4.

1 Species, communities, and Ecosystems

Species
1. Distinguish between a species and a population
Species are groups of organisms that can potentially interbreed to produce fertile offspring, whilst
a population includes members of a species that may be reproductively isolated in separate
populations. For example for species, male birds of paradise that inhabit the forests of Papua
New Guinea and other Australasian islands do an elaborate and distinctive mating or courtship
dance, which involves repeatedly carrying out a series of movements to display their exotic
plumage. One reason for this is to show a female that they are a fit and suitable partner. There
are 41 different types of birds of paradise; each of these usually only reproduces with others of its
type, and hybrids between the different types are rarely produced. For this specific reason, each
of the 41 types of birds of paradise remains distinctively different, with characters that are
different from those of other types; these types of organisms are classified as a species.

Populations, on the other hand, are groups of organisms of the same species who live in the
same area at the same time. If two populations live in different areas, they are unlikely to
interbreed or create offspring. This doesn’t mean that they are necessarily different species,
however. If they have the potential to create offspring or rather, interbreed, they are still part of the
same species.
If two populations of a species never interbreed then they may gradually develop differences in
their characters; even if there are recognizable differences, they are still considered to be part of
the same species until they cannot interbreed and create fertile offspring anymore. This point is
hard to distinguish or pinpoint exactly.

3. Distinguish between autotrophs and

heterotrophs
Autotrophs, which means “self-feeding”, are organisms that
make their own carbon compounds from carbon dioxide
and other simple substances.
Heterotrophs, which means “feeding on others”, are
organisms that obtain their carbon compounds from other
organisms.

4. Distinguish between inorganic and organic

substances
From a chemistry aspect, organic molecules are molecules
that have a carbon backbone with some hydrogen to fill in
empty spaces. Inorganic molecules are made of other
elements; they can contain carbon and hydrogen, but if
they have both, they are organic.
5. Distinguish between consumers, detritivores, and saprotrophs
Consumers are heterotrophs that feed on living organisms by ingestion; heterotrophs are divided
into groups by ecologists according to the source of organic molecules that they use and the
method whereupon they ingest these molecules. Consumers feed off of other organisms; these
organisms are either still alive or have only been dead for a relatively short time. A mosquito
sucking blood from a larger animal is a consumer that feeds on an organism that is still alive. A
lion feeding off a gazelle that it has killed is a consumer.

Consumers ingest their food; this means that they can take in undigested, raw food that they then
ingest, digest, and absorb nutrients from. Unicellular consumers such as Paramecium take the
food in by endocytosis and digest it inside vacuoles. Multicellular consumers such as lions take
food into their digestive system by swallowing it.

Detritivores are also heterotrophs, but they obtain their organic nutrients by internal digestion.
Organisms discard large quantities or organic matter, for example
- Dead leaves and other parts of plants
- Feathers, hairs, and other dead parts of animal bodies
- Feces from animals
This dead organic matter rarely accumulates in ecosystems and instead is used as a source of
nutrition by two groups of heterotroph - detritivores and saprotrophs.
Detritivores ingest dead organic matter into their gut; unicellular organisms ingest it into food
vacuoles. The larvae of dung beetles feed by ingestion of feces rolled into a ball by their parent.

Saprotrophs are heterotrophs that obtain organic nutrients from dead organic matter by external
digestion; they secrete digestive enzymes into the dead organic matter and digest it externally.
After that, they will absorb the products of digestion. Many types of bacteria and fungi are
saprotrophic. They are also known as decomposers because they break down carbon
compounds in dead organic matter and release elements such as nitrogen into the ecosystem so
that they can be used by other organisms.

6. Name one example of a autotroph, consumer, detritivore and a saprotroph

Autotroph – Arabidopsis Thaliana
Consumer – Humans, most animals
Detrivore – Earthworms and larvae

Saprotroph – Many types of bacteria and fungi

Ecosystems
7. Distinguish between a community and an ecosystem
Communities are formed by populations of different species living together and interacting
with each other. All species are dependent on relationships with other species for their long-term
survival. Because of this, a population of a species can never live in isolation; groups of
populations live together. A group of these populations living together in an area and interacting
with each other is known as a community. They can consist of hundreds or even thousands of
species living together in an area.

Ecosystem, on the other hand, is a community of organisms in an area as well as their

non-living environment; they can be considered to be a single highly complex interacting
system. Communities live and depend on their non-living surroundings of air, water, soil, or rock.
These surroundings can also be called abiotic environments. In some cases, the abiotic
environment exerts a powerful influence over the organisms; sand dunes, for example, develop
along the coast where sand is blown up the shore and specialized plants grow in the loose
wind-blown sands; the roots of these plants stabilize the sand and their leaves break the wind en
encourage more sand to be deposited.

8. List some examples of ecological interactions

- Predation: One wins, one loses
Includes any interaction between two species in which one
species benefits by obtaining resources from and to the
detriment of the other.
-Is most often associated with the classic predator-prey
interaction; not all prediction interactions result in the death
of one organism

- Herbivory; a herbivore often consumes one part of the

plant. This damages the plant, but may also result in seed
dispersal
- Parasitic interactions; parasites cause harm to the host
over time, even possibly death. As an example, parasitic
tapeworms attach themselves to the intestines of dogs, and humans,
consuming partially digested food and depriving the host of nutrients
- Competition: The double negative
- Exists when multiple organisms vie for the same, limiting resource.
- Lowers fitness of both; use of a limited resource by one species decreases
availability to the other
- Can be interspecific, between different species, or intraspecific, or between
individuals of the same species
- Species cannot coexist; either one will become extinct or evolution reduces the
competition
- Mutualism: Everyone wins
- Benefits both species
- Well-known example is the mutualistic relationship between alga and fungus that
form lichens; the photosynthesising algae supplies the fungus with nutrients, and
gains protection in return
- Also allows lichen to colonise habitats inhospitable to either organism
alone
 - In rare cases mutualistic partners cheat
- Some bees and birds receive food rewards without providing pollination
services
- Nectar robbers chew a hole at the base of the flower and miss contact
with the reproductive structures
- Commensalism: A positive/zero interaction
- One species benefits and the other is unaffected
- As an example; cattle egrets and brown headed cowbirds forage in close
association with cattles and horses, feeding on insects flushed by the movement
of the livestock
- The birds benefit, but the livestock do not, but they do not pay either
- Difficult to distinguish commensalism and mutualism
- If the egret or cowbird feeds on ticks or other pests off of the animal’s
back, it is seen more as mutualism (harming animals → eaten)
- Amensalism: A negative/zero interaction
- Presence of one species has a negative effect on another, but the first species is
unaffected
- For example, a herd of elephants walking across a landscape may crush fragile
plants
- Commonly result when one species produces a chemical compound that is
harmful to another species
- The chemical produced in the roots of black walnut inhibit the growth of
other trees and shrubs but has no effect on the walnut tree

9. Explain why inorganic nutrients must be cycled within an ecosystem

Nutrients, in this case, refer to the material required by an organism, and include elements such
as carbon, nitrogen, and phosphorous. The supply of inorganic nutrients on planet Earth is, in
fact, finite; new elements cannot simply be created and so are in limited supply.
Because of this, chemical elements are constantly recycled after they are used. For example,
autotrophs obtain inorganic nutrients from the air, water, and soil and convert them into organic
compounds. Then, heterotrophs ingest these organic compounds and use them for growth and
respiration, releasing inorganic byproducts. When an organism dies, saprotrophs decompose the
remains and free inorganic materials into the soil; the return of these nutrients to the soil ensures
the continual supply of raw material for the autotrophs, and can be seen to be self-sustainable.

