CAMBODIA

Cambodia, located on the Indochinese mainland of Southeast Asia, is a land of plains and rivers that lies amid
important overland and river trade routes linking China to India and Southeast Asia. Cambodia is bordered to
the west and northwest by Thailand, to the northeast by Laos, to the east and southeast by Vietnam, and to the
southwest by the Gulf of Thailand.

Capital: Phnom Penh

Population: over 14.8 million
Area: 181,035 sq km
Climate: Tropical
Terrain: mostly low, flat plains, mountains in southwest and north
Major Lakes: Tonle Sap
Major Rivers: Mekong
Language: Khmer (official)
Religion: Buddhist
Government: Parliamentary, Constitutional Monarchy

GEOGRAPHICAL FEATURES
Cambodia's main geographical features are the low-lying Central Plain that includes the Tonlé Sap basin, the
lower Mekong River flood-plains and the Bassac River plain surrounded by mountain ranges to the north, east,
in the south-west and south. The central lowlands extend into Vietnam to the south-east. The south and south-
west of the country constitute a 443 km (275 mi) long coast at the Gulf of Thailand, characterized by sizable
mangrove marshes, peninsulas, sandy beaches and headlands and bays. Cambodia's territorial waters account for
over 50 islands. The highest peak is Phnom Aural, sitting 1,810 metres (5,938 ft) above sea level.

The landmass is bisected by the Mekong River, which at 486 km (302 mi) is the longest river in Cambodia.
After extensive rapids, turbulent sections and cataracts in Laos, the river enters the country at Stung Treng
province, is predominantly calm and navigable during the entire year as it widens considerably in the lowlands.
The Mekong's waters disperse into the surrounding wetlands of central Cambodia and strongly affect the
seasonal nature of the Tonlé Sap Lake.

Two third of the country's population live in the lowlands, where the rich sediment deposited during the
Mekong's annual flooding makes the agricultural lands highly fertile. As deforestation and over-exploitation
affected Cambodia only in recent decades, forests, low mountain ranges and local eco-regions still retain much
of their natural potential and although still home to the largest areas of contiguous and intact forests in mainland
Southeast Asia, multiple serious environmental issues persist and accumulate, which are closely related to rapid
population growth, uncontrolled globalization and inconsequential administration.

The majority of the country lies within the Tropical savanna climate zone, as the coastal areas in the South and
West receive noticeably more and steady rain before and during the wet season. These areas constitute the
easternmost fringes of the south-west monsoon, determined to be inside the Tropical monsoon climate.
Countrywide there are two seasons of relatively equal length, defined by varying precipitation as temperatures
and humidity are generally high and steady throughout the entire year.

HISTORY
The race that produced the builders of Angkor developed slowly through the fusion of the Mon-Khmer racial
groups of Southern Indochina during the first six centuries of the Christian era. Under Indian influence, two
principal centers of civilization developed. The older, in the extreme south of the peninsula was called “Funan”
(the name is a Chinese transliteration of the ancient Khmer form of the word “Phnom”, which means “hill”).
Funan was a powerful maritime empire that ruled over all the shores of the Gulf of Siam. In the mid-sixth
century, the Kambuja who lived in the middle Mekong (north of present day Cambodia), broke away from
Funan. Within a short period, this new power known as Chenla, absorbed the Funanese Kingdom. In the late
seventh century, Chenla broke into two parts: Land Chenla (to the north) and Water Chenla (to the south along
the Gulf of Thailand) dominated by the Chinese. Land Chenla was fairly stable during the 8th century, whereas
Water Chenla was beset by dynastic rivalries. During this period, Java invaded and took control part of the
country.
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At the beginning of the ninth century, the kings set up their respective capital in the present province of Siem
Reap. For nearly six centuries, the kings enriched it by building temples one after another and each being more
sumptuous than the other. Two hundred of these temples are spread all over in the Angkorian area some 400
square kilometers in the Siem Reap Province. The temples and their sanctuaries are best known for their
architecture and sculptures.

