Chapter -1

introduction

Flow and heat transfer of nanofluids through porous media had been the subject of
investigations for centuries, because of their wide applications in mechanical, chem-
ical, civil engineering and medicine. A review of existing literatures shows that the
current practices on describing the flow and the heat transfer in porous media remain
piecewise.

1.1 Porous Medium

Matters with masses form naturally into porous structures. They occur almost over
the entire world at different scales under considerations. Materials with porous struc-
tures are called porous media. A porous medium (or a porous material) is a solid
matrix which is characterised by the presence of void spaces within its own volume.
The medium can thus be modelled as a solid matrix permeated by a network of chan-
nel, or pores, where a fluid (liquid or gas) can move. Usually both the solid matrix
and the fluid are assumed to be continuous. One very good example of a porous
medium can be a sponge. Many natural substances such as rocks, soils, biological
tissues (e.g. bones), and man made materials such as cements, foams and ceramics
can be considered as porous media. A porous medium is defined by its porosity, per-
meability as well as by the properties of its constituents (solid matrix and fluid).

In clear fluids, the momentum balance equation commonly used is the well known
Navier-Stokes equation. On modelling flows in porous media the Navier-Stokes equa-
tion does not provide a satisfactory description of the system. In fact, different

Please purchase PDF Split-Merge on www.verypdf.com to remove this watermark.

 Chapter 1 2

approaches to the formulation of the momentum balance equation for fluid owing
in saturated porous media have been proposed. With the help of experiments into
the hydrology of water supply of the city Dijon (France), Henry Darcy [5] stated
that there is a proportionality between the flow rate and the applied pressure differ-
ence which is known as the famous Darcy’s law today. In modern notation, this is
expressed as
µ~
∇P = − V (1.1)
K
where K is the permeability of the porous medium and µ is the dynamic viscosity of
the fluid. The Darcy model is very simple and, nonetheless, it allows one to investi-
gate a wide range of flow cases.

More lately, engineering practices require the operation of flows in porous media at
high Reynolds number, such as those in packed-bed reactors. Experimental evidences
showed that Eq.(1.1) was unable to describe the flows at high Reynolds number. By
fitting to experimental data, a non-linear term was added to Eq.(1.1) to correct for
the advection inertia effect(Forchheimer [6]). Thus, Eq.(1.1) was modified empirically
into
µ~
∇P = − V − CF K −1/2 ρf |V~ |V~ (1.2)
K
where CF is a dimensionless form drag co-efficient whose value is analyzed by the
several researchers (Ward [7], Beavers et al.[8], Coulaud et al.[9]). For simplicity,
Eq.(1.2) is called as Forchheimer equation.

Figure 1.1: Examples of porous medium

Please purchase PDF Split-Merge on www.verypdf.com to remove this watermark.

 Chapter 1 3

An alternative to Darcy’s equation is what is commonly known as Brinkman’s

equation which has a Laplacian term analogous to that appearing in the Navier-
Stokes equations. So, Eq.(1.1) is replaced by
µ~
∇P = − V + µ̃∇2 V~ (1.3)
K
where µ̃ is the effective viscosity. Brinkman([10],[11]) have assumed that µ and µ̃ is
equal to each other, but in general that is not true. There are situations in which
some authors have found it convenient to use the Brinkman’s equation. One such
situation is when one wishes to compare flows in porous media with those in clear
fluids. The Brinkman equation has a parameter K (the permeability) such that the
equation reduces to a form of the Navier-Stokes equation as K → ∞ and to the
Darcy equation as K → 0. Another situation is when one wishes to match solutions
in a porous medium and in an adjacent viscous fluid. To the account of boundary
and inertial effects for the high velocity flow through porous media, the combination
of Laplacian and Forchheimer terms are often used, namely Brinkman-Forchheimer
equation.

In fact, the above equations were constructed based on the experiments and theory
for steady flows. Therefore, these equations are anticipated to apply only for steady
flows over all range of Reynolds number. Unsteady flows in porous media have recently
received great attention. One example is the oscillating flow in the regenerators used
in Stirling engines and catalytic converters. Others are the transient processes in
the start-up and shut down of a capillary heat pipe in mechanical engineering, and
the well-bore pumping in hydraulic and petroleum engineering. Because of the lack
of adequate equations to describe the unsteady flows in porous media, the above
equations sometimes were used indiscriminately without justification.

1.2 Heat transfer

The knowledge of heat transfer is essential for the design, construction and operation
of heat exchanging devices used in power generations, propulsion, metallurgical and
chemical processing and refrigeration and air conditioning fields. Heat is the thermal
energy that flows when a temperature difference exists across a medium. Heat flows

Please purchase PDF Split-Merge on www.verypdf.com to remove this watermark.

 Chapter 1 4

freely from high temperature sources to low temperature sinks. However, heat can-
not, by itself, flow from a body at lower temperature to one at a higher temperature.

The basic modes of heat transfer are conduction, convection and radiation. Con-
duction and radiation are considered to be the basic heat transfer processes as they
depend only on the temperature difference. In convective heat transfer not only de-
pends on temperature difference but also on the mass transport of the fluid. However,
convection is also accepted as a mode of heat transfer as this also accomplishes en-
ergy transfer from regions of higher temperature to regions of lower temperature. In
conduction and convection, heat transfer takes place only through a material. In
radiation, heat transfer can take place either through vacuum or through materials.

There are two main classifications of convective heat transfer. These have to do
with the driving force causing fluid to flow. Natural or free convection designates the
type of process where in fluid motion results from the heat transfer. When a fluid is
heated or cooled, the associated density change and buoyant effect produce a natural
circulation in which the affected fluid moves of its own accord past the solid surface,
the fluid which replaces it is similarly affected by the energy transfer, and the process
is repeated. Forced convection is the classification used to describe those convection
situations in which fluid circulation is produced by an external energy such as fan or
a pump.