10. Outline the requirements for

sustainability in ecosystems
Ecosystems describe the interaction between
biotic components and their abiotic components;
they are largely self-contained and have the
capacity to be self-sustaining over long periods of
time. There are three main components required
for sustainability in an ecosystem; energy
availability, nutrient availability, and recycling of
wastes. To start off, energy availability refers to
the light from the sun that provides the initial
energy source for almost all communities.
Nutrient availability refers to the need for
saprotrophic decomposers to ensure the constant
recycling of inorganic nutrients within an
environment. Lastly, recycling of wastes refers to certain bacteria that can detoxify harmful waste
byproducts (e.g. denitrifying bacteria such as Nitrosomonas).
Mesocosms
11. Plan to establish mesocosms in an attempt to establish sustainability
Mesocosms are enclosed environments that allow a small part of a natural environment to be
observed under controlled conditions. A terrarium, however, is a small transparent container in
which selected plants (or animals) are kept and observed.
In order to make a self-sustaining terrarium, you would need to make it using a glass or plastic
bottle with a lid, and following the following steps:
1. Building a Verdant Foundation
a. Add a bottom layer of pebbles, gravels, or sand – this layer exists for drainage
(smaller vessels require thinner rock layers)
b. Add a second thin layer of activated charcoal – this will prevent mold and help to
aerate the soil
c. Spread a thin cover of sphagnum moss (or use an organic coffee filter) to create
a barrier between the lower layers and the soil
d. The final layer is the pre-moistened growing medium (potting mix)
2. Selecting the Right Plants
a. Ideally, choose plants that are both slow growing and thrive in a bit of humidity
(most ferns, club moss, etc)
b. Inspect the plant thoroughly for any signs of disease or insects before introducing
them to the terrarium
3. Maintaining Appropriate Conditions
a. Ensure the terrarium is placed in a location that provides a continuous source of
light
b. Locate the terrarium in a place that does not experience fluctuating temperature
conditions (avoid direct sunlight)
c. Do not initially over-water plants – once the right humidity is established, a
terrarium can go months without watering
d. Occasional pruning may be required – however, as the level of soil nutrients
decreases, plant growth should slow down
Chi-squared
The presence of two species within a given environment will be dependent upon potential
interactions between them. If two species are typically found within the same habitat, they show a
positive association; if not, they show a negative association. Species that show a positive
association include those that exhibit predator-prey or symbiotic relationships; species that show
a negative association typically exhibit competition for the same resources. One species may
utilize the resources more efficiently, precluding the survival of the other species (competitive
exclusion). However, in some cases, both species may alter their use of the environment to avoid
direct competition (resource partitioning).
If two species do not interact, there will be no association
between them and their distribution will be independent of
each other.
12. Describe quadrat sampling
Quadrat sampling helps to determine the presence of two
species in a given environment. A quadrat is a rectangular
frame of known dimensions that can be used to establish
population densities; they are placed inside a defined area in
either a random arrangement or according to a design. Then,
the number of given individuals inside the defined area is
either counted or estimated via percentage coverage. The sampling process is repeated many
times to gain a representative data set.
It is, obviously, not an effective method for counting motile organisms; it is used for counting
plants and sessile/stationary animals. In each quadrat, the presence or absence of each species
is identified. This allows for the number of quadrats
where both species were present to be compared
against the total number of quadrats.
 13. Interpret the results of a chi-squared test
Chi-squared test can also be applied to data generated from quadrat sampling to determine if
there is a statistically significant association between the distribution of two species. A
chi-squared test can be completed by following five simple steps
- Identify hypothesis (null versus alternative)
- Construct a table of frequencies (observed versus expected)
- Apply the chi-squared formula
- Determine the degree of freedom (df)
- Identify the p-value (should be <0.05)
Example
The presence or absence of two species of scallop was
recorded in 50 quadrats on a rocky sea shore. The
following pattern was observed.
- 6 quadrats = both species
- 15 quadrats = king scallop only
- 20 quadrats = queen scallop only
- 9 quadrats = neither species
Step 1: Identify Hypotheses
A chi-squared test seeks to distinguish between two
distinct possibilities and hence requires two contrasting
hypotheses
- Null hypothesis (H0)
- There is no significant difference between the distribution of two species
- Alternative hypothesis (H1)
- There is a significant
difference between the
distribution of two
species
Step 2: Construct a Table of
Frequencies
A table must be constructed that
identifies expected distribution
frequencies for each species (for
comparison against observed). Expected
frequencies can be calculated according to
- Expected Frequency = (Row Total x Column Total) / Grand Total

Step 3: Apply the Chi-Squared Formula

The formula is as followed

O = Observed Frequency
E = Expected Frequency

These calculations can be broken down for each

part of the distribution pattern to make final
summation easier
Based on these results, the statistical value calculated by the chi-squared test is as followed
■ 𝝌2 = (2.20 + 2.38 + 1.59 + 1.73) = 7.90

Step 4: Determine the Degree of Freedom

In order to determine if the chi-squared value is statistically significant, a degree of freedom must be
identified. The degree of freedom is a mathematical restriction that designates what range of values fall
within each significant level
The degree of freedom is calculated from the table of frequencies according to the following
formula
df = (m - 1) (n - 1)
m = number of rows, n = a number of columns
When the distribution patterns for two species are being compared, the degree of freedom should always
be one.
Step 5: Identify the p Value
The final step is to apply the value generated to a chi-squared distribution table to determine if the
results are statistically significant. A
value is considered significant if there
is less than a 5% probability (p <
0.05) that the results are attributable
to chance.

When df = 1, a value great than

3.841 is required for results to be
considered statistically significant (p
< 0.05). A value of 7.90 lies above a p-value of 0.01, meaning there is less than a 1% probability results
are caused by chance; hence, the difference between observed and expected frequencies is statistically
significant. As the results are statistically significant, the null hypothesis is rejected and the alternate
hypothesis is accepted; because the two species do not tend to be present in the same area, we can infer
there is a negative association between them.

