Socio Li Gui Stics

MODULE
Sociolinguistics Module
Distance Educaction
Universidade Pedagógica
Rua Comandante Augusto Cardoso n˚ 135
Copyright
This Module cannot be printed for commercial purposes. In case of photocopying, reference should be
made to Universidade Pedagógica and to the Authors of the module.
Universidade Pedagógica
Rua Comandante Augusto Cardoso, nº 135

Telefone: 21-320860/2
Telefone: 21 – 306720
Fax: +258 21-322113

Acknowledgements
To COMMONWEALTH of LEARNING (COL) for providing the Template used for the productions
designing the modules
To Instituto Nacional de Educação a Distância (INED) for the support and guidance provided
To Magnificent Rector, Dean of Faculty, Heads of Department for support provided during whole
process.
Technical Assistance
Author: Teresa Adriano
Instructional Designing: António Franque
Language Review: Sarita Monjane Henriksen
Graphic Designing: Anilda Ibrahimo Khan
Edition: Anilda Ibrahimo Khan

Contents
About this MODULE 1
How this MODULE is structured ..................................................................................... 1
Course overview 3
Welcome to ....................................................................................................................... 3
—is this course for you? ................................................................................................... 3
Course outcomes............................................................................................................... 4
Timeframe......................................................................................................................... 5
Study skills........................................................................................................................ 5
Need help? ........................................................................................................................ 6
Assignments...................................................................................................................... 7
Assessments ...................................................................................................................... 7
Getting around this MODULE 8

Margin icons ..................................................................................................................... 8
Unit 1 9
Basic Concepts in Sociolinguistics ................................................................................... 9
Introduction ............................................................................................................. 9
Lesson 1: Introductory Note on Sociolinguistics .................................................. 11
Lesson 2: Relationships between Language and Society...................................... 21
Lesson 3: Some Basic Methodological Concerns ................................................. 27
Lesson 4: Socieolinguistics and Related Subjects................................................. 32
Lesson 5: Language, Dialects, and Varieties ........................................................ 36
Lesson 6: Regional Dialects and Social Dialects ................................................. 55
Unit Summary................................................................................................................. 66
Assessment (END TEST) ............................................................................................... 69
Unit 2 83
Pidgin and Creole Languages ......................................................................................... 83
Introduction ........................................................................................................... 83
Lesson 1: Pidgins and Creoles............................................................................... 85
Lesson 2: Theories of Origin - Pidgins .............................................................. 102
Lesson 3: From Pidgins to Creoles and beyond ................................................. 110
ii Contents
Unit summary ............................................................................................................... 127

Assessment (END TEST) ............................................................................................. 130
Unit 3 139
Bilingualism & Diglossia.............................................................................................. 139
Introduction ......................................................................................................... 139
Lesson 1: Diglossia - Diglossic Societies........................................................... 141
Lesson 2: Bilingualism and Multingualism........................................................ 146
Lesson 3: Code - Switching Choice .................................................................... 149
Unit summary ............................................................................................................... 152
Unit 4 158
Language and Culture................................................................................................... 158
Introduction ......................................................................................................... 158
Lesson 1: Whorfian Hypothesis .......................................................................... 162
Lesson 2: Kinship Systems.................................................................................. 167
Lesson 3: Taxonomies......................................................................................... 170
Lesson 4: Colour Terminology............................................................................ 173
Lesson 5: Prototype Theory ................................................................................ 176
Lesson 6: Taboo and Euphemism ....................................................................... 179
Unit summary ............................................................................................................... 182
Unit 5 190
Language and Gender ................................................................................................... 190
Introduction ......................................................................................................... 190
Lesson 1: Gender Differences ............................................................................. 192
Lesson 2: Gender Linguistic Differences - Some Possible Explanations .......... 198
Unit summary ............................................................................................................... 203
Unit 6 207
Language Change ......................................................................................................... 207
Introduction ......................................................................................................... 207
Lesson 1: Variation and Change ......................................................................... 208
Lesson 2: How do changes spread?.................................................................... 212
Lesson 3: How do we study language change?.................................................. 215
Lesson 4: Reasons for Language Change........................................................... 218
Unit summary ............................................................................................................... 221
Unit 7 226
Language Planning ....................................................................................................... 226
Introduction ......................................................................................................... 226
Lesson 1:.............................................................................................................. 228