Convective heat transfer in fluid-saturated porous media has been widely studied
in the recent years due to its wide applications in natural and industrial problems.
Prominent among these are the utilization of geothermal energy, chemical engineer-
ing, thermal insulation systems, nuclear waste management, grain storage, fruits and
vegetables, migration of moisture through air contained in fibrous insulation, food
processing and storage, contaminant transport in ground water, etc. It is usually
assumed that the temperature fields of the solid and fluid phases are identical locally;
such a situation is generally known as local thermal equilibrium (LTE). The opposite
situation is known as local thermal non-equilibrium (LTNE), and in these cases the
solid matrix may have a different temperature from that of the saturating fluid, this

Please purchase PDF Split-Merge on www.verypdf.com to remove this watermark.

 Chapter 1 5

being meant in terms of averages over representative elementary volumes. Thus, hot
fluid may flow into a cold, relatively insulating, porous matrix and there will exist a
difference in the average local temperature of the two phases. When the phases are
not in LTE the usual single heat transport equation is replaced by a pair of equations,
one for each phase. The standard equations that are now used routinely are those
quoted by Nield and Bejan [12], which is described below.

At the microscopic level, the temperature and the rate of heat flux at the inter-
face between solid and fluid phases must be identical, but the average value over a
representative elementary volume (REV) should not yield locally equal temperatures
for the two phases. In this case the two phases are in local thermal non-equilibrium
(LTNE). Following Nield and Bejan [12] and Barletta [13], the simplest way to model
the LTNE in an isotropic porous medium is to use two thermal balance equations,
one for the fluid phase and another one for the solid matrix, namely
 
∂Tf ~
(ρc)f ϕ + V .∇Tf = ϕkf ∇2 Tf + h(Ts − Tf ) (1.4)
∂t
∂Ts
(1 − ϕ)(ρc)s = (1 − ϕ)ks ∇2 Ts + h(Tf − Ts ) (1.5)
∂t
where Tf refers to the fluid temperature, Ts refers to the solid temperature and h is
the interphase heat transfer coefficient.

1.3 Magnetohydrodynamics (mhd)

In recent years, the study of Magnetohydrodynamic (MHD) flow and heat transfer
for a viscous incompressible fluid over a plate has enormous applications in many
engineering and industrial problems such as petroleum industries, plasma studies,
geothermal energy extractions and many others. Especially, to control the behaviour
of the boundary layer, several artificial methods have been developed and out of that,
the application of MHD principle is an important method for affecting the flow field
in the desired direction by altering the structure of the boundary layer. Magnetohy-
drodynamics is a branch of continuum mechanics which deals with the motion of an
electrically conducting fluid in the presence of a magnetic field. The motion of con-
ducting material across the magnetic lines of force creates potential differences which

Please purchase PDF Split-Merge on www.verypdf.com to remove this watermark.

 Chapter 1 6

in general cause electric currents to flow. The magnetic fields associated with these
currents modify the magnetic field which creates them. On the other hand, the flow
of electric current across a magnetic field associated with a body force, called Lorentz
force influences the fluid flow. Some of the features of magnetohydrodynamics are
apparent when any ordinary electrically conducting fluid such as mercury or liquid
sodium moves in a magnetic field and they are significant in extremely high temper-
ature gases. All materials become ionized at sufficiently high temperature forming a
gas composed of individual ions and electrons. In the absence of magnetic field a high
ionized gas behaves in most respect like a classical gas, but this behaviour is modified
in a striking manner when magnetic field is applied.

1.4 Nanofluids

Many modern industries, such as microelectronics, transportation, manufacturing,

and metallurgy often encounter the technical challenges of having higher cooling per-
formance. Conventional methods leading to increased heat transfer rates, such as
extended surfaces and micro-channels, have the disadvantage to increase the required
pumping power of the cooling fluid, or the use of microfluids pose problems in terms of
gravity settling, clogging, etc. The development of advanced fluids with improved flow
and thermal characteristics are of paramount importance to achieve higher heat flux
densities. Thermal conductivities of solids are of magnitude greater than that of fluids
and, thus, it is expected that dispersions of solid particles will significantly improve the
thermal behaviour of fluids. Well dispersed and stable suspensions of nanoparticles
in conventional heat transfer fluids were named nanofluids by Choi [14] at the ANL
labs USA. Nanofluids are stable colloidal suspensions of nano-materials (nanoparti-
cles, nanorods, nanotubes, nanowires, nanofibers, nanosheets, other nanocomposites,
or even nano-droplets and nano-bubbles) in common, base fluids, such as water, oil,
ethylene-glycol mixtures (antifreeze), refrigerants, heat transfer fluids, polymer solu-
tions, bio-fluids, and others.

Compared to conventional solid–liquid suspensions for heat transfer intensifications,

nanofluids having properly dispersed nanoparticles possess the following advantages:

Please purchase PDF Split-Merge on www.verypdf.com to remove this watermark.

 Chapter 1 7

• High specific surface area and therefore more heat transfer surface between
particles and fluids.

• High dispersion stability with predominant Brownian motion of particles.

• Reduced pumping power as compared to pure liquid to achieve equivalent heat

transfer intensification.

• Reduced particle clogging as compared to conventional slurries, thus promoting

system miniaturization.

• Adjustable properties, including thermal conductivity and surface wettability,

by varying particle concentrations to suit different applications.

Thermo physical properties of the nanofluids are quite essential to predict their
heat transfer behaviour. It is extremely important in the control for the industrial
and energy saving perspectives. There are vast varieties of works which are related
to obtaining the thermo-physical properties of nanofluids. For instance, the thermo-
physical properties of thermal conductivity, viscosity, specific heat and density are
the most important characteristics which are needed for a complete numerical study.