4.2 Energy
flow

Food chains

Describe the main source of energy

All green plants, and even some bacteria, are photoautotrophic, or, they use sunlight as their
main source of energy. This makes light the initial source of energy for almost all communities. In
a few ecosystems, the producers are chemoautotrophic bacteria, which basically means that they
use energy derived from chemical processes to perform actions.
 Light energy, which is absorbed by photoautotrophs, is converted into chemical energy (or ATP)
via photosynthesis (refer to Unit 1.9). This light energy is used to make organic compounds (such
as sugars) from inorganic compounds (such as carbon dioxide). Heterotrophs then ingest these
organic compounds in order to derive their own chemical energy (ATP). When these organic
compounds are broken down via cell respiration, ATP is produced to fuel metabolic processes.
Distinguish between a food chain and a food web
A food chain shows the linear feeding relationships between species in a community; the arrows
represent the transfer of energy and matter as one organism is eaten by another (arrows point in
direction of energy flow). The first organism in a food chain is always a producer, followed by
consumers (primary, secondary, tertiary, etc.)

A food web, on the other hand, is an entire system interlocking and linking different food chains. A
food web is more representative of actual feeding pathways within an ecosystem because
organisms can have more than one food source, and organisms can have more than one
predator. This means, that unlike a food chain, organisms in a food web can occupy more than
one trophic level (producer, primary/secondary/tertiary consumer).

Deduce the trophic level of organisms in a

food chain and a food web
The first organism in a food chain is always known as the producer. Take the following food chain.

The grass, as the start of the process, can be seen as the

producer, or the start of the chain. The grasshopper, who will
consume this grass, is known as the primary consumer. The
bird, which eats the grasshopper and consumes its energy, is
known as the secondary consumer. The snake, which will eat
the bird and take the energy, is known as the tertiary
consumer. Then, the owl, or any predator or consumer that is
known as the “alpha” or top of the food chain will be known as
the apex predator. Then, when the apex predator dies, the
saprotrophs will act as decomposers and grass will start back
at step one.

Energy Loss and Efficiency- Explain how energy is released

Energy is initially stored in organic molecules (such as sugars and lipids) and can be released
by cellular respiration to produce ATP. This ATP is then used to
fuel metabolic reactions required for growth and homeostasis;
a by-product of these chemical reactions is heat (thermal
energy), which is released from the organism. Not all energy
stored in organic molecules is transferred via heterotrophic
feeding, however – some of the chemical energy is lost by
 either being excreted as part of the organism’s feces or by remaining unconsumed as the
uneaten portions of food.
Explain how heat is lost from ecosystems
To start off, it is important to understand that chemical energy produced by an organism can be
converted into a number of forms, including kinetic energy (during muscular contractions), electrical
energy (during the transmission of nerve impulses), and light energy (by producing bioluminescence). All
of these reactions are exothermic and release thermal energy as a by-product. Also note that living
organisms cannot turn this heat into other forms of usable energy and that this heat energy is released
from the organism and is notably lost from the ecosystem (unlike nutrients, which are recycled). Hence,
ecosystems require a continuous influx of energy from an external source

Pyramid of energy
6. Draw a pyramid of energy as a
quantitative representation of the flow of
energy

Explain reasons for the shape of the pyramid of energy

A pyramid of energy is a graphical representation of the amount of energy at each trophic level of
a food chain. They are expressed in units of energy per area per time (kJ m-2 year-1). Pyramids of
energy will never appear inverted as some of the energy stored in one source is always lost upon
transfer.
Each level of the pyramid should be roughly one tenth of the size of the preceding level (as
energy transformations are ~10% efficient). The bottom level will always represent the producers,
with subsequent levels representing consumers (primary, secondary, et.

Explain why the length of food chains and the biomass of higher trophic levels is restricted and
explain biomagnification

Because energy transformations are only ~10% efficient, higher

trophic levels must consume more prey to meet energy needs. If a
pollutant is ingested by living organisms, it will become concentrated
at higher trophic levels as they eat more exposed prey.
The increase of a substance (such as a pollutant) in a particular
organism is called bioaccumulation. The increase in the
concentration of a substance at a particular trophic level is called
biomagnification.
Bioaccumulation refers to how pollutants enter a food chain, whereas
biomagnification refers to the tendency of pollutants to concentrate as they move from one trophic
level to the next.
Because pollutants become concentrated by biomagnification, higher trophic levels are more
susceptible to their toxic effects. For example, the pesticide DDT causes eggshell thinning and
 population declines in species of birds that fed on exposed insects. Secondly, heavy metals (like
mercury) released into waterways via industrial processes may become concentrated in fish.

4.3 Carbon cycling

Carbon cycle
1. Outline the carbon cycle
The carbon cycle is a biogeochemical cycle whereby carbon is exchanged between the different
spheres of the Earth. The four spheres can be labelled as the atmosphere (air), lithosphere
(ground), hydrosphere (water/oceans) and the biosphere (living things).
Carbon is exchanged between a variety of forms, including atmospheric gas, mainly in the form of
Carbon Dioxide, but also methane, oceanic carbonates, including bicarbonates dissolved in the
water and calcium carbonate in corals and shells, as organic matter, including carbohydrates,
lipids, and proteins found in all living things, and as non-living remains, such as detritus and fossil
fuels.
Different processes facilitate the carbon cycling between the different forms. It is also important to
note that Carbon Dioxide can dissolve in water to form hydrogen carbonate ions (HCO3-), which
lowers the pH of the water itself.
Carbon dioxide
2. Describe the role of autotrophs in the carbon cycle
Autotrophs, such as all plants and algae, convert inorganic carbon dioxide into organic
compounds via photosynthesis. These organic compounds include the carbohydrates, lipids, and
proteins required by the organism for survival.
Since autotrophs can use carbon dioxide for photosynthesis, the levels of carbon dioxide within
the organism should always be low. In other words, carbon dioxide should always be at a higher
concentration in the atmosphere or water. The concentration gradient ensures that carbon dioxide
will passively diffuse into the autotrophic organism as required. In aquatic producers, carbon
dioxide can usually diffuse directly into the autotroph, whereas in terrestrial plants, diffusion
occurs at the stomata. Heterotrophs cannot synthesize their own organic molecules and instead
obtain their carbon compounds via feeding.
All organisms may produce ATP via the process of cell respiration. Cell respiration involves the
breakdown of organic molecules (such as sugars) and produces carbon dioxide as a by-product.
The buildup of CO2 in respiring tissues creates a concentration gradient, allowing it to be
removed by passive diffusion.
In autotrophs, the uptake of CO2 by photosynthesis may at times be balanced by the production
of CO2 by respiration. This is known as the compensation point, at which the net carbon dioxide
assimilation is zero (intake = output).
Similarly, the amount of carbon dioxide in the environment will be determined by the level of the
following two processes:
- If there is more net photosynthesis than cell respiration occuring in the biosphere,
atmospheric carbon dioxide levels should drop.
- If there is more net respiration than overall photosynthesis occuring, atmospheric carbon
dioxide levels should increase.