The first founder of Angkor was King Jayayarman II (802-850), who built one of his residences on the plateau
of the Kulen in 802. King Indravarman I (887-889), a nephew of King Jayavarman II, constructed a vast
irrigation system at Lolei and then built the tower of Preah Ko in 879 and Bakong in 881. King Yasovarman
(889-900), the son of King Indravarman I, dedicated the towers of Lolei to his memory in 893 and founded a
new capital to the northwest which was to remain the very heart of Angkor. He built the Eastern Baray, a 7km X
2km size artificial lake also.

King Harshavarman I (900-923), the son of King Yasovarman, who took to the foot of Phnom Bakheng,
consecrated the little temple of Baksei Chamkrong, and built Prasat Kravan in 921. King Jayavarman IV (928-
941), uncle of King Harshavarman I, reigned in northeastern Cambodia near the present town of Koh Ker. He
erected several majestic monuments. King Rajendravarman (944-968) returned to Angkor in 952 and built the
Eastern Mebon and Prè Roup in 961. In 967, the Brahman Yajnavaraha, a high religious dignitary of royal
blood, erected the temple of Banteay Srei, about 20 km northeast of the capital. King Jayavarman V (968-1001)
founded a new capital around Takeo Temple.

In the eleventh century, King Suryavarman I (1002-1050) seized Angkor and founded a glorious dynasty. It was
at this time that the Gopura of the Royal Palace of Angkor Thom was completed with the sober pyramid of the
Phimeanakas at its center. He also erected the temple of Phnom Chiso, some parts of Preah Vihear, and Preah
Khan in Kampong Svay District.

King Udayadityavarman II (1050-1066), son of king Suryavarman I, built the mountain temple of Baphuon and
Western Baray. King Udayadityavarman's brother, King Harshavarman III, succeeded him and ruled from 1066
to 1080 when violent strife led to the fall of the dynasty. King Jayavarman VI (1080-1113) continued to build
Preah Vihear Mount in Vat Po and Phimai.

King Suryavarman II (1113-1150) extended his power from the coast of the China Sea to the Indian Ocean and
built the temples of Angkor Wat, Thommanon, Chau Say Tevoda, Preah Palilay, Preah Pithu and Banteay
Samrè. After these dazzling achievements, the Khmer civilization began to decline due to internal strife and an
attack by the Chams.

King Jayavarman VII (1181-1220) was the most fascinating personality in Khmer history. He re-established his
rule over all of southern Indochina and is best known for his huge building program. He built Ta Prohm (1186)
and Preah Khan (1191) as a dedication to his parents. Then he erected Banteay Kdei, Srah Srang, the Terrace of
the Leper King, the Terrace of the Elephants, Neak Pean, Ta Saom, Ta Nei, and a few monuments in other parts
of the country. It was he who founded his great capital, Angkor Thom and in the center of which, he built the
Bayon temple with its two hundred stone faces.

It is understandable that the country was exhausted after these enormous efforts. The decline of the Angkor era
began after the death of King Jayavarman VII in the early thirteenth century. Due to Siamese invasion and the
limitations of the irrigation system, Khmer power declined so drastically that the king was finally obliged to
move to the vicinity of Phnom Penh in 1431. Then, resulting from a series of Siamese and Cham invasions, the
country was placed as a French protectorate in 1863.

After regaining Independence in 1953, the country resumed several names:

 The Kingdom of Cambodia (under the Reachia Niyum Regime from 1953 to 1970)
 The Khmer Republic (under the Lon Nol Regime from 1970 to 1975)
 Democratic Kampuchea (under the Pol Pot Genocidal Regime from 1975 to 1979)
 The People's Republic of Kampuchea (1979-1989)
 The State of Cambodia (1989-1993)
 The Kingdom of Cambodia (1993 until now).
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CULTURE
Cambodian culture and tradition have had a rich varied history dating back many centuries. Over the years, the
people of Cambodia developed a set of unique tradition from the syncretism of indigenous Buddhism and
Hinduism.