1. 2 Definition of Language Planning ................................................................. 231
Lesson 2: Types of Language Planning .............................................................. 234
Lesson 3: Official and National Language.......................................................... 242
Lesson 4: Official and National Language (Pararguay's and Tanzania' Case).... 250
Unit summary ............................................................................................................... 259
About this MODULE

has been produced by Universidade Pedagógica. All MODULEs
produced by Universidade Pedagógica are structured in the same way, as
outlined below.
How this MODULE is structured

The course overview
The course overview gives you a general introduction to the course.
Information contained in the course overview will help you determine:
If the course is suitable for you.
What you will already need to know.
What you can expect from the course.
How much time you will need to invest to complete the course.
The overview also provides guidance on:
Study skills.
Where to get help.
Course assignments and assessments.
Activity icons.
Units.
We strongly recommend that you read the overview carefully before

starting your study.
The course content

The course is broken down into7 units. Each unit comprises:
An introduction to the unit content.
Unit outcomes.
1
About this MODULE
New terminology.
Core content of the unit with a variety of learning activities.
A unit summary.
Assignments and/or assessments, as applicable.
Resources
For those interested in learning more on this subject, we provide you with
a list of additional resources at the end of this MODULE; these may be
books, articles or web sites.
Your comments
After completing Sociolinguistics Module we would appreciate it if you
would take a few moments to give us your feedback on any aspect of this
course. Your feedback might include comments on:
Course content and structure.
Course reading materials and resources.
Course assignments.
Course assessments.
Course duration.
Course support (assigned tutors, technical help, etc.)
Your constructive feedback will help us to improve and enhance this

course.
2
Course overview
Welcome to
Welcome to Module 1 of the Sociolinguistics.
The present Module is focussed on the study of Sociolinguistics, one of

the major subjects in the BA Course in Teaching English as a Foreign
Language (TEFL), at the English Department of the Language Faculty,
UP. The purpose is to provide students with a basic understanding of key
issues on the subject. The module starts with the definition of
Sociolinguistics, and then it explains the importance of teaching
Sociolinguistics in the course. The module also discusses a wide range of
issues, from Language Identity, Language & Society, Culture, Dialects,
Vernacular, Indigenous, National and Official Languages to Bilingualism
and Diglossia, Language Policy Issues, Pidgins and Creoles, Language
Change, and Language and Gender.
—is this course for you?

This course is intended for people who are teaching English as a
foreign or second language.
It is a new subject for teachers in Mozambique and it is introduced

in the first year of English Language Teaching Course at the
Pedagogical University, Department of English. All you need is
your reading and writing skills to take notes.
3
Course overview
Course outcomes
Upon completion of you will be able to:
Define Sociolinguistics
Discuss and explain the importance of Sociolinguistic in your

Course.
Outcomes
Distinguish Language from Dialect
Define key concepts such as Linguistic Codes, Vernacular,

Official, National Languages, Styles of Speaking and Registers
Discuss the Origin, Nature, and Characteristics of Pidgin and

Creole Languages
Comment on the major factors leading to Bilingualism and

Multilingualism, and Consequences of this phenomenon
Talk about Diglossic Societies, and main features
Discuss the causes of Male and Female Linguistic Differences,

major areas of difference and present concrete examples
Explain causes and importance of Language Change and Planning.
Discuss and evaluate effects of Language change and Planning.
4
Timeframe
Sociolinguistics is an annual subject, meaning that it should last for two
semesters. Note that each academic semester has an average of sixteen
(16) weeks. Therefore, it is expected that a student completes a total
How long? amount of 128 hours (64 hours each semester).
Please do allow yourself 180 minutes to study each lesson and resolve the
respective exercises or activities.
Study skills
As an adult learner your approach to learning will be different to that
from your school days: you will choose what you want to study, you will
have professional and/or personal motivation for doing so and you will
most likely be fitting your study activities around other professional or
domestic responsibilities.
Essentially you will be taking control of your learning environment. As a

consequence, you will need to consider performance issues related to
time management, goal setting, stress management, etc. Perhaps you will
also need to reacquaint yourself in areas such as essay planning, coping
with exams and using the web as a learning resource.
Your most significant considerations will be time and space i.e. the time
you dedicate to your learning and the environment in which you engage
in that learning.
We recommend that you take time now—before starting your self-