Even though these properties are important in determining heat transfer be-
haviour, it cannot predict completely. Buongiorno [15] claimed that a satisfactory
explanation for the abnormal increase of the thermal conductivity and viscosity is
yet to be found. He focused on the further heat transfer enhancement observed in
convective situations. Several authors have suggested that convective heat transfer
enhancement could be due to the dispersion of the suspended nanoparticles, but he
argued that this effect is too small to explain the observed enhancement. He also con-
cluded that the turbulence is not affected by the presence of the nanoparticles so this
cannot explain the observed enhancement. Particle rotation has also been proposed
as a cause of heat transfer enhancement, but he calculated that this effect is too small
to explain the effect. With dispersion, turbulence and particle rotation ruled out as
significant agencies for heat transfer enhancement; Buongiorno [15] proposed a new
model based on the mechanics of the nanoparticle/base-fluid relative velocity.

Please purchase PDF Split-Merge on www.verypdf.com to remove this watermark.

 Chapter 1 8

Buongiorno [15] noted that the nanoparticle absolute velocity can be viewed as
the sum of the base fluid velocity and a relative velocity (that he calls the slip ve-
locity). He considered in turn seven slip mechanisms: inertia, Brownian diffusion,
thermophoresis, diffusiophoresis, Magnus effect, fluid drainage, and gravity settling.
After examining each of these in turn, he concluded that in the absence of turbulent
effects it is the Brownian diffusion and the thermophoresis that will be important.
He proceeded to write down conservation equations on the basis of these two effects.

Nanofluids can be used to cool automobile engines and welding equipment and
to cool high heat-flux devices such as high power microwave tubes and high-power
laser diode arrays. A nanofluid coolant could flow through tiny passages in MEMS to
improve its efficiency. The measurement of nanofluids critical heat flux (CHF) in a
forced convection loop is useful for nuclear applications. Nanofluids can effectively be
used for a wide variety of industries, ranging from transportation to energy production
and in electronics systems like microprocessors, Micro-Electro-Mechanical Systems
(MEMS) and in the field of biotechnology.

1.5 Boundary layer theory

The concept of the boundary layer was introduced by Ludwig Prandtl (1874-1953)
in 1904. This was a significant accomplishment as prior to this, solutions to the gen-
eral fluid equations did not explain the observed flow effects. Prandtl realized that
there was a significant difference between the relative magnitude of the inertial and
viscous forces close to the surface when compared to a distance away from the surface.

If we consider a viscous fluid moving past an obstacle or along a surface then

the molecules closest to the surface or obstacle will stick to it and hence become
stationary. This is due to the viscous nature of most real fluids and the roughness of
the surface on a molecular scale. The next layer of molecules will collide into these
stationary molecules and hence slow down. A similar process will continue with the
collisions becoming less frequent as we move further away from the contact surface.
Thus we have a tangential flow alongside the object which increases rapidly from

Please purchase PDF Split-Merge on www.verypdf.com to remove this watermark.

 Chapter 1 9

being zero at the surface to matching the mainstream at some distance away from
the surface. The region in which this rapid increase is referred to as the boundary
layer around an object. A typical laminar boundary layer is shown in Fig.1.2

The thickness of the boundary layer is dependant on the Reynolds number if the
flow is laminar and as we move along the object or some distance past the obstacle,
the thickness will usually increase. The Reynolds number (Re), is dependent on
the characteristic velocity of the mainstream (U ); the characteristic length from the
beginning of the disturbance in the flow (L); and the kinematic viscosity of the fluid
(ν):
UL
Re = (1.6)
ν
The Reynolds number can also be thought of as the ratio of inertial force to viscous
force. A boundary layer may be turbulent or laminar. In laminar flow the fluid moves
in smooth layers which slide past each other and hence the shear stresses are low. The
thickness of the laminar boundary layer increases with distance from the start of the
boundary layer and increases as the Reynolds number decreases. Furthermore a lami-
nar boundary layer will only develop when the Reynolds number is of order 103 to 105 .

Boundary layer theory is the cornerstone of our knowledge of the flow of air and
other fluids of small viscosity under circumstances of interest in many engineering
applications. Thus many complex problems in aerodynamics have been clarified by a

Figure 1.2: Typical laminar boundary-layer velocity profile

Please purchase PDF Split-Merge on www.verypdf.com to remove this watermark.

 Chapter 1 10

study of the flow within the boundary layer and its effect on the general flow around
the body. Such problems include the variations of minimum drag and maximum lift
of airplane wings with Reynolds number, wind-tunnel turbulence, and other param-
eters. Even in those cases where a complete mathematical analysis is at present in
practicable, the boundary-layer concept has been extraordinary fruitful and useful.
The development of boundary-layer theory during its first fifty years is a fascinating
illustration of the birth of new concept, its slow growth for many years in the hands
of its creator and his associates, its belated acceptance by others, and the subsequent
almost exponential rise in the number of contributors to its further development. In
view of the applications of boundary layer flow and heat transfer through porous
media with or without nanofluids, several researches with different aspects have been
done in the last few years, which is documented below.

1.6 Literature review

Flow in porous media has been the subject of numerous investigations during the past
several decades. The interest in this subject has been stimulated, to a large extent,
by the fact that thermally driven flows in porous media have several applications in
chemical and mechanical engineering, e.g. food processing and storage, geophysical
systems, electro- chemistry, fibrous insulation, metallurgy, the design of pebble bed
nuclear reactors, underground disposal of nuclear or non-nuclear waste, microelec-
tronics cooling, etc. Detailed literature review can be found in the books by Pop and
Ingham [16], Ingham and Pop [17], Nield and Bejan [12], Vafai ([18],[19] and Vadasz
[20].

