a formation is initially water-wet,
then transition to an oil-wet condition is a kind of semi-permeable membrane around the
wellbore which tends to hold the oil back and preferentially lets the water through (Sharma
et al., 1985; Ballard et al., 1987; Cuiec et al., 1989).

Figure 7.7 - Effect of a near wellbore wettability alteration for water-wet producing well
(After Bennion, 2002).

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 This kind of wettability alteration may result in an undesirable increase in
producing water-oil ratio if mobile water saturation is present in the matrix. Although this
phenomenon is generally undesirable for a water-wet producing well, there may be cases
where a deliberate wettability alteration is performed to increase water injectivity in a
water-wet injection well. This is illustrated in Figure 7.8. Modification of the wettability
around the injection well (by surfactant or organosilane treatment, for example) may
create a zone of enhanced water phase permeability in the near wellbore region, which
may allow significantly higher water injection rates at an equivalent injection pressure
level. This is a common treatment in low permeability sandstone injection wells. Alteration
of wettability to a more oil-wet state in a water injection and disposal well may also have
the benefit of isolating reactive and migratable clay in a non-mobile hydrocarbon phase.
This may reduce problems significantly with clay reactions and migration in the near
wellbore area as illustrated in Figure 7.9 (Bennion, 2002; Bennion et al., 1989; Sanner et al.,
1994; Bennion et al., 1995).

Figure 7.8 - Effect of a wettability alteration to a more oil-wet state

to improve water phase injectivity (After Bennion, 2002).

Figure 7.9 - Wettability effects on clay reactivity

(After Bennion, 2002).

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3. THERMALLY-INDUCED FORMATION DAMAGE
Thermally-induced formation damage is a family of potential damages caused by
mechanisms that are unique to the production of heavy oil reservoirs by thermal EOR
methods including hot water, steam, and in-situ combustion. The nature of mechanisms of
thermally-induced formation damage would fall into the following classifications (Civan,
2000):
1. Mineral transformations
2. Solubilization and precipitation (dissolution)
3. Wettability changes
4. Reduction in absolute permeability
5. Thermal degradation.

3.1 Mineral Transformations

Mineral transformation can be a particular problem in reservoirs which contain a
substantive amount of in-situ clay. Many reservoir systems are evaluated prior to testing
for the presence of smectite clay. Smectite clay structures are such that due to an uneven
charge distribution, layers of fresh water can readily substitute themselves between clay
crystals causing an expansion of the clay structure as illustrated in Figure 7.10. When fully
hydrated, a smectite clay crystal can almost double in size from 9.2 Angstroms to over 17
Angstroms (Bennion et al., 1992). Obviously, if smectite clay is present in the matrix of a
reservoir rock, sensitivity to fresh low salinity injected water may be a potential mechanism
for formation damage. This problem is often overcome in regular waterflood operations by
increasing the ionic strength or divalent ion concentration in the injected water stream.
This causes the substitution of a smaller mineral ion in the clay structure in lieu of water.
This results in clay stabilization and the exclusion of the water from the clay matrix
(Scheuerman et al., 1990).
Many reservoirs also contain what would normally be classified as non-swelling
clays. These clays would include materials such as kaolinite, illite and chlorite. Clays of this
type generally exhibit balanced charges and hence are not susceptible to swelling, although
they may exhibit deflocculative or migrative tendencies. The potential for mineral
transformation in high temperature thermal operations occurs when relatively inert
kaolinite clay is transformed into fresh water sensitive smectite clay (Gruesbeck et al.,
1979; Hutcheon et al., 1989).
The transformation from inert kaolinite clay to smectitic clay is induced by the
temperature-induced solubility of quartz in the water phase and the pressure of Ca, Mg, or
Fe in the injection fluid from direct injection or solubilization of carbonate/dolomite
cementing materials. The fluid, which is in contact with the resulting newly formed swelling
clay, is fresh steam condensate since the steam condensate into the smectite structure
causes the clay to swell and reduce permeability. This phenomenon has been well
documented by various authors (Abercromble, 1989; Perry et al., 1979). Generally, at
temperatures in excess of approximately 200°C, the potential for mineral transformations

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is present. This occurs when relatively inert clay such as kaolinite is transformed into fresh
water sensitive clay such as smectite. This reaction has also been well documented by
various authors (Hutcheon et al., 1989; Bennion et al., 1995; Bennion, 2002). Subsequent
contact of fresh steam condensate with the newly transformed fresh water reactive clay
can result in significant swelling and expansion and large reductions in apparent
permeability of the pore system (non-reactive clay species may be catalyzed and form
hydratable reactive products which may swell, desegregate, and reduce permeability). This
phenomenon has been widely encountered in many thermal operations throughout the
world (Bennion, 2002).