National Flag
The flag of Cambodia symbolizes the country’s slogan: Nation, Religion, King. The two large blue stripes
represent royalty and the center red stripe represents the nation. The image of the white temple stands for the
nation’s religion.

Chumreap Sour
Cambodians have been raised to respect their culture and are very traditional in their way of life. Cambodians
traditionally greet with a Sampeah, which involves pressing the palms together before the chest with a slight
bow and greeting with a polite ‘Chumreap Suor’. Greetings between Cambodians are dependent on the
relationship, hierarchy, age between the people. You should always make the effort to greet the most senior,
oldest person first and the least senior, youngest person last. Going straight to the lowest person in the hierarchy,
may well cause the most senior person to feel a loss of face. Customarily, the higher the hands are held and the
lower the bow, the more respect is conveyed. Except when meeting elderly people or government officials,
between men, this custom has been partially replaced by the handshake. Women usually greet both men and
women with the same traditional greeting. In Cambodia people are addressed with the honorific title "Lok" for a
man and "Lok Srey" for a woman followed with the first name or both the first and surname.

Traditional Dances
There are many classical dance forms in Cambodia, of which a highly stylized art form was once confined
mainly to the courts of the royal palace and performed mainly by females. Known formally in Khmer as Robam
Apsara, the dancers of this classical form are often referred to as Apsara dancers.

This dance form was first introduced to foreign countries and best known during the 1960s as the Khmer Royal
Ballet. The first royal ballerina was Princess Norodom Bopha Devi, a daughter of King Norodom Sihanouk.

The Apsara Dance is particularly inspired by the style from around more than a thousand Apsara carvings in the
Angkor temple complex. As evidenced in part by these Apsaras (celestial dancers), dance has been part of the
Khmer culture for more than a millennium. A visit to Cambodia is only complete when one has attended at least
one such traditional dance performance.

Khmer Wedding
Traditional Cambodian weddings are intricate affairs that consist of multiple ceremonies lasting three days and
three nights. The wedding begins with the groom and his family traveling to the bride’s home bearing gifts to
the bride’s family as dowry. Family members and friends are introduced, and wedding rings exchanged.
Customarily, three traditional songs accompany this first segment; the first song announcing the arrival of the
groom and the next is on the presentation of the dowry followed by a final song to invite the elders to chew
Betel Nut, an age-old Khmer tradition. Then it is the Tea Ceremony, at which the bride and groom offer tea to
the spirits of their ancestors.

To prepare the bride and groom for their life as a married couple, their hair must then be symbolically cut to
represent a fresh start to their new relationship together as husband and wife. The master of ceremony performs
the first symbolic hair cut; the bride and groom’s parents, relatives, and friends then take turn to symbolically
cut the bride and groom’s hair and give them blessing and good wishes.

The finale is the most memorable segment of the wedding. Family members and friends take turns to tie the
bride’s and groom’s left and right wrists with ‘blessing strings’. The praises and wishes of happiness, good
health, success, prosperity, and long-lasting love are acknowledged and witnessed by the loud sound of the gong
and joyful cheers. Then, they throw palm flowers over the new couple accompanied by a traditional song. After
the couple is pronounced husband and wife, the groom holds the bride’s fabric into the bridal room
accompanied by a traditional song.

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At the close of this wedding ceremony, all of the guests are invited to a wedding reception accompanied by an
orchestral concert. The Khmer wedding is a rowdy and joyous event. Nowadays most families reduce the three-
day and three-night ritual to a one-day affair.

Angkor Wat

Angkor Wat in Siem Reap, Cambodia is the largest religious monument in the world. Angkor Wat, translated
from Khmer (the official language of Cambodia), means “City Temple.” As far as names go this is as generic as
it gets. Angkor Wat is dedicated to the Hindu god Vishnu who is one of the three principal gods in the Hindu
pantheon (Shiva and Brahma are the others). Among them he is known as the “Protector.” The major patron of
Angkor Wat was King Suryavarman II, whose name translates as the “protector of the sun.” Many scholars
believe that Angkor Wat was not only a temple dedicated to Vishnu but that it was also intended to serve as the
king’s mausoleum in death.