One of the fundamental problems in porous media is the flow and heat transfer
driven by a linear or non-linear stretching surface through a porous medium. The
fluid dynamics over a stretching surface through porous medium is important in ex-
trusion process. The production of sheeting material arises in a number of industrial
manufacturing process and includes both metal and polymer sheets. Examples are
numerous and they include the cooling of an infinite metallic plate in a cooling bath,
the boundary layer along material handling conveyers, the aerodynamic extrusion of

Please purchase PDF Split-Merge on www.verypdf.com to remove this watermark.

 Chapter 1 11

plastic sheets, the boundary layer along a liquid film in condensation process, paper
production, glass blowing, metal spinning, and drawing plastic films, to name just
a few. The quality of the final product depends on the rate of heat transfer at the
stretching surface.

It seems that the first study of the steady flows of a viscous incompressible fluid
(non-porous media) driven by a linearly stretching surface through a quiescent fluid
has been reported by Crane [21]. Further, Elbashbeshy and Bazid [22] studied flow
and heat transfer in a porous medium over a stretching surface with internal heat
generation and suction/blowing when the surface is held at a constant temperature.
Cortell [23] has analyzed the effects of various physical parameters on momentum and
heat transfer characteristics of the flow and heat transfer past a stretching surface in
a porous medium. Ishak et al. [24] studied the effect of a uniform transverse mag-
netic field on the stagnation-point flow toward a vertical stretching sheet. Raptis and
Perdikis [25] investigated the effect of a chemical reaction of an electrically conducting
viscous fluid on the flow over a non-linearly (quadratic) semi-infinite stretching sheet
in the presence of a constant magnetic field which is normal to the sheet. Layek et
al. [26] investigated the steady two-dimensional stagnation-point flow of an incom-
pressible viscous fluid toward a permeable stretching surface embedded in a porous
medium subject to suction/blowing with internal heat generation or absorption. Ex-
tension of these problems were further considered by Pantokratoras [27], Tamayol et
al. [28], and Fang and Zhang [29].

Most of the available literature deals with the study of boundary layer flow over
a stretching surface where the velocity of the stretching surface is assumed linearly
proportional to the distance from the fixed origin. However, it is often argued that
(Gupta and Gupta [30]) realistically stretching of plastic sheet may not necessarily
be linear. This situation was beautifully dealt by Kumaran and Ramanaiah [31] in
their work on boundary layer fluid flow where, probably first time, a general quadratic
stretching sheet has been assumed. Various aspects of such problem have been inves-
tigated by many authors such as Xu and Liao [32], Hayat et al. [33], and Hayat and
Sajid [34].

Please purchase PDF Split-Merge on www.verypdf.com to remove this watermark.

 Chapter 1 12

Ali [35] has investigated the thermal boundary layer flow by considering the non-
linear stretching surface. A few years later, Magyari and Keller [36] also focused on
heat and mass transfer on boundary layer flow due to an exponentially continuous
stretching sheet. Vajravelu [37] and Vajravelu and Cannon [38] also considered the
flow over a non-linear stretching sheet. Later, Sajid and Hayat [39] considered the
influence of thermal radiation on the boundary layer flow due to an exponentially
stretching sheet by solving the problem analytically via homotopy analysis method
(HAM). Bidin and Nazar [40] analyzed the effect of thermal radiation on the steady
laminar two-dimensional boundary layer flow and heat transfer over an exponentially
stretching sheet, which has been solved analytically by Sajid and Hayat [39]. Recently,
Ishak [41] discussed the combined effects of magnetic field and thermal radiation on
the flow and heat transfer over an exponentially stretching sheet.

In modelling a fluid-saturated porous medium, most of the investigations have

assumed a state of local thermal equilibrium (LTE) between the fluid and the solid
phase at any point in the medium. This is a common practice where the temperature
gradient at any location between the two phases is assumed to be negligible. For
many practical applications, involving high-speed flows or large temperature differ-
ences between the fluid and solid phases, the assumption of local thermal equilibrium
is inadequate and it is important to take account of the local thermal non-equilibrium
(LTNE) effects. In this case, the solid matrix may have a different temperature from
that of the saturating fluid, this being meant in terms of averages over representative
elementary volumes. Thus, the LTNE approach to the description of convective flows
is based on two distinct temperature fields for the fluid phase and for the solid phase,
defined as the solutions of two local energy balances. These energy balance equations
are coupled through exchange terms modelled by means of a microscopic Newton’s
cooling law between the phases.

Quintard [42] and Quintard and Whitaker ([43], [44]) pointed out that there are
many physical situations in which the local thermal equilibrium assumption fails, and
recommended use of a two energy equation model. The validity and assessment of
the local thermal equilibrium assumptions were discussed by a substantial number of

Please purchase PDF Split-Merge on www.verypdf.com to remove this watermark.

 Chapter 1 13

researchers, including Minkowycz et al. [45], Rees and Pop [46], Kim and Jang [47],
Kiwan and Al-Nimr [48], Al-Nimr and Abu-Hijleh [49], Abu-Hijleh et al. [50], Rees
[51], Haddad et al. [52], Khashan et al. [53] and Khashan and Al-Nimr [54]. According
to Abu-Hijleh et al. [50], there are five dimensionless parameters controlling the LTE
assumption in a transient flow inside a conduit fully filled with porous media, namely
volumetric Nusselt number, dimensionless channel’s length, the thermal diffusivity
ratio, Peclet number, and the solid-to-fluid total thermal capacity ratio. Khashan et
al. [53] showed that the decrease of the Peclet number and the increase of the Biot
number expand the LTE validity over the LTNE region. Moreover, the increase of
the effective fluid-to-solid thermal conductivity ratio was found to extend the LTNE
region. An excellent review of research on local thermal non-equilibrium phenomena
in porous medium convection, primarily free and forced convection boundary layers,
and free convection within cavities, was given by Rees and Pop [55].