Figure 7.10 - The concept of mineral transformation.

3.2 Solubilization and Precipitation (Dissolution)

The following Figure 7.11 illustrates the phenomenon of mineral dissolution.
Damage from mineral dissolution can take two forms:
1. Damaging reprecipitation of the solubilized mineral either as the reservoir cools or as
the saturated hot water phase cools as it moves deeper into the formation.
2. Often clasts of soluble material will contain encapsulated insoluble fines. As the high
temperature injection water dissolves the soluble material, the non-soluble
encapsulated fines are released where they then migrate into the flowing fluid stream.
If a sufficient size, these fines can bridge and plug pore throats (Bennion et al., 1992).

The potential mechanism of thermally-induced damage is that the solubility of

both carbonates and silica increases in an aqueous solution as temperature elevates. This
can result in the dissolution of portions of the formation. This can have a two-fold effect.
Firstly, the dissolution may dissolve partially soluble clasts of carbonaceous or silicate
material, thereby releasing previously immobilized fines which subsequently migrate to
pore throats and cause reductions in permeability and productivity. Secondly, the mineral
saturated brine, as it moves further into the formation, encounters colder formation
material and subsequently cools and loses the ability to maintain the materials dissolved in
solution. This results in re-precipitation of calcium, magnesium, or silicate based solids and
the magnitude and location of this reprecipitation can also result in potential reductions in
permeability and productivity. A schematic illustration of both these phenomena appears
as Figure 7.11 after Bennion et al. (1995). Generally, mineral solubility increases with

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temperature. Long-term dissolution may result in the release of encapsulated fines or
subsequent reprecipitation of the dissolved species when the hot fluids move further into
the reservoir or into production wells and cool (Bennion, 2002; Gupta et al., 1994).

Figure 7.11 - Example of formation damage mineral dissolution

(After Bennion et al., 1995).

3.3 Wettability Changes

The effects of temperature on wettability have been documented by several
authors. Wettability of porous media is strongly controlled by the physical adsorption of
heavy polar constituents on the surface of the rock. This adsorption is governed by
temperature considerations. As temperature becomes higher, the amount of physical
adsorption decreases and many of the heavy polar constituents tend to be physically
desorbed from the surface of the rock. This generally results as temperature increases in
formations which tend to become more and more water-wet. This is schematically
illustrated in Figure 7.12.

Figure 7.12 - Illustrative example of influence of temperature

on relative permeability/wettability (After Bennion et al., 1995).

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The phenomena generally have favorable connotations in that the relative permeability to
oil is generally increased while the relative permeability to water is reduced. This is
particularly beneficial in cyclic steamflood projects where the mobility ratio is dramatically
increased resulting in higher oil production on the production cycles. If the relative
permeability to water is severely depressed by temperature induced wettability
alterations, it may result in reductions or restrictions in injectivity of hot water or steam
into the formation (Bennion et al., 1995; Bennion et al., 1992).
Generally, this is not a concern because at a high temperature the viscosity
reduction associated with the increased temperature along with the injection water or
steam is sufficient to overcome the corresponding reduction usually noted in the relative
permeability. There have also been some isolated incidences of significant long-term
wettability alterations caused by steamflooding operations. In this situation it is postulated
that when steam temperature is achieved and the connate water layer present in the
porous media is vaporized and removed, a portion of the residual oil saturation is allowed
to directly contact the rock and establishes an oil-wet film on the surface of the formation.
This causes a rapid transition from a strongly water-wet scenario to a strongly oil-wet
scenario and a large increase in the water phase relative permeability and subsequently
degrades the performance of any type of a cyclic steam operation resulting in high
produced water cuts and poor recovery to oil. This phenomenon has been investigated and
documented in the laboratory on both a permanent and a transitory basis and is discussed
by Bennion et al. (1992). Figure 7.13 illustrates how an abrupt wettability transformation
may occur when the transition from hot waterflood occurs. Figure 7.13a illustrates a typical
pore condition when hot waterflooding is undertaken. The pore is water-wet at high
temperature and the residual oil saturation is trapped in the central portion of the pore,
encapsulated and shielded from contact with the rock matrix by the surrounding liquid hot
water phase. When the transition to steamflooding occurs, as shown in Figure 7.13b, the
shielding water phase is vaporized allowing the residual oil saturation to contact the
surface of the rock directly. This allows direct unshielded adsorption, which in many cases,
even at an elevated temperature, can cause a very rapid alteration to oil-wetted state as
shown in Figure 7.13c.