3. Outline the production of CO2 by combustion

When organic compounds rich in hydrocarbons

are heated in the presence of oxygen, they
undergo a combustion reaction. This reaction is
exergonic (produces energy) and releases
carbon dioxide and water as by-products. The
 carbon dioxide is typically released into the atmosphere, increasing the concentration of gas in
the air.
Example: Combustion of Propane = C3H8 + 5O2 →
3CO2 + 4H2O + energy

There are different combustion sources, the first of

which being Fossil Fuels. Organic compounds can
become rich in hydrocarbons when compacted
underground for millions of years. The heat and
pressure over time trigger a chemical transformation
that results in the compaction of the organic matter. The resulting products of this process are fossil fuels
(coal, oil, and natural gas). Because this geological process takes millions of years to occur, fossil fuels
are a non-renewable source of energy.

The second source is Biomass. An alternative to relying on fuels produced by geological processes is to
manufacture fuels from biological processes. Living organisms produce hydrocarbons as part of their total
biomass, either for use or as a waste product. These hydrocarbons can be extracted and purified to
produce an alternative fuel source (such as bioethanol and
biodiesel. Provided new raw materials are provided and
waste products are removed, this source of energy is
renewable.
Carbon pools
4. Outline the production of methane from organic
matter
Methanogens are archaea microorganisms that produce
methane (CH4) as a metabolic by-product in anaerobic
conditions. Anaerobic conditions where methanogens may
be found include wetlands (swamps and marshes), marine
sediments (mud or lake beds), or the digestive tract of
ruminant animals (such as cow, sheep and goats).
Methanogens produce methane from the by-products of
anaerobic digestion, principally acetic acid and carbon
dioxide.
Acetic acid → Methane and Carbon Dioxide
(CH3COO- + H+ → CH4 + CO2)

Carbon Dioxide and Hydrogen → Methane and Water

(CO2 + 4H2 → CH4 + 2H2O)
Methane may either accumulate under the grounds or diffuse into the atmosphere. When organic
matter is buried in anoxic conditions (sea beds), deposits of natural methane gas may form
underground. Rising global numbers of domesticated cattle may be increasing the levels of
methane being released into the atmosphere.

Outline the oxidation of methane

When methane is released into the atmosphere as a result of
anaerobic reactions, it only persists for ~12 years. Methane will
be naturally oxidised to form carbon dioxide and water (CH4 +
2O2 → CO2 + 2H2O). This is why methane levels in the
atmosphere are not very large, even though significant
quantities are being produced
Describe the formation of peat and coals
In many soils, saprotrophic bacteria, and fungi will decompose dead organisms and return nutrients to the
soil for cycling. This decomposition process requires oxygen (cell respiration is required to fuel digestive
reaction). Waterlogged regions may lack oxygenated air spaces within the soil and thus possess
anaerobic conditions. Anaerobic respiration by organisms in these regions produces organic acids (such
as acetate), resulting in acidic conditions. Saprotrophic bacteria and fungi cannot function effectively in
anaerobic/acidic conditions, preventing decomposition. Since organic matter is not fully decomposed in
waterlogged soils, carbon-rich molecules remain in the soil and form peat. When deposits of peat are
compressed under sediments, the heat and
pressure force out impurities and remove
moisture. The remaining material has a
high carbon concentration and undergoes a
chemical transformation to produce coal.

Describe the formation of oil and gas

Oil and natural gas form as the result if the
decay of marine organisms on the ocean
floor. Sediments (such as clay and mud)
are deposited on top of the organic matter,
creating anoxic conditions that prevent
decomposition. As a result of the burial and
compaction, the organic material becomes
heated and hydrocarbons are formed. The
hydrocarbons from oil and gas, which are
forced out of the source rock and
accumulate in porous rocks (such as sandstone). The formation of fossil fuels (coal, oil, and gas) takes
place over millions of
years, making them a
non-renewable energy
source.

Describe how limestone

acts as a carbon sink
Carbon dioxide dissolves
in water and some of it will
remain as a dissolved gas, however the remainder will combine with water to form carbonic acid
(CO2 + H2O ⇄ H2CO3). Carbonic acid will then dissociate to form hydrogen carbonate ions
(H2CO3 ⇄ HCO3- + H+). This conversion also releases hydrogen ions, which is why the pH
changes when CO2 is dissolved in water (> acidic).
Autotrophs absorb both dissolved carbon dioxide and hydrogen carbonate ions and use them to
produce organic compounds.
When the hydrogen carbonate ions come into contact with the rocks and sediments on the ocean floor,
they acquire metal ions. This commonly results in the formation of calcium carbonate, and the subsequent
development of limestone. Living animals may also combine the hydrogen carbonate ions with calcium to
form calcium carbonate. This calcium carbonate forms the hardened exoskeleton of coral, as well as
forming the main component of mollusca shells. When the organism dies and settles to the sea floor,
these hard components may become fossilized in the limestone. Approximately 10% of all sedimentary
rock on Earth is limestone and about 12% of the mass of the calcium carbonate is carbon, so huge
amounts of carbon are locked up in limestone rock on Earth.

Global Carbon Fluxes

11. Identify pools and fluxes in the carbon cycle
Carbon fluxes describe the rate of exchange of carbon between the carbon sinks/reservoirs.
There are four main carbon sinks: the lithosphere (earth’s crust), hydrosphere (oceans),
atmosphere (air), and biosphere (organisms).
The rate at which carbon is exchanged between these reservoirs depends on the conversion
processes involved:
- Photosynthesis: Removes carbon dioxide from the atmosphere and fixes it in producers
as organic compounds
- Respiration: Releases carbon dioxide into the atmosphere when organic compounds are
digested in living organisms
- Decomposition: Releases carbon products into the air or sediment when organic matter is
recycled after the death of an organism
- Gaseous dissolution: The exchange of carbon gases between the ocean and the
atmosphere
- Lithification: The compaction of carbon-containing sediments into fossils and rocks within
the Earth’s crust (such as limestone)
- Combustion: Releases carbon gases when organic hydrocarbons (coal, oil, and gas) are
burned as a fuel source
12. Explain why scientists produce estimates of global carbon fluxes
It is not possible to directly measure the size of carbon sinks or the fluxes between them; instead,
estimates are made. Global carbon fluxes are very large and are therefore measured in
gigatonnes (1 gigatonne of carbon = 1 billion metric tonnes). Because carbon fluxes are large
and based on measurements from many different sources, estimates have large uncertainties.

Estimating carbon fluxes requires an understanding of the

factors that can affect the exchange of carbon between
different sinks. Some of the main causes for flux change
include climate conditions, natural events, and human
activity.
Climate Conditions
Rates of photosynthesis will likely be higher in summer seasons, as there is more direct sunlight
and longer days. Oceanic temperatures also determine how much carbon is stored as dissolved
CO2 or as hydrogen bicarbonate ions. Climate events such as El Nino and La Nina will change
the rate of carbon flux between the ocean and the atmosphere. Melting of the polar ice caps will
result in the decomposition of frozen detritus.
Natural Events
Forest fires can release high levels of carbon dioxide when plants burn (loss of trees also reduces
photosynthetic carbon uptake). Volcanic eruptions can release carbon compounds from the
Earth’s crust into the atmosphere.
Human Activity
Clearing trees for agricultural purposes (deforestation) will reduce the removal of atmospheric
CO2 via photosynthesis. An increased number of ruminant livestock (such as cows) will produce
higher levels of methane. The burning of fossil fuels will release carbon dioxide into the
atmosphere.