The construction of Angkor Wat likely began in the year 1116 C.E.—three years after King Suryavarman II
came to the throne—with construction ending in 1150, shortly after the king’s death. Evidence for these dates
comes in part from inscriptions, which are vague, but also from the architectural design and artistic style of the
temple and its associated sculptures. The building of temples by Khmer kings was a means of legitimizing their
claim to political office and also to lay claim to the protection and powers of the gods. Hindu temples are not a
place for religious congregation; instead, they are homes of the god. In order for a king to lay claim to his
political office he had to prove that the gods did not support his predecessors or his enemies. To this end, the
king had to build the grandest temple/palace for the gods, one that proved to be more lavish than any previous
temples. In doing so, the king could make visible his ability to harness the energy and resources to construct the
temple and assert that his temple was the only place that a god would consider residing in on earth.

There are 1,200 square meters of carved bas reliefs at Angkor Wat, representing eight different Hindu stories.
Perhaps the most important narrative represented at Angkor Wat is the Churning of the Ocean of Milk, which
depicts a story about the beginning of time and the creation of the universe. It is also a story about the victory of
good over evil. In the story, devas (gods) are fighting the asuras (demons) in order to reclaim order and power
for the gods who have lost it. In order to reclaim peace and order, the elixir of life (amrita) needs to be released
from the earth; however, the only way for the elixir to be released is for the gods and demons to first work
together. To this end, both sides are aware that once the amrita is released there will be a battle to attain it.

The relief depicts the moment when the two sides are churning the ocean of milk. In the detail above you can
see that the gods and demons are playing a sort of tug-of-war with the Naga or serpent king as their divine rope.
The Naga is being spun on Mt. Mandara represented by Vishnu (in the center). Several things happen while the
churning of milk takes place. One event is that the foam from the churning produces apsaras or celestial maidens
who are carved in relief throughout Angkor Wat. Once the elixir is released, Indra is seen descending from
heaven to catch it and save the world from the destruction of the demons.

An aerial view of Angkor Wat demonstrates that the temple is made up of an expansive enclosure wall, which
separates the sacred temple grounds from the protective moat that surrounds the entire complex (the moat is
visible in the photograph at the top of the page). The temple proper is comprised of three galleries (a
passageway running along the length of the temple) with a central sanctuary, marked by five stone towers.

The five stone towers are intended to mimic the five mountain ranges of Mt. Meru—the mythical home of the
gods, for both Hindus and Buddhists. The temple mountain as an architectural design was invented in Southeast
Asia. Southeast Asian architects quite literally envisioned temples dedicated to Hindu gods on earth as a
representation of Mt. Meru. The galleries and the empty spaces that they created between one another and the
moat are envisioned as the mountain ranges and oceans that surround Mt. Meru. Mt. Meru is not only home to
the gods, it is also considered an axis mundi. In designing Angkor Wat in this way, King Suryavarman II and his
architects intended for the temple to serve as the supreme abode for Vishnu. Similarly, the symbolism of Angkor
Wat serving as an axis mundi was intended to demonstrate the Angkor Kingdom’s and the king’s central place
in the universe. In addition to envisioning Angkor Wat as Mt. Meru on earth, the temple’s architects, of whom
we know nothing, also ingeniously designed the temple so that embedded in the temple’s construction is a map
of the cosmos (mandala) as well as a historical record of the temple’s patron.

Angkor Wat continues to play an important role in Cambodia even though most of the population is now
Buddhist. Since the 15th century, Buddhists have used the temple and visitors today will see, among the
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thousands of visitors, Buddhist monks and nuns who worship at the site. Angkor Wat has also become an
important symbol for the Cambodian nation. Today, the Cambodian flag has emblazoned on it the silhouette of
Angkor Wat.