(a) (b) (c)

Figure 7.13 - Illustration of wettability alteration caused by steamflooding
(After Bennion et al., 1992).

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 Figure 7.14 illustrates how a transition in wettability induced by steamflooding can
adversely affect the water-oil relative permeability characteristics of a porous media. The
large increase in water phase relative permeability can greatly reduce the recovery
efficiency of the mobilized oil on the return production cycle. Wettability changes of this
type can be permanent or gradually reversible, due to gradual desorption after hot
waterflood resumes, depending on the specific nature of the system under consideration.
Generally, formations become more water-wet as temperature increases. However, there
are isolated circumstances of transitions to oil-wet behavior on the application of
superheated steam (Bennion, 2002).

Figure 7.14 - Change in relative permeability characteristics due to wettability

alterations caused by steamflooding (After Bennion et al., 1995).

3.4 Reduction in Absolute Permeability

Conflicting evidence exists in the literature of the effect of temperature on
absolute permeability. In general, increases in temperature may result in an increase in
compression on the grain-to-grain contacts caused by thermal expansion effects associated
with the porous media. This generally has a moderate to slight reducing effect on the
effective absolute permeability of the rock. Previously mentioned problems such as
dissolution and reprecipitation can also result in motion of in-situ particulates and changes
in pore geometry which may have increasing or reducing effects on the apparent absolute
permeability of the porous media. For this reason, elevated temperature absolute
permeability measurements are difficult to conduct in a reproducible fashion due to the
fact that a considerable amount of permanent physical alteration in the rock character
occurs from the start to the conclusion of the test sequence, therefore, eliminating the
possibility for reproducible repeat control permeability measurements (Bennion et al.,
1995; Bennion, 2002). In some cases, this has been documented to occur under
overburdened conditions at extreme temperatures. It is believed to be due to thermal
induced grain expansion and subsequent pore constriction. Thermal stress cracking and

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manufacturing of mobile and damaging fines has also been observed at high temperatures
in some isolated studies.

3.5 Thermal Degradation

Over 200°C thermal reactions of sulfur-bearing compounds in oil and rock, as well
as carbonate reactions, may result in the production of large concentrations of hydrogen
sulfide, carbon dioxide, and mercaptans. The corrosive nature and toxicity of some of these
by-products can be problematic in many cases (Bennion, 2002).

4. CURRENT AND FUTURE RESEARCH TOPICS

A wide suite of available laboratory technology exists to study many of the
potential formation damage mechanisms which have been summarized in this chapter. The
potential areas of sensitivity to formation damage for most reservoirs can be determined
by increasing the understanding of the petrology and geology of the reservoir, i.e. static
properties, coupled with the flow characteristics of the rock, i.e. dynamic properties.
Furthermore, there have been numerous “classic” topics studied in this areas including
wettability changes, emulsification potential of the crude oil and their relationship to pore
size distribution and solid size distribution of the fluid systems and composition of the fluid
systems proposed for drilling, completion, or stimulation. These have been evaluated in
controlled laboratory situations in order to obtain a significant degree of confidence in the
proposed viability of specific drilling, completion, production, or operation scenarios.
Additional information on specific laboratory procedures utilized for both conventional and
heavy oil formation damage studies has been well documented in the literature including
those of Bennion et al. (1991), Bennion et al. (1994), Beatty et al. (1995), Civan. (2000), and
Bennion (2002).
Yet, future research topics in the formation damage related area are still expected
to be similar to the past and current ones. The formation damage mechanisms that have
been researched and understood thus far will still be the center of topics to be further
studied. Based on much previous reported work, Civan (2000) described the common
formation damage mechanisms in the order of significance. The common formation
damage mechanisms in order of importance are as follows:
1. Fluid-fluid incompatibilities- For example, emulsions generated between
invading oil-based mud filtrate and formation water.
2. Rock-fluid incompatibilities- For example, contact of potentially swelling
smectite clay or deflocculatable kaolinite clay by non-equilibrium water based
fluids with the potential to severely reduce near wellbore permeability.
3. Solids invasion- For example, the invasion of weighting agents or drilled solids.
4. Phase trapping/blocking- For example, the invasion and entrapment of water
based fluids in the near wellbore region of a gas well.