Recently, Celli et al. [56] studied the steady forced convective thermal boundary
layer flow in a porous medium with thermal non-equilibrium approach. They found
that the local thermal non-equilibrium effects were strong near the leading edge, but
these effects were decrease with distance from the leading edge and local thermal
equilibrium is attained at large distances. Kuwahara et al. [57] proposed an effective
porosity concept, which reduces their general two-equation model in a concise form
and applied it to two fundamental plane convection cases, namely, convection in a
channel filled with a metal foam bounded by isothermal walls and also that bounded
by constant heat flux walls. They found from the exact solutions that the local ther-
mal equilibrium assumption may hold for the case of isothermal hot and cold walls,
but may fail for the case of constant heat flux walls. Influence of local thermal non-
equilibrium (LTNE) on fully developed mixed convective flow in a vertical channel
filled with a fluid saturated porous medium was analyzed numerically with the help
of spectral collocation method by Khandelwal and Bera [58].

Convectional heat transfer fluids, including oil, water, and ethylene glycol mix-
ture are poor heat transfer fluids, since the thermal conductivity of these fluids play
important role on the heat transfer coefficient between the heat transfer medium

Please purchase PDF Split-Merge on www.verypdf.com to remove this watermark.

 Chapter 1 14

and the heat transfer surface (Muthtamilselvan et al. [59]). Taking into account
the rising demands of modern technology, including chemical production, power sta-
tion, and microelectronics, there is a need to develop new types of fluids that will
be more effective in terms of heat exchange performance. Nanofluids are envisioned
to describe fluids in which nanometer-sized particles (usually less than 100 nm) are
suspended in convectional heat transfer basic fluids. Numerous methods have been
taken to improve the thermal conductivity of these fluids by suspending nano/micro-
sized particle materials in liquids.

The literature on the thermal conductivity and viscosity of nanofluids has been
reviewed by Trisaksri and Wongwises [60], Wang and Mujumdar [61], Eastman et
al. [62], and Kakac and Pramuanjaroenkij [63], among several others. These reviews
discuss in detail the preparation of nanofluids, theoretical and experimental investi-
gations of thermal conductivity and viscosity of nanofluids, and the work done on
convective transport in nanofluids. A benchmark study of thermal conductivity of
nanofluids has been published by Buongiorno et al. [64]. Recent experimental work of
Prasher et al. [65] concludes that the viscosity has to increase fourfold relative to the
increase in thermal conductivity to render the thermal performance of the nanofluid
worse than the base fluid. It was observed that the viscosity of nanofluids increases
as the solid volume fraction of the nanofluid increases. However, contrary to the
behaviour of thermal conductivity which increases with temperature, the viscosity of
the nanofluid is hardly affected by the temperature variation in the range from 25◦ C
to 80◦ C.

The literature on convective heat transfer in nanofluids has grown steadily in the
last ten years. However, the number of analytical studies on natural convection in
nanofluids is relatively small. Khanafer et al. [66] analyzed the two-dimensional
natural convective flow of a nanofluid in an enclosure and found that for any given
Grashof number, the heat transfer rate increased as the volume fraction of nanopar-
ticles increased. Kim et al. [67] introduced a new friction factor to describe the effect
of nanoparticles on the convective instability and the heat transfer characteristics
of the base fluid. Tzou [68] considered thermal instability of nanofluids in natural

Please purchase PDF Split-Merge on www.verypdf.com to remove this watermark.

 Chapter 1 15

convection and concluded that the higher turbulence triggered by the nanoparticles
prompted higher heat transfer coefficient than the effect of enhanced thermal conduc-
tivity. Contrary to the observations in [66], Putra et al. [69] and Wen and Ding [70]
found that the heat transfer coefficient decreases, not increases, with the increase in
solid volume fraction of the nanofluid. The difference in conclusions of the analytical
studies of Khanafer et al. [66] and Kim et al. [67] and experimental works of Putra
et al. [69] and Wen and Ding [70] may be due to the assumptions made in ([66],
[67]) in developing the analytical models. In a more recent paper, Abu-Nada et al.
[71] studied the effect of variable thermal conductivity and variable viscosity on heat
transfer in a watere Al2 O3 nanofluid confined in an enclosure. They found that at
low Rayleigh numbers, the Nusselt number increased slightly with the increase in the
solid volume fraction of the nanofluid but at high Rayleigh numbers, the effect was
opposite. This brief survey clearly indicates that a definitive conclusion regarding the
role of nanoparticles in enhancing natural convective transport is yet to be reached.

In the past three years, a few papers have considered some fundamental problems
in external natural convective flows of nanofluids. Kuznetsov and Nield [72] extended
the classical problem of natural convection of a regular fluid over an isothermal verti-
cal plate to the flow of a nanofluid. They used the model proposed by Buongiorno [15]
which takes into account the Brownian diffusion as well as thermophoresis in writing
the transport equations. In this pioneering study they have assumed the simplest
possible boundary conditions, namely those in which both the temperature and the
nanoparticle fraction are constant along the wall. Their similarity analysis identi-
fied four parameters governing the transport process, namely a Lewis number Le, a
buoyancy-ratio number N r, a Brownian motion number N b, and a thermophoresis
number N t. The same authors later extended the study to a nanofluid saturated
porous medium [73], extending the well known Cheng-Minkowycz problem [74] to a
nanofluid.

Khan and Pop ([3],[75]) formulated the problem of laminar boundary-layer flow
of a nanofluid past a stretching sheet. They also expressed free convection boundary-
layer nanofluid flow past a horizontal flat plate. Hamad and Pop [76] discussed the

Please purchase PDF Split-Merge on www.verypdf.com to remove this watermark.