13. Interpret data from atmosphere monitoring stations

Atmospheric CO2 concentrations have been measured at the Mauna Loa Observatory (in Hawaii)
since 1958 by Charles Keeling. From these continuous and regular measurements, a clear
pattern of carbon flux can be seen:
- CO2 levels fluctuate annually (lower in the summer months when long days and more
light increase photosynthetic rates)
- Global CO2 trends will conform to northern hemisphere patterns as it contains more of
the planet’s land mass (i.e. more trees)
- CO2 levels are steadily increasing year on year since the industrial revolution (due to
increased burning of fossil fuels)
- Atmospheric CO2 levels are currently at
the highest levels recorded since measurements began
-
Data is now being regularly collected at a variety of field
stations, using standardized measurement techniques. All
stations show a clear upward trend in atmospheric CO2
concentrations year on year, with annual fluctuations.
Different monitoring stations may have slightly different
trends due to seasonal variations and the distribution of
local vegetation.

EXTRA INFORMATION
1. Biogeochemical Cycles
A biogeochemical cycle is a pathway by which a chemical substance moves through the biotic
and abiotic spheres of the Earth. While the carbon cycle is the most well-known pathway, other
biogeochemical cycles are equally important to live on Earth. These other biogeochemical
processes include the nitrogen cycle, phosphorus cycle, and sulfur cycle.
 Nitrogen Cycle
The majority of the Earth’s atmosphere is composed of
nitrogen gas, however, it is chemically inert in this form.
Atmospheric nitrogen must be chemically processed by
nitrogen-fixing bacteria in order to be used by plants; plants
absorb nitrogen from the soil as nitrate ions, nitrate ions, or
ammonium, while animals consume these products from
plants. When organisms die, nitrogen is in an organic form
(proteins) and must be converted back into an inorganic
form (ammonification). Nitrogen in the soil is converted back
into inert nitrogen gas by denitrifying bacteria.

Phosphorus Cycle
Phosphorus is a primary component of DNA and
energy-storing molecules (ATP and is present in membranes.
Phosphorus-based compounds are usually solid and hence
phosphorus is not found as a gas in the atmosphere.
Phosphorous (as phosphates) is incorporated and fixed to soil
particles but may be released by the weathering of rocks.
phosphates may enter the waterways via erosion and
leaching.

Sulphur Cycle
Sulphur is an essential component of living organisms, being a
constituent part of many proteins and enzyme cofactors.
Sulphur is in the air, and soil may be oxidised to form
sulphates; these sulphates are then reduced by plants and
bacteria and hence sulphur becomes incorporated into organic
molecules. Sulphur within the soil can also be mineralised into
inorganic forms and incorporated with metals (iron sulphide).
Burning of fossil fuels releases sulphur as sulphur dioxide
(SO2), which is an enabling component of acid rain.

Ocean Acidification
The ocean is the largest active carbon sink on Earth, responsible for absorbing roughly a third of all
human-produced CO2. Some CO2 may remain as dissolved gas within the water, however, the majority
will combine with water to form carbonic acid. The solubility of CO2 in seawater is inversely proportional
to oceanic temperature (ie more soluble in cooler temperatures). It is therefore a concern that global
warming could limit carbon storage in oceans, exacerbating climate change.

Ocean-Atmosphere Exchange
Typically, when carbon dioxide is dissolved in the ocean, it combines with water molecules to form
carbonic acid (H2CO3). The carbonic acid then dissociates to form bicarbonate ions (HCO3-) and
hydrogen ions (H+). The ocean also contains carbonate ions (CO3-), which are absorbed by coral and
mollusks to form calcium carbonate (CaCO3). Calcium carbonate is used to form the hard exoskeleton of
reef-building corals and is used by mollusks to develop shells. H+ ions can reduce the stock of such

carbonate ions in the ocean by combining with it to form bicarbonate. Hence, the levels of H+ ions must
be kept low to ensure that there is sufficient stock of carbonate ions for aquatic organisms.

Ocean Acidification
As a result of deforestation and the increased burning of fossil fuels, atmospheric carbon dioxide
concentrations have increased. With more CO2 being absorbed by the oceans, there is an associated
increase in the production of H+ ions. These H+ ions lower the pH of the ocean, causing acidification
(ocean pH has dropped ~0.2 since the industrial revolution). The H+ ions will also combine with carbonate
ions, reducing the amounts available to marine organisms. This will result in the formation of thinner,
deformed shells and reduce the population numbers of reef-building corals. The reduction of pH will also
dissolve calcium carbonate structures, enhancing the damage to shells and corals.

3. Biofuels
Fossil fuels are a non-renewable energy source as they take
several million years to form through slow, geological
processes. Fossil fuels include coal (formed from peat), and
oil and natural gas (petroleum).
Biofuels are liquid fuels that are produced from the structural
components (biomass) and waste of plant and animal
matter. As they are derived from biological processes, they
are functionally renewable (provided there is a constant
stock of reagents). Biofuels may use certain industrial
wastes as reagents (such as CO2, heat), making them an
ecologically sustainable alternative. Biofuels include
bioethanol, and biodiesel, with efforts ongoing to develop
better purification and refinement techniques.
4.4 Climate change

Greenhouse effect
1. Explain how the impact of a greenhouse gas is assessed
Certain gases, the most important of which are carbon dioxide and water vapour, enable the
atmosphere to retain heat. Without these gases in the atmosphere, the Earth’s temperature would
be too low to support life. Greenhouse gases absorb and emit long-wave (infrared) radiation,
thereby trapping and holding heat within the atmosphere. Greenhouse gases collectively make up
less than 1% of the Earth’s atmosphere.
The greenhouse gases which have the largest warming effect within the atmosphere are water
vapour (clouds), and carbon dioxide. Water vapour is created via evaporation of water bodies and
transpiration – it is removed via precipitation. Carbon dioxide is made by cell respiration and
burning fossil fuels – it is removed via photosynthesis and absorption by oceans.
Other greenhouse gases include methane and nitrogen oxides – these have less impact on the
overall warming effect. Methane is emitted from waterlogged habitats and landfills; it is also a
gaseous waste produced by ruminants. Nitrogen oxides are released naturally by certain bacteria
and also emitted in the exhaust by certain vehicles.
Water vapour is the most abundant greenhouse gas in the atmosphere, but it not produced by
human activity.
There are two factors that determine how much of an impact a greenhouse gas will have in warming the
atmosphere. To start off, the ability to absorb longwave radiation is assessed. Gases that have a greater
capacity to absorb longwave radiation will have a great warming impact (per molecule). Secondly, the
concentration within the atmosphere. The greater the concentration of a gas, the greater its warming
impact will be within the atmosphere. The concentration of gas will be determined by both its rate of
release and persistence within the atmosphere.