Cambodian Art and Handicraft

Traditional Cambodian arts and crafts including silk weaving, silverwork, stone carving, wood carving,
lacquerware, pottery, ceramics, temple murals, basketry and kite-making have evolved from ancient times. A
tradition of modern art began in Cambodia in the mid-twentieth century. The contemporary visual arts scene in
Cambodia has experienced an artistic escalation.

Many farmers have expanded to weave baskets, make pots, and breed silk worms to produce silk for weaving.
In recent years, more sculptors and painters have surfaced to produce marvelous pieces for tourists to take home.
Silk weaving in Cambodia has a long history. The practice dates to as early as the first century when textiles
were used in trade. Modern textile production skillfully mimics these historic antecedents and produce beautiful
motifs that echo clothing details on ancient stone sculptures. By tourists’ demand, skill workers are producing
silverwork in the forms of jewelry, souvenir items, especially boxes adorned with fruit and Angkor-inspired
motifs. Usually the men produce most of the forms for such work and the women complete the intricate filigree.

Efforts to restore Angkor resulted in a new demand for skilled stone carvers to replace missing or damaged
pieces and from that, a new tradition of stone carving has risen in recent years. While some modern carvings
remain traditional-style, some carvers have been successfully producing contemporary designs to satisfy market
demands.

Cambodian artists make beautiful kites. Kite-making and kite-flying tradition dates back many centuries and
was revived in the early 1990s. It is now extremely popular throughout the country. Cambodian Kite-makers
cleverly attach a bow to the kites and it resonates in the wind producing a musical sound. Many tourists take
home with them such a kite as souvenir.

The village of Koh Anlong Chen (Chinese Island) on the Tonle Sap and the province of Kandal are especially
renowned for skilled copper artisans. Their skill has been passed down from generation to generation.

These craftsmen cut and carve flattened copper into decorative art pieces. Pots, bowls, plates, ornamental
swords, bracelets, and other souvenir items are crafted from flattened copper. While copper decorative swords
are popular for Khmer weddings, copper-made decorative pots and bracelets are popular tourist souvenirs.

Kbach Kun Khmer Boran (Martial Art)

Khmer martial arts date back more than a thousand years, as evidenced by carvings and bas-reliefs in the
Angkor temples. The martial arts include Bokator, Baok Chambab, Kbach Kun Dambong Vèng, amongst
others.

Bokator
Khmer Bokator , known formally as Labokatao, is a Cambodian martial art form that involves close hand-to-
hand combat, ground techniques and weapons. Bokator is one of the earliest Cambodian martial art and is said
to be the close quarter combat system used by the armies during the Angkor era. Practitioners are trained to
strike with knees, elbows, hands, feet and even the head. Short sticks are commonly used as weapon.

Baok Chambab
Baok Chambab is Khmer wrestling a sport in which two opponents try to pin (hold) each other’s back to the
ground. A match consists of three rounds. Wrestlers perform pre-match ritual dancing. A wrestler wins a match
by two out of three rounds. However, after each round, the loser is asked if he still wishes to continue with the
match. A Baok Chambab match is traditional accompanied by drum beats; two drums known as Skor Nhy and
Chhmol, (female drum and male drum). Traditional matches are held at the Cambodian National Olympic
Stadium during the Khmer New Year and other Cambodian holidays.
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Kbach Kun Dambong Vèng
Kbach Kun Dambong Vèng literally refers to an ancient Cambodian martial art form involving the use of a long
staff. It has traditionally been practiced to prepare against enemies bearing eventual malice towards their
villages and their country. Now, it is particularly popular with youths in main sports clubs in Cambodia.

Traditional Medicine

The Khmer traditional medicine is a form of naturopathy using natural remedies, such as roots, barks, leaves and
herbs to motivate the body’s vital ability to heal and maintain itself. It has been used to treat various diseases for
many years. The ancient Khmer people first formulated this medical lore during the Angkor period. It offers a
holistic approach avoiding the use of surgery and drugs. Practitioners of this therapy are known locally as Krou
Khmer.