 Chapter 1 16

boundary-layer flow near the stagnation-point flow on a permeable stretching sheet in

a porous medium saturated with a nanofluid. The influence of magnetic field on free
convective flow of a nanofluid past a semi-infinite vertical flat plate is investigated
by Hamad et al. [77]. Hady et al. [78] investigated the effects of thermal radiation
on the viscous flow of a nanofluid and heat transfer over a non-linearly stretching
sheet. A lie group analysis was made by Hamad and Ferdows [79] to predict the flow
and heat transfer characteristics of boundary layer stagnation-point flow towards a
heated porous stretching sheet saturated with a nanofluid. Very recently, Rahman
and Eltayeb [80] investigated the radiative heat transfer in a hydromagnetic nanofluid
flow past a non-linear stretching surface with a convective boundary.

In all these above studies, the flow and temperature fields are considered to be
at steady state. However, in some cases, the flow field, heat and mass transfer can
be unsteady due to a sudden stretching of the flat sheet or by a step change of
the temperature of the sheet. A few papers have been published on the boundary
layer flow and heat transfer problems where the stretching force and surface temper-
ature are varying with time. Some authors ([81],[82],[83],[84]) studied the problem
for unsteady isothermal stretching surface by using a similarity method to transform
governing time-dependent boundary layer equations into a set of ordinary differen-
tial equations. Elbashbeshy and Bazid [85] have presented similarity solutions of the
boundary layer equations that describe the unsteady flow and heat transfer over an
unsteady stretching sheet.

Sharidan et al. [86] studied the unsteady flow and heat transfer over a stretching
sheet in a viscous and incompressible fluid. Recently, Tsai et al. [87], Ishak et al.
[88], Mukhopadhyay ([89],[90]) and Chamkha et al. [91] obtained similarity solutions
for unsteady flow and heat transfer over a stretching sheet under different conditions.
Hayat and Awais [92] analysed the time-dependent flow over a stretching surface.
Bhattacharyya et al. [93] analysed the effects of slip on unsteady boundary layer
stagnation point flow past a stretching sheet. Of late, Hayat et al. [94] discussed the
three-dimensional flow of Jeffery fluid past a stretching surface and Mukhopadhyay
et al.[95] analyzed the Casson fluid flow over an unsteady stretching surface.

Please purchase PDF Split-Merge on www.verypdf.com to remove this watermark.

 Chapter 1 17

The unsteady flow and heat transfer of nanofluid flow past a different geometry has
more attractable applications in the field of engineering and industry. Unfortunately,
very few investigations have been done in the recent years. Narayana and Sibanda [96]
investigated the laminar flow of a nanoliquid film over an unsteady stretching sheet.
Two different types of nanoliquids, namely, Cu–water and Al2 O3 –water were consid-
ered. They concluded that the unsteadiness parameter always succeeds in thickening
the momentum boundary layer and thinning the thermal boundary layer in both
types of nanoliquids. With the help of Boungiorno model, unsteady boundary-layer
flow and heat transfer of a nanofluid over a permeable stretching/shrinking sheet was
analyzed numerically by Bachok et al. [97]. They obtained dual solutions for both
cases of stretching and shrinking surfaces. Whereas, with using different types of
nanofluids Mahdy [98] studied the unsteady boundary layer flow over a stretching
surface. Based on his study, he reported that the thermal boundary layer was in-
creased and momentum boundary layer was decreased with the use of water based
nanofluids as compared to pure water. The presence of magnetic field and thermal
radiation on the unsteady boundary layer flow of nanofluid over a stretching surface
have been worked out by Khan et al. [99]. They used finite difference technique to
solve the governing equations numerically.

1.7 Boundary conditions

A detailed account of the boundary conditions is a matter of primary importance. A

proper boundary conditions must be used to solve the governing equations. In fluid
flow and heat transfer problems, these can be distinguished in two different ways,
namely hydrodynamic and thermal boundary conditions.

1.7.1 Hydrodynamic boundary conditions

A boundary condition can be distinguished in first type, or Dirichlet condition, sec-

ond type, or Neumann condition and third type, or Robin condition. To simplify the
discussion, let us consider a vertical plate of two dimensional flow with x-axis is taken
along the plate and y-axis is perpendicular to it in the outward direction towards the

Please purchase PDF Split-Merge on www.verypdf.com to remove this watermark.

 Chapter 1 18

fluid of ambient velocity. In a general form, the Dirichlet condition can be expressed,
for instance in the case of a given velocity ~u at a given boundary, as

~u = D1 (x, t) (1.7)

where D1 (x, t) is a function defined on the boundary. On the other hand, at a given
boundary, the Neumann conditions is expressed by
∂~u
= N1 (x, t) (1.8)
∂y
where N1 (x, t) is a function defined on the boundary. For the third type conditions,
the Robin conditions, on a given boundary the velocity ~u is such that
∂~u
C1~u + C2 = R1 (x, t) (1.9)
∂y
where R1 (x, t) is a function defined on the boundary and C1 , C2 are constants.

On modelling the hydrodynamical behaviour of the fluid at the boundaries, dif-

ferent configurations can be used: permeable or impermeable walls, slipping or no-
slipping walls, moving walls, free boundaries and interface conditions between a clear
fluid and a porous medium are taken into account. The impermeability condition is
a Dirichlet condition that, on the boundary of the vertical plate, can be expressed as

~u = 0 at y = 0 (1.10)

If, instead of being impermeable, a boundary is free (as in the case of a liquid saturated
porous medium exposed to the atmosphere), then the appropriate condition is that
the pressure is constant along the boundary. By using Darcy’s law and continuity
equation, the free surface boundary condition can be expressed as
∂~u
= 0 at y = free boundary (1.11)
∂y
that it is a Neumann condition on the velocity.

In the case of an interface between a clear fluid and a porous medium, one needs
special boundary conditions. Beaver and Joseph [100] state that, if there is a flow
in the horizontal direction, x for example, the appropriate boundary condition is the
empirical relationship
∂ u~I αBJ
= 1/2 (u~I − ~u) (1.12)
∂y K

Please purchase PDF Split-Merge on www.verypdf.com to remove this watermark.