The overall impact of greenhouse gas will be determined by the combination of both these factors.
Methane has a larger capacity to absorb longwave radiation than carbon dioxide but is significantly less
abundant. Water vapour enters the atmosphere rapidly but only remains for short periods, while carbon
dioxide persists for years. Human activity is increasing the number of greenhouse gases (except for water
vapour) and hence increasing their impact.

2. Explain the relationship

between rises in concentrations
of greenhouse gases and the
enhanced greenhouse effect
The greenhouse effect is a natural
process whereby the atmosphere
behaves like a greenhouse to trap
and retain heat. This ensures the
Earth maintains the moderate
temperatures needed by organisms
to maintain life processes
(homeostasis). Without a
greenhouse effect, Earth’s
temperatures would drop
significantly at night in the absence
of direct light.

The greenhouse effect functions to trap heat within the atmosphere and hence prevent rapid temperature
fluctuations. Incoming radiation from the sun is shorter wave radiation (ultraviolet radiation and the visible
spectrum). The surface of the Earth absorbs shortwave radiation and re-emits it as a longer wavelength.
Greenhouse gases absorb and re-radiate this longwave radiation and hence retain the heat within the
atmosphere.

Global warming
5. Explain the threats to coral reefs from increasing
concentrations of dissolved carbon dioxide
 The oceans are a major carbon sink and absorb roughly a third of all human-produced
(anthropomorphic) CO2 emissions. CO2 solubility is temperature dependent (more soluble when
cooler) so less CO2 will be absorbed when the temperature rises.
When oceans absorb atmospheric CO2, some of it will remain dissolved in a gaseous state but
most will be chemically modified. Carbon dioxide will combine with water to form carbonic acid,
which dissociates into hydrogen ions and hydrogen carbonate. Hydrogen ions will lower the
ocean pH and will also combine with free carbonate ions to form more hydrogen carbonate. With
less free carbonate ions in the water, marine organisms are less able to produce calcium
carbonate via calcification. Calcium carbonate is used to form the hard exoskeleton of coral and
is also present in the shells of certain molluscs. Hence increasing concentrations of dissolved
carbon dioxide threatens the viability of coral reefs and certain molluscs.

CO2 Emissions and Ocean

Acidification
Rising levels of atmospheric
carbon dioxide are causing a
decrease in the pH of ocean
water. Since the start of the
industrial revolution, the ocean’s
pH has dropped from ~8.2 to
~8.1 (roughly a 30% increase in
acidity). It is predicted that if
current conditions continue,
oceanic pH could fall to roughly
7.8 by the turn of the century (2100).
The decrease in ocean pH is predicted to threaten the survival of marine organisms that require
calcium carbonate. An increase in the concentrations of H+ ions means there are less free
carbonate ions available for calcification. Shells and coral exoskeletons are also likely to begin to
dissolve when ocean conditions are more acidic. Experiments have shown that increasing water
acidity correlates with the significant thinning of shells over several weeks. Corals, sea urchins,
and shelled molluscs do not exist in regions with high levels of dissolved CO2 (such as near
hydrothermal vents).

Consequences of Ocean Acidification

An increase in ocean acidification as a
result of elevated anthropomorphic CO2
emissions could have several
consequences. The disappearance of coral
reefs could result in a loss of shoreline
protection and habitat, altering coastal
ecosystems. The loss in revenue from
tourism and food industries is predicted to
cost economies upwards of 1 trillion by
2100. Increasing the dissolved CO2 levels
in oceans would cause invasive species of
algae to flourish (more photosynthesis).

6. Discuss the correlation between global temperatures and carbon dioxide concentrations
on Earth
While greenhouse gases occur naturally, man is increasing greenhouse gas emissions via a
number of activities, including deforestation and increased farming/agriculture. The greenhouse
gas that is increasing most rapidly in the atmosphere is carbon dioxide, and the main cause is
combustion. When fossil fuels are combusted to release energy, carbon dioxide gas is released
as a by-product. The increased reliance on fossil fuels following the industrial revolution has
resulted in ~38% increase in CO2 levels. There are now efforts to reduce our reliance on fossil
fuels by exploiting alternative energy sources (such as solar power).
7. Evaluate claims that human activities
are not causing climate change
Many claims have been made regarding
the impact of human activities on climate
change; not all are supported by
evidence. Many arguments are not
backed by reliable scientific data or are
made by entities with vested interests
(such as oil companies).

CLAIM COUNTERCLAIM FIGURES

Climate has changed in the Climate changes do occur

past and current trends naturally, but usually not as
merely reflect the Earth’s abruptly as what is seen
natural climatic cycle currently

Data collected from the When global warming

Vostok ice core show
several changes in climate
over the last 400,000 years
At several points in history,
global average
temperatures have been
warmer than those currently
observed
occurred rapidly in the past,
it was always highly
destructive to life
(Permian mass extinction)
Atmospheric CO2 levels
positively correlate to
average global temperatures
and are currently at the
highest levels ever recorded

Climate change is being Over the last 35 years, the

caused by solar activity and
the effect of greenhouse gas
emissions is negligible
Temperatures on Earth are
influenced by the amount of
solar radiation from the sun
(more radiation = warmer
temperatures)
Warmer temperatures may
be caused by an increase of
solar irradiance by the sun
(as determined by the
number of sunspots)
sun has shown a slight
cooling trend, however,
average global
temperatures have
increased
There is no evidence to
support the correlation
between solar irradiance
and current global
temperature trends
Certain changes in climate
conditions cannot be linked
to greenhouse gas
emissions
Global sea levels began to
increase before greenhouse
gas emissions significantly
following the industrial
revolution
Therefore climate changes
like rising sea levels are
unrelated to greenhouse
gas emissions
Variability between
predicted climate change
models means that such
models are unreliable
Three different models of
predicted climate change
commissioned by the IPCC
show variation of more than
5ºC
CLimate change models are
based on assumptions and
if those assumptions are
false, the predictions will be
false
Increases in greenhouse
gas concentrations in the
atmosphere will not be
enough to cause significant
climate change
As of 2009, there were only
~39 molecules of carbon
dioxide per 100,000
molecules in the
atmosphere
At our current rate of CO2
emission, it will take
mankind another 5 years to
raise that level by 1
molecule (to 40 per
100,000)
The overall pattern of
change in sea levels will be
influenced by the period of
time over which the data is
collected
While sea levels did
increase preceding the
industrial revolution, this rise
in sea levels followed a
preceding period of
decrease
The rate at which the sea
levels have risen in the past
30 years is great than that
seen in the last 200 years
The assumptions made by
the different models relate to
the extent of human activity
predicted over the next 100
years
Model A1B predicts a
continued reliance on fossil
fuels while model B1
predicts a reduction in the
current use of raw materials
All three models still predict
an increase in average
global temperatures over the
next 100 years
The reason why carbon
dioxide is so important to the
environment is because
there is so little of it
Living things require
constant internal
environments (homeostasis)
– small external changes
can have big impacts on
viability
 While we may double
atmospheric CO2 levels by
the end of the century,
doubling a small number still
produces a small number

4 Ecology
4.1 Species, communities and ecosystems
Species:
● Species are groups of organisms that interbreed to produce fertile
offspring.
● When two members of the same species mate and produce offspring they
are interbreeding.
● Crossbreeding is when members of different species breed together.
● Offspring of crossbreeding tend to be infertile.
● Interbreeding maintains recognizable characteristics of species
Populations:
● Members of a species may be reproductively isolated in separate
populations.
● Population is a group of organisms of the same species that live in the
same area at the same time.
● Two populations may live in different areas but are still have the same
species as long as they could interbreed to produce fertile offspring.
● If they never interbreed it is likely that they may develop differences.