Khmer traditional doctors are receiving recognition and training from the government at the National Center of
Traditional Medicine. Medical books in Pali text have been gathered from all the pagodas throughout the
country; collated and interpreted into the Khmer language at the center. The center welcomes traditional healers
from across the kingdom to share knowledge and train healers to a uniform level and to assimilate their
localized knowledge.

Cambodian Food and Drink

Cambodian food draws on the same rich culinary traditions as neighboring Thailand and Vietnam, with a
noticeable leaning towards fish – as you might expect from a nation at the delta of the mighty Mekong River.

Cambodian pepper and cardamoms join more familiar Southeast Asian ingredients such as curry pastes
(kroeung in Khmer), lemongrass, chili, kaffir lime leaves, Asian basil and galangal as flavorings for stir fries,
stews and soups. Prahok – a pungent seasoning made from fermented fish – is another much-loved seasoning.

The foundation of any Khmer meal is rice, either sticky rice, or the fragrant jasmine rice grown in paddy fields
across the nation. Vietnamese influence manifests itself in the form of noodle soups such as kuy teav, while the
French legacy is obvious from the popularity of coffee and the nom pang (baguette sandwiches with pork)
served as snacks across the country.

Specialties:

 Fried tarantula: A specialty of Skuon in North Cambodia, and a popular dining dare for travelers.
 Amok trey: Fish in a thick coconut curry sauce, wrapped in banana leaves and steamed.
 Babor: Rice porridge with chicken broth often served with an omelet or dried small fry.
 Kralan: Sticky rice flavored with sugar, beans and grated coconut, steamed inside a bamboo pole.
 Lok Lak: Stir-fried beef in a lime, salt and pepper sauce, often served with fried potatoes and an egg.
 Nom banh chok: Curry-style noodles often served with shredded fish, turmeric root, lemongrass, citrus,
mint, and chili.

Dining Etiquette

Table manners are fairly formal. Cambodians typically eat with chopsticks or with a spoon and fork. When
using a spoon and fork, they use the fork to move the food onto their spoon, before placing the spoon in their
mouth. When invited to the dining table wait to be told where to sit as you would not want to upset any
hierarchical arrangements. The oldest person is usually seated first. Similarly, the eldest person should start
eating before others. And do not begin eating until the eldest person starts.

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CAMBODIA’S SUBSISTENCE STRATEGIES
1. Foraging

This occurred throughout Cambodia during ancient times when people lived as hunter-gatherers, moving
from place to place in search of food. Evidence of foraging can be found in archaeological sites scattered across
the country, where stone tools, animal bones, and plant remains have been discovered. These sites include caves,
rock shelters, and open-air locations, providing insights into the daily lives and subsistence strategies of
Cambodia's earliest inhabitants.

2. Shifting Cultivation

Shifting cultivation took place in various regions of Cambodia, particularly in upland areas with dense
forests. Archaeological evidence of this practice can be found in the form of ancient agricultural tools, burnt
remnants of vegetation, and terraced fields. Studies of soil profiles and sediment cores in these regions also
reveal evidence of land clearance and cultivation followed by periods of fallow. Ethnographic research
conducted among indigenous communities in Cambodia's upland regions further confirms the continued practice
of shifting cultivation in these areas.

3. Traditional Wet Rice Cultivation Traditional wet rice cultivation became

widespread in the lowland plains of Cambodia, particularly in the central and southern regions where water
resources were abundant. Evidence of this can be seen in the extensive network of ancient irrigation systems,
terraced fields, and rice paddies that dot the landscape. Archaeological excavations at sites like Angkor provide
further evidence of the importance of wet rice cultivation during the Khmer Empire, with intricate water
management infrastructure supporting large-scale rice production.