 Chapter 1 19

where αBJ is a nondimensional quantity and is independent of the viscosity of the

fluid, but it depends on the material characteristics of the porous medium. Sahraoui
and Kaviany [101] have shown that the value of αBJ depends on the flow direction
at the interface, the clear fluid Reynolds number and nonuniformities in the porous
medium interface.

1.7.2 Thermal boundary conditions

On modelling the thermal behaviour of the fluid at the boundaries, different con-
figurations of the temperature at the plate can be used: adiabatic, with a prescribed
non-vanishing heat flux, isothermal or imperfectly isothermal. If, for instance, the
plate is isothermal, the boundary condition is of the Dirichlet type and a prescribed
temperature can be imposed, namely

T = Tw (x, t) at the plate y = 0 (1.13)

If, on the other hand, there is an impressed heat flux on the bottom wall, a Neumann
condition has to be used. Moreover, the prescribed heat flux condition a particular
limit that can be expressed as
∂T
= N (x, t) at the plate y = 0 (1.14)
∂y
When the function N (x, t) = 0, one obtains the adiabatic condition, or zero heat
flux condition. The imperfectly isothermal condition is a third type condition, Robin
condition, and it is defined by
∂T
−k = h[T − Tw (x, t)] at the plate y = 0 (1.15)
∂y
where h is the external heat transfer coefficient or the conductance of the boundary
wall.

1.8 Physical parameters

The use of dimensionless numbers in engineering and physics allows the important
task of data reduction of similar problems. This means that a lot of experimental
runs are avoided if data is correlated using appropriate dimensionless parameters. In
this section, we have discussed some physical parameters governing the problems.

Please purchase PDF Split-Merge on www.verypdf.com to remove this watermark.

 Chapter 1 20

Prandtl number (P r)
The Prandtl number is the ratio of momentum diffusivity (kinematic viscosity)
to thermal diffusivity. It is named after the German physicist Ludwig Prandtl.

ν
Pr =
α

where, ν is the kinematic viscosity and α is the thermal diffusivity. In heat

transfer problems, the Prandtl number controls the relative thickness of the
momentum and thermal boundary layers.

Reynolds number (Re)

The Reynolds number is defined as the ratio of inertial forces to viscous forces.
It is used to characterize different flow regimes within a similar fluid, such as
laminar or turbulent flow.

Uw x
Re =
ν

where Uw is the velocity of the plate.

Grashof number (Gr)

The Grashof number is the ratio of buoyancy to viscous force acting on a fluid.
It frequently arises in the study of situations involving natural convection.

gβ(Tw − T∞ )x3
Gr =
ν2

where g is the gravitational force, Tw is the surface temperature and T∞ is the

ambient temperature.

Mixed convection parameter (λ)

The combination of Grashof and Reynolds numbers is represented as mixed
convection parameter or sometimes it is called as Richardson number.

Gr
λ=
Re2

Typically, the natural convection is negligible when Ri < 0.1, forced convection
is negligible when Ri > 10, and neither is negligible when 0.1 < Ri < 10.

Please purchase PDF Split-Merge on www.verypdf.com to remove this watermark.

 Chapter 1 21

Skin-friction co-efficint (Cf )

It is a type of friction force which exists at the surface of a solid body immersed
in a much larger volume of fluid which is in motion relative to the body. It can
be expressed as

τw
Cf =
1/2ρU 2

where τw is the local wall shear stress.

Nusselt number (N u)
The Nusselt number is the ratio of convective to conductive heat transfer across
(normal to) the boundary.

qw x
Nu =
k(Tw − T∞ )

where, qw is the heat flux at the wall and k is the thermal conductivity. It
characterize the flow and heat transfer whether by convection or conduction. A
larger Nusselt number corresponds to more active convection and close to one
corresponds to convection and conduction is of similar magnitude.

Sherwood number (Sh)

The Sherwood number is a dimensionless number used in mass-transfer oper-
ation. It represents the ratio of convective to diffusive mass transport, and is
named in honour of Thomas Kilgore Sherwood.

x(qm )
Sh =
DB (φw − φ∞ )

where qm is the mass transfer co-efficient and DB is the mass diffusivity.

Brownian motion parameter (N b)

Brownian motion is the random motion of particles suspended in a base fluid.
It intensifies with an increase in temperature as per the kinetic theory of the
particles.

(ρC)p DB (φw − φ∞ )
Nb =
(ρC)f ν

where DB is the Brownian diffusion co-efficient.

Please purchase PDF Split-Merge on www.verypdf.com to remove this watermark.

 Chapter 1 22

Thermophoresis parameter (N t)
Thermophoresis is a phenomenon observed when a mixture of two or more
types of motile particles is subjected to the force of a temperature gradient.
This phenomenon is most significant in a natural convection process, where the
flow is driven by buoyancy and temperature.

(ρC)p DT (Tw − T∞ )
Nt =
(ρC)f T∞ ν

where DT is the thermophoretic diffusion co-efficient.

Lewis number (Le)

Lewis number is the ratio of mass diffusvity and thermal diffusivity. For most
nanofluids, Le is taken to be large, i.e., Le > 1.

ν
Le =
DB

Nield numbers (NHP & NHS )

Nield numbers are the interface heat transfer parameters between the fluid/particle
and the fluid/solid-matrix phases. It is named by Vadasz in the recent literature.

hf p xαf hf s xαf
NHP = , NHS =
(1 − φ∞ )kf Uw (1 − φ∞ )kf Uw

where hf p and hf s are the interface heat transfer co-efficients between the
fluid/particle and the fluid/solid-matrix phases.