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 5. Chemical adsorption/wettability alteration- For example, emulsifier adsorption
changing the wettability and fluid flow characteristics of a formation.
6. Fines migration- For example, the internal movement of fine particulates within
a rock's pore structure resulting in the bridging and plugging of pore throats.
7. Biological activity- For example, the introduction of bacterial agents into the
formation during drilling and the subsequent generation of polysacharide
polymer slimes which reduce permeability.

To achieve the objectives of formation damage mechanism studies, information

from field data, fluid samples, and core analysis data are required. This has been often
accomplished by studying the following factors:
1. Wettability
2. Capillary pressure
3. Initial and irreducible fluid saturations
4. Relative permeability character
5. Matrix and clay composition and location
6. Pore size and pore throat size distribution
7. Critical velocity (fines migration testing)
8. Whole mud invasion testing (return permeability testing)
9. Critical filtration testing
10. Salinity and salinity shocking tests
11. Water-water, oil-water, and emulsion testing
12. Scaling and precipitate modeling via geochemical analysis of fluids
13. Proper knowledge of bubble and dew point of reservoir fluids
14. Evaluating cloud and pore point
15. Tests on the wetting properties of the proposed fluids on the formation
16. Potential for thermal damage effects at high temperature.

All of these issues can be evaluated by proper screening work conducted in the
laboratory as well as in the field. The fundamental processes causing formation damage
including that of chemically- and thermally-induced are studied extensively through the
evaluation of some of the above topics through laboratory and field tests. Laboratory tests
are designed to determine, understand, and quantify the governing processes; their
parameters and dependency on the in-situ and various operational conditions; and their
effect on formation damage. Laboratory tests help determine the relative contributions of
various mechanisms to formation damage (Bennion, 2002; Civan, 2000). Figure 7.15
illustrates the appearance of a typical core displacement apparatus used to conduct this
type of work in-house at Hycal Energy Research Laboratories in Calgary, Canada (After
Bennion, 2002).

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 Figure 7.15 - Hycal core displacement apparatus
(After Bennion, 2002).

5. CONCLUDING REMARKS
Owing to the substantial previously reported work, a wide range of different
potential types of formation damage mechanisms have been briefly discussed, especially
for heavy oil reservoirs. It can be seen that even when concentrating primarily on what are
considered to be "major" damage mechanisms, a large host of potential problems may be
present in a given reservoir. These have been broadly classified into the sub-classifications
of chemically- and thermally-induced formation damages. This variety of problems,
however, does not always present in every single reservoir. Some formations are
remarkably resilient and stubbornly resist the efforts of even the most dedicated methods
to damage them. Others are sensitive to even the slightest misstep. In the majority of
operations in heavy oil, much of the formation damage is typified to be of the mechanical
nature with physical invasion of solids and the formation of emulsions being some of the
more problematic offenders in many operational situations. A proper combination of
integrating available field and laboratory analysis of the rock, fluids, and specific practices
used in a given situation can result, in the vast majority of cases, with a considerable
reduction in the risk and potentially a large increase in the productivity of the subject well.
As with most things concerning formation damage, the smallest bit of knowledge can go a
long way towards allowing operators to make informed decisions as to the best practices to
drill, complete, and produce wells.
Future research topics in formation damage studies are expected to be similar to
the past and current ones. Formation damage mechanisms will still be at the center of
topics to be further studied. These include fluid-fluid incompatibilities, rock-fluid
incompatibilities, solids invasion, phase trapping/blocking, chemical adsorption/wettability
alteration, fines migration, and biological activity.

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