Autotrophs, heterotrophs and mixotrophs:

● Autotrophs make their carbon compounds from carbon dioxide and other
simple substances – self-feeding.
● Photosynthetic plants are an example of autotrophs.
● Parasites are exceptions to autotrophs because they evolved from them
(divergent evolution).
● Heterotrophs obtain carbon compounds from other organisms.
● Mixotrophs can have both auto/heterotrophic tendencies depending on
environmental circumstance. Organisms such as Euglena gracillis can
photosynthesize but also feed on detritus that they ingest by endocytosis.

Consumers:
● Consumers are heterotrophs that feed on living organisms by ingestion.
● They ingest their food; take in undigested material from other organisms,
digest it and absorb the products of digestion.
● Divided into primary, secondary and tertiary
● Many don’t fit into one specific trophic level because their diet includes
material from a variety of trophic groups.

Detritivores:
● Obtain organic nutrients by internal digestion.
● Organic matter – dead leaves, feathers, dead animal parts, feces.
● They ingest the dead matter and then absorb the products of digestion.
● Unicellular organisms ingest it into food vacuoles whilst multicellular
ingest it into the gut.

Saprotrophs:
● Saprotrophs are heterotrophs that obtain organic matter by external
digestion.
● They secrete digestive enzymes into dead organic matter.
● Bacteria and fungi are common examples.
● Known as decomposers because they break down dead matter and
release elements such as nitrogen back into the soil.

Community:
● Populations of different species co-existing.
● All species are dependent on relations with other species, which is why no
population of one species can live in isolation --- except humans.

Quadrat sampling:
● Base line marked around habitat using measuring tape.
● Random numbers are generated using a number generator.
● First number is used to determine distance along the measuring tape.
● Second is used to determine a distance out across the habitat at right
angles to the tape.
● Quadrat is placed precisely at the distance determined by the two random
numbers.
● Only suitable for immotile species.
● Results:
o Positive associations: two species occur in the same parts of a
habitat and are therefore associated.
o Negative associations: two species occur in different parts of a
habitat thus tend to not grow around each other and are therefore
associated.
o Independent distribution: no association between species (forms
null hypothesis during chi squared test).

Ecosystems:
● Community forms an ecosystem by its interactions with the abiotic
environment
● Organisms cannot live in isolation as they depend on their non-living
surroundings of air, water, soil or rock

Inorganic nutrients:
● Autotrophs and heterotrophs obtain inorganic nutrients from the abiotic
environment.
● Elements such as Carbon, Hydrogen and Oxygen are needed to make
monomers and polymers of the macronutrients we consume.
● Nitrogen and Phosphates are also needed (for DNA and proteins).
● These are obtained from the abiotic environment.
● Heterotrophs obtain such nutrients from carbon compounds in their food.
They can, however, obtain Calcium, Sodium and Potassium from their
abiotic environment.

Nutrient cycles:
● Supply of inorganic nutrients is maintained by nutrient cycling.
● Carbon cycle and nitrogen cycle are examples.
● Nutrients refer to elements that an organism needs.

Ecosystem sustainability:
● Ecosystems have the potential to be sustainable over long periods of time.
● Three requirements of nutrient sustainability:
o Nutrient availability
o Detoxification of waste products.
o Energy availability.
● Nutrients are often recycled and the waste products of one organism can
be used by another.
● Energy comes in continuous supply from the sun.

4.2 Energy flow

Sunlight and ecosystems:
● Most ecosystems rely on a supply of energy from sunlight.
● Three groups of autotrophs: plants, eukaryotic algae and cyanobacteria.
o not all plants are autotrophs like the dodder, which feeds on the
stems of other plants.
● Autotrophs rely on sunlight directly.
● Heterotrophs rely on sunlight indirectly.
● All energy in the carbon compounds will originally have been harvested
by photosynthesis in producers.
● Amount of sunlight absorbed/available for use, varies around the world.

Energy conversion:
● Light energy is converted to chemical energy in carbon compounds by
photosynthesis.
● Producers can release energy from their carbon compounds by cell
respiration and then use it for cell activities.
● This energy is eventually lost as waste heat.
● Large parts of carbon compounds remain in the cells and tissues of
producers and are available to heterotrophs.

Energy in food chains:

● Chemical energy in carbon compounds flows through food chains by
means of feeding.
● Consumers obtain energy from the carbon compounds in the organisms
on which they feed.

Respiration and energy release:

● Energy released by respiration is used in living organisms and converted
to heat.
o Need energy for synthesising large molecules (DNA RNA proteins).
o Active transport across membranes also consumes large amounts
of energy.
o Moving things around inside the cell, such as chromosomes or
vesicles or muscle fibres.
● Energy comes from ATP.
o Carbohydrates and lipids are oxidized during cell respiration.
o Oxidation is exothermic and therefore energy releasing – the
energy released is stored in ATP.
● Second law of thermodynamics states that energy transformations are
never 100% efficient.
o Energy that isn’t transferred from glucose to ATP is converted to
heat.
o Heat is also produced during cellular activities. (ATP =&gt; heat)

Heat energy in ecosystems:

● Heat energy cannot be converted to any other form of energy; hence
when it is produced it is generally lost to the environment.
● Heat makes living organisms warmer. It is therefore used as a mechanism of
homeostasis.
● Heat passes from hotter bodies to cooler bodies which is why it is
eventually lost to the abiotic environment.

Energy losses from ecosystems:

● Only about 10% of the energy at each tropic level becomes part of the
biomass of the organism in the next trophic level.
o As a result there is less and less bioavailable energy in each trophic
level.
o This limits the number of trophic levels in food chains.
o Energy in faeces does not pass along the food chain and instead
passes to ‘decomposers’ like saprotrophs and detritivores.
o There is a lot of uneaten material, bones or hair, which passes to
decomposers and gets excluded from the energy chain.
o A large part of energy is lost to heat, due to respiration and other
cellular activities. The only energy available to organisms is the
chemical energy in carbon compounds.
● Biomass, measured in grams, also diminishes along food chains due to
loss of carbon dioxide and water from respiration and
uneaten/undigested parts of food.
o Biomass therefore decreases in higher trophic levels.