1.9 Outline of the thesis

The purpose of the present study is to characterize the boundary layer flow and heat
transfer behaviour past a vertical stretching surface embedded in a nanofluid/fluid
saturated porous media in the aspect of transient state. By applying suitable similar-
ity transformation, the governing partial differential equations are transformed into
a set of time dependent non-linear higher order ordinary differential equations. This
system of equations is then solved numerically by employing fourth-fifth order Runge-
Kutta-Fehlberg scheme based shooting technique with a systematic initial guesses for

Please purchase PDF Split-Merge on www.verypdf.com to remove this watermark.

 Chapter 1 23

the missing initial conditions. All the computations are done by a program in the
MATLAB 2012a package. The numerical results are compared with the existing lit-
erature and found that they are in good agreement.

A detailed outline of the thesis is given below. The thesis comprises of six main
chapters. The first three of six main chapters are pertained with the boundary layer
flow and heat transfer through porous media and the remaining three are concerned
with nanofluid flow and heat transfer.

The following considerations are taken in general throughout the thesis. An

unsteady two-dimensional laminar boundary layer flow of a viscous incompressible
electrically conducting fluid over a vertical plate is considered. The plate is being
stretched with the non-uniform velocity, which is increase with time. For example in
the case of polymer extrusion, the material properties of the extruded sheet may vary
with time. Here, the stretching surface is subjected to such amount of tension which
does not alter the structure of the porous material. A uniform time dependent mag-
netic field is applied in the direction perpendicular to the stretching surface. Also, it
is assumed that the temperature of the plate is linearly varying with x and an inverse
square law for its decrease with time.

Chapter 2 deals with the numerical investigation of unsteady hydromagnetic

boundary layer flow and heat transfer over a vertical stretching surface in the pres-
ence of non-uniform heat generation/absorption and variable thermal conductivity.
Extensive calculations have been performed to obtain the behaviour of velocity, tem-
perature, skin-friction and heat transfer rate for a wide range of physical parameters,
such as transient parameter, buoyancy parameter, variable thermal conductivity pa-
rameter, radiation parameter, suction/injection parameter, space and temperature
dependent heat generation/absorption parameters, magnetic and Prandtl numbers.

Chapter 3 concerns with the effect of non-uniform heat generation/absorption on

unsteady hydromagnetic flow over a vertical stretching surface embedded in a non-
Darcian porous medium with variable porosity and permeability. The flow in the

Please purchase PDF Split-Merge on www.verypdf.com to remove this watermark.

 Chapter 1 24

porous medium is governed by Brinkman-Forchheimer extended Darcy model. The

effects of governing parameters on the dimensionless velocity and temperature distri-
butions for uniform permeability (UP) and variable permeability (VP) of the porous
medium are discussed graphically. Also, the local skin friction coefficient and the rate
of heat transfer are computed for various pertinent parameters governing the problem.

Chapter 4 deals with the investigation pertaining to the effect of heat generation/
absorption on transient hydromagnetic flow past a vertical stretching surface with
thermal non-equilibrium between the fluid and solid phases. Numerical solutions for
the coupled non-linear equations are obtained by Runge-Kutta Fehlberg method along
with shooting technique and these results are compared with the existing literature in
the case of local thermal equilibrium. A parametric study is conducted on the phys-
ical parameters governing the problem in the case of local thermal non-equilibrium.

In chapter 5, the problem of unsteady MHD boundary layer flow of nanofluid

past a impulsive stretching sheet with different heating processes, namely prescribed
surface temperature and concentration (PSTC) and prescribed heat and concentra-
tion flux (PHCF) simultaneously is analyzed. The model used for the nanofluid
incorporates the effects of Brownian motion and thermophoresis. Keeping with the
Oberbeck-Boussinesq approximation, the governing equations are solved numerically
by Runge-Kutta-Fehlberg method along with shooting technique. The skin friction,
the rate of heat and mass transfer from the plate to the fluid are presented in graphical
and tabular form for various values of the pertinent parameters governing the model.
Besides these, the algebraic correlations for the Nusselt and Sherwood numbers based
on a regression analysis are also developed.

The effect of local thermal non-equilibrium (LTNE) on the transient hydromag-

netic boundary layer flow of nanofluid saturated porous media over a vertical stretch-
ing sheet is investigated in chapter 6. To prevent particles from agglomeration and
deposition on the porous matrix, it is assumed that nanoparticles are suspended in
the nanofluid using either surfactant or surface charge technology. Three temperature
model is used to represent the local thermal non-equilibrium among the particle, fluid

Please purchase PDF Split-Merge on www.verypdf.com to remove this watermark.

 Chapter 1 25

and solid-matrix phases. The present numerical method is verified by comparing the
results with previously published data for the case of ordinary fluid and nanofluid
with thermal equilibrium model. The effects of LTNE parameters, nanofluid param-
eters and the combined magnetic and porous parameters on the boundary layer flow
and heat transfer characteristics are thoroughly examined and are portrayed through
graphs.

In chapter 7, the influence of cross-diffusion effects on the transient hydromagnetic

nanofluid flow over a stretching surface embedded in a porous medium in the presence
of local thermal non-equilibrium is examined. The Brownian motion, thermophore-
sis, Soret and Dufour effects are incorporated. In order to examine the local thermal
non-equilibrium, three temperature model for the fluid, nanoparticle and solid-matrix
phases is used. Numerical computations are carried out to analyze the effects of tran-
sient parameter, nanofluid parameters, thermal non-equilibrium parameters, Soret
and Dufour parameters on the convective heat, regular mass and nanoparticle mass
transfer characteristics.

At the end of each chapter, the closing remarks are given in detail and an overall
comparison of the results obtained in all research problems have been reported in the
last section of the thesis heading by “Summary”.

♠♠♠♠♠

Please purchase PDF Split-Merge on www.verypdf.com to remove this watermark.