4. Mechanized Agriculture

The transition to mechanized agriculture occurred predominantly in the 20th century, with the introduction of
modern farming equipment and techniques across Cambodia. This transformation took place in various
agricultural regions throughout the country, including the fertile plains of the Mekong Delta and the Tonle Sap
Basin. Historical records, photographs, and government reports document the expansion of mechanized
agriculture, with the adoption of tractors, harvesters, and chemical fertilizers to increase crop yields and
productivity.

5. Bronze Age Agriculture

Bronze Age agriculture in Cambodia likely occurred in areas where bronze tools and artifacts have been
discovered, primarily in the northeastern part of the country. Archaeological excavations at sites like Ban Non
Wat in present-day Thailand, which borders Cambodia, have uncovered evidence of early bronze metallurgy
and agricultural practices during the Bronze Age. While direct evidence within Cambodia may be limited, the
presence of bronze artifacts suggests that similar agricultural practices would have been employed in
neighboring regions.

In summary, the transition from foraging to shifting cultivation, traditional wet rice cultivation, mechanized
agriculture, and Bronze Age agriculture occurred in different regions of Cambodia, each shaped by the local
environment, technological advancements, and cultural practices of the time.

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HOW GEOGRAPHICAL FEATURES AFFECTS THEIR WAY OF LIFE
The renewable natural resources of Cambodia are closely linked to the country’s geography. The Tonle Sap
Lake derives exceptional productivity from pulsed flooding through its position as part of the lower Mekong
system where it functions as a natural overflow basin. The combination of cyclic flooding, soil conditions,
natural vegetation of the flood area and high levels of biodiversity has enabled the development of this
exceptional ecosystem.

King (1860) described the lowland area between the Tonle Sap Lake and the surrounding mountain ranges as
“diversified with forest and open prairie”. The borders of the lake are covered with seasonally inundated forest
and other types of vegetation. The lowland flats have always provided the most suitable conditions for human
settlements. The open grasslands here offer opportunities for agriculture, while the vicinity of forests, both in the
mountainous areas and in the lowland plains, provides a source of wood and other forest products. Central in the
flats lies the Tonle Sap Lake, which is one of the most productive freshwater ecosystems in the world (Rainboth
1996). In 1860, King wrote, “during the months of January, February, and March, when the water is drained off
the surrounding country, the lake appears alive with fish, and the inhabitants collect large quantities of them.”

In the present-day location of villages in Cambodia, the concentration of people along the Tonle Sap Lake and
in the central area around the capital Phnom Penh is remarkable. The site where the ancient Khmer civilization
reached its highest peaks of power and domination during the Angkor period (eighth-thirteenth century), is
precisely situated there where intensive rice culture was possible, and where forest products and lake resources
were available in an optimal blend.

The Intensive rice culture in the Angkorian era was possible thanks to the construction of large water reservoirs
and an extensive irrigation system, allowing for three harvests per year, even though most of the soils of the
lowland are not very suited for rice culture. The irrigation system collapsed with the decline of the Angkor
civilization, and has been restored only to a small extent in recent times. This loss of technology and the
consequent low rice production capacity has increased the dependency of the population on other food sources,
in particular aquatic products of the lake and of other water bodies like small streams and rice fields

Fish is one of the principal natural resources of Cambodia, together with its forests, the richness of the soil
(gems, oil/gas) and agriculture production. The fish resources of the country are plentiful and diverse. With
regards to it fish production, the dramatic increase in production in 1999 is due to the inclusion for the first time
of data on fish catches from inland family fisheries and rice field fishing. A total of 231, 000 tons from inland
capture fisheries and 15,000 tons in aquaculture production is reported. The most recent estimates (Jensen
2000c; van Zalinge and Thuok, 1999) put the annual freshwater fish catches at between 290 000 and 430 000
tons. Together with the marine catch and aquaculture production, this results in an estimated total annual fish
production for the country of between 343 000 and 483 000 tons. Then regarding the contribution of inland
fisheries to its national economy there is no doubt that the contribution is massive. Traditional Khmer villagers
pattern their livelihood around rice growing and fishing (Ahmed et al., 1998). The inland capture fisheries
contribute between 80 and 90 percent of the total fisheries production, and about two thirds of that is produced
and caught in the Tonle Sap ecosystem - 40 percent of the total in the lake and 26 percent in the channel (World
Bank, 1995; Csavas et al., 1994).