4.3 Carbon cycling:

Carbon fixation:
● Autotrophs convert carbon dioxide into carbohydrates and other carbon
compounds via carbon fixation.
● This reduces carbon dioxide concentrations in the air.

Carbon dioxide in solution:

● Carbon dioxide is present as a dissolved gas or hydrogen carbonate ions
in aquatic habitats.
● Disassociation of carbon dioxide to form H + and HCO 3 - causes acidity.
● Aquatic plants to make carbohydrates and other carbon compounds
absorb carbon dioxide and HCO3- ions.

Absorption of carbon dioxide:

● Carbon dioxide taken in by autotrophs.
● Since carbon dioxide is used to produce carbon compounds within
autotrophs, there is a continuous debt of carbon dioxide causing a
concentration gradient with the atmosphere.
● This may happen through stomata on leaves or pores on stems.

Release of carbon dioxide from cell respiration:

● Release of carbon dioxide from cell respiration through diffusion.
● Non-photosynthetic cells in producers for example root cells in plants;
animal cells; saprotrophs and other decomposers of dead organic matter.
● Diffuses into water or atmosphere.

Methanogenesis:
● Methane is produced from organic matter in anaerobic conditions by
methanogenic archaeans and some diffuses into the atmosphere.
● Methane is a waste product of anaerobic respiration.
o Bacteria convert organic matter into a mixture of organic acids,
alcohol, hydrogen and carbon dioxide.
o Bacteria use the organic acids and alcohol to produce acetate,
carbon dioxide and hydrogen.
o Archaeans produce methane from carbon dioxide, hydrogen and
acetate.
▪ CO 2 + 4H 2 = CH 4 + 2H 2 O
▪ CH 3 COOH = CH 4 + CO 2
● Archaeans are methanogenic. They carry out this process in mud along
shores, swamps, mires, mangroves, guts of animals, peat deposits and
landfill sites. Essentially anywhere that is predominantly considered as an
anaerobic environment.

Oxidation of methane:
● Methane is oxidised to carbon dioxide and water in the atmosphere.
● Monatomic oxygen and highly reactive hydroxyl radicals are involved in
methane oxidation.
● Results in low atmospheric concentrations despite large production on
earth.

Peat formation:
● Forms when organic matter is not fully decomposed because of anaerobic
conditions in waterlogged soils.
● Saprotrophs obtain oxygen that they need for respiration from air spaces
in the soil.
● Waterlogged soil is anaerobic so saprotrophs can’t respire as completely,,
so dead organic matter is left partially decomposed.
● Acidic conditions develop which further inhibit saprotrophs and
methanogens from breaking down the organic matter.
● This results in peat.

Fossilized organic matter:

● Partially decomposed organic matter was converted into oil and gas in
porous rocks/coal.
● Large deposits are a result of incomplete decomposition of organic matter
and its burial in sediments that became rock.
● Coal is formed when peat is buried under other sediments. Peat is
compressed and heated, turning into coal.
● Oil and natural gas is formed in the mud at the bottom of seas and lakes.
o Caused by incomplete decomposition in aerobic environments
o Compression and heating due to sedimentation causes chemical
changes to occur.
o Porous rocks hold methane and the sedimentation is formed by
impervious rocks placed above and below that prevent the
deposit’s escape.

Combustion:
● Carbon dioxide is produced by the combustion of biomass and fossilised
organic matter.
● Heating to ignition in the presence of oxygen causes combustion.
● Products are carbon dioxide and water.
● Combustion of forest/grassland is natural but can also be artificially
induced for agricultural purposes.
● Coal, oil and natural gas are burned as fuels.

Limestone:
● Animals such as reef-building corals and molluscs have hard parts that
are composed of calcium carbonate.
o These can be fossilized in limestone.
● Post mortem, in neutral/alkaline conditions, these exoskeletons form
deposits on the seabed or can precipitate to form limestone rock.
● 12% of calcium carbonate is carbon; it is therefore a large carbon sink.

Pool versus flux:

● Pool is a reserve of an element whilst flux is the transfer of an element
from one pool to another.
● Carbon cycle features the flux of carbon from one pool to another.
4.4 Climate Change:
Greenhouse gases:
● Gases in the atmosphere retain heat, similar to how glass retains heat in
greenhouses.
● Water vapour and carbon dioxide are the two most potent greenhouse
gases.
● Water in clouds continues to retain heat and radiate it back to the earth’s
surface.
● Also reflects heat energy back from the Earth’s surface.

Other greenhouse gases:

● Methane:
o Released during extraction of fossil fuels and from melting ice.
o Also released from methanogens.
● Nitrous oxide:
o Released by bacteria and by agricultural processes/vehicle
exhausts.
● Greenhouse gases absorb longer wave radiation.

Assessing the impact of greenhouse gases:

● Two factors that determine the warming impact of a gas are:
o Their ability to absorb longer-wave radiation.
o The concentration of the gas in the atmosphere.

Long-wavelength emissions from Earth:

● Earth absorbs short-wave energy and re-emits longer wavelengths in the
form of infrared radiation.
● Solar radiation is short length.

Greenhouse gases:
● 30% of solar radiation is absorbed by ozone (UV rays).
● 80% of light reaching earth is radiated back towards atmosphere.
● Greenhouse gases capture 85% of remitted light; some of this energy is
radiated back to earth as it is scattered in all directions when re-emitted.

Global temperatures and carbon dioxide concentrations:

● Carbon dioxide concentrations from ice cores are consistent with the
positive correlation between carbon dioxide concentration and global
temperature.
● There seems to have a large fluctuation in global temperatures over the
span of Earth’s lifetime. These fluctuations, when analysed, reveal that
higher global temperatures are usually preceded by higher
concentrations of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere.
● This shows that an increase in greenhouse gases could result in
increasing global temperatures.
● The consequences in any rise in global average temperature, however,
would not be evenly spread, and some areas would experience different
changes (like getting colder or experience more rain etc.).
Industrialisation and climate change:
● Industrialisation has caused the combustion of fossil fuels and biomass on
a wider and more profound level.
● This increases atmospheric concentration of carbon dioxide rapidly,
which has affected and will continue to affect rising average global
temperatures.
● Releasing sinks of carbon stored as fossil fuels into the atmosphere.

Coral reefs and carbon dioxide:

● Ocean acidification will increase as carbon dioxide concentrations in the
atmosphere increase.
● Marine animals, such as reef-building corals, that deposit calcium
carbonate in their skeletons, need to absorb carbonate ions from
seawater.
● Carbon dioxide, when dissolved in water, makes carbonate ion
concentrations lower due to the reduction of carbonate to form HCO 3 .
● This reduces carbonate levels, which are crucial to the survival of corals.
o Carbonates are used by corals to make their skeletons.
o Also if the seawater ceases to be saturated with carbonate ions,
existing calcium carbonate tends to dissolve, putting existing
skeletons of corals at threat.