The contribution to the national economy lies in the domestic generation of food, tradable goods and
employment. Fish is an essential part of the Cambodian diet and constitutes a part of the food security for most
individuals, households and communities (FAO, 1999a; Kenefick, 1998; MAFF, 1996). In 1999, reported
exports of fish and fish products to neighboring countries amounted to almost 50 000 tons but are in reality
probably higher since not all exports are declared. Exported fishery products are usually of high value and
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represent a considerable source of foreign currency. More than three quarters of Cambodia’s active population is
employed in the primary sector, i.e. agriculture, hunting and fishing (NIS, 1999). However, it is difficult to
separate these people along occupational lines. Over one million households are believed to be involved in
fishing at least some time of the year (World Bank, 1995).

ETHNICITY OR RACE
Cambodia is home to various ethnic groups. The majority are Khmer, constituting around 90% of the
population. Additionally, there are ethnic minorities such as Cham, Chinese, and various indigenous groups,
each contributing to Cambodia's diverse cultural landscape.

The Cham are an ethnic minority in Cambodia, originated from the region known as Vietnam and Cambodia.
They have their own language and traditionally practice Islam. The Cham people have a significant presence in
Cambodia, particularly in the central and eastern parts of the country. Their cultural heritage includes unique
traditions, customs, and contributions to Cambodia's diverse cultural tapestry.

The Chinese ethnic community in Cambodia is a minority group that has contributed to the country's cultural
and economic diversity. Chinese Cambodians are descendants of Chinese immigrants who arrived in Cambodia
over generations. They often maintain their cultural traditions and practices, including language and customs.
The Chinese community in Cambodia is involved in various sectors, including business and commerce, and has
played a role in the country's economic development.

The Khmer ethnicity refers to the predominant ethnic group in Cambodia, known as the Khmer people. They
make up around 90% of the country's population. The Khmer have a rich cultural heritage, and their history is
marked by the powerful Khmer Empire, which flourished from the 9th to the 15th centuries. The Khmer
language is the official language of Cambodia, and their cultural influence is evident in art, architecture, and
traditions throughout the country.

ORGANIZING SOCIETY
Cambodia is set up as a multi-party democracy under a constitutional monarchy. The King serves as the head of
state and the Prime Minister is the head of the Royal Government of Cambodia. Norodom Sihamoni, the King,
was crowned in 2004 after the abdication of his father Norodom Sihanouk. Hun Sen has been the Prime
Minister since 1985.

Under the 1993 Constitution, the powers of the government are separated into three branches: the executive, the
legislative and the judiciary. The Council of Ministers (also known as the Cabinet of Cambodia) heads
the executive branch, which includes the Prime Minister and all the ministries. Parliament has legislative power,
while the power of the judiciary is vested in the Supreme Court, the Appeals Court and the municipal/provincial
courts. The Parliament (made up of the National Assembly and the Senate) is led by a president and two vice
presidents, selected through an absolute majority vote of assembly members before each legislative session.
According to the principle of separation of powers outlined in Art. 51 of the Constitution, each government
branch should be independent to ensure that one body cannot exercise absolute control over the law. However
this separation exists alongside the system of “checks and balances”—also required under the Constitution (Art.
78 and Art. 98)—which results in the executive branch having a close relationship with the parliament.
Cambodia is an indivisible state (that is, it does not share its sovereignty with any other state). While the
country’s administration is divided into the capital city (which is administratively the same level as a province),
provinces, districts and communes, the organization and functioning of provincial and local governments remain
under the control of the national government. The autonomy of local administration and finance depends on the
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extent of decentralization and deconcentrationallowed by the Cabinet of Cambodia. Thus, all lower levels of
administration exercise authority on behalf of the national government.

Borongan City 6800

Eastern Samar, Philippines
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