study—to familiarize yourself with these issues. There are a number of
excellent resources on the web. A few suggested links are:
http://www.how-to-study.com/
The “How to study” web site is dedicated to study skills resources.
You will find links to study preparation (a list of nine essentials for a
good study place), taking notes, strategies for reading text books,
using reference sources, test anxiety.
http://www.ucc.vt.edu/stdysk/stdyhlp.html
This is the web site of the Virginia Tech, Division of Student Affairs.
5
Course overview
You will find links to time scheduling (including a “where does time
go?” link), a study skill checklist, basic concentration techniques,
control of the study environment, note taking, how to read essays for
analysis, memory skills (“remembering”).
http://www.howtostudy.org/resources.php
Another “How to study” web site with useful links to time
management, efficient reading, questioning/listening/observing skills,
getting the most out of doing (“hands-on” learning), memory building,
tips for staying motivated, developing a learning plan.
The above links are our suggestions to start you on your way. At the time
of writing these web links were active. If you want to look for more go to
www.google.com and type “self-study basics”, “self-study tips”, “self-
study skills” or similar.
Need help?
In case of difficulties, please contact the following:
In Maputo:
Help Universidade Pedagógica - Centro de Educação Aberta e à Distância

(CEAD)
Faculty of Languages: English Department
Rua: Comandante Augusto Cardoso no. 135 Maputo
Telephone: 21 420860-2 or 21 306720
Monday to Friday: 8:00 to 12:00
Email: f:linguas@yahoo.com.br
In the provinces:
In each province there is a resource centre available and a local Provincial

English Advisor to help you.
For any assistance related to academic issues the Provincial English

Advisor will be able to help you and do not hesitate to contact her or him.
6
Assignments
Throughout each unit, you will have to carry out a number of activities
that will help you consolidate the matters reviewed.
We recommend that you go through all exercises indicated without

Assignments immediately resorting to the key answers/correction guide.
Assessments
A minimum of four (4) tests should be written in this course; two (2) tests
each semester. A Final Exam will take place at the end of the academic
year.
Assessments
Throughout each lesson in every unit you will have to do exercises or

activities to check your progress. Make sure that you resolve all exercises
and activities without immediately resorting to the answers key. If you do
start by the answers key before doing the exercises/activities you will be
fooling yourself!
7
Getting around this MODULE
Getting around this MODULE
Margin icons
While working through this MODULE you will notice the frequent use of
margin icons. These icons serve to “signpost” a particular piece of text, a
new task or change in activity; they have been included to help you to
find your way around this MODULE.
A complete icon set is shown below. We suggest that you familiarize

yourself with the icons and their meaning before starting your study.
Activity Assessment Assignment Case study
Discussion Group activity Help Note it!
Outcomes Reading Reflection Study skills
Summary Terminology Time Tip
8
Unit 1
Basic Concepts in
Sociolinguistics
Introduction
This Unit focuses on Basic Concepts in the field of Sociolinguistics. The

topic also discusses the relationship between Sociolinguistics and other
disciplines; the relationship between language and culture, language and
society, the various functions and differences between language and
dialects.
The Unit starts with the definition of Sociolinguistics, and explains the
importance of teaching Sociolinguistics in your course. It introduces
some basic notions in Sociolinguistics. Therefore, it is important you
master these notions from outset as they will keep recurring throughout
the course.
Upon completion of this unit you will be able to:
Define the concept of Sociolinguistics
Explain the importance of Sociolinguistics for a language teacher
Outcomes
Analyse and explain the question of Language Variation
Explain the relationship between Language and Society
Describe and explain the relationships between Sociolinguistics and

other subjects
Describe and explain the major principles for Sociolinguistics
9
Unit 1 Basic Concepts in Sociolinguistics
research
Distinguish Language and Dialect
Explain Regional and Social Variation of a language
Distinguish and explain differences in speech associated with various

Social groups or Classes.
Distinguish and explain different Styles of speaking.
STRATA: (Plural of stratum) a level or class of a society.
KINSHIP: A family bound, usually acquired through blood

ties. It could also refer to a close feeling between
Terminology
people that develops as a result of common
origins, attitudes, etc.
Contemporary: Belonging to the same time.
Strand: Any of the various parts or aspects that together

form the whole of something, string a piece of
something.
10
Lesson 1: Introductory Note on Sociolinguistics
Introduction
This is lesson 1 and will be about some important conceps on

sociolinguistics, such as importance of sociolinguistics in your course,
language variatrion and attitudes people have towards to language.
By the end of the lesson you are expected to:
− Define the concept of Sociolinguistics
− Explain the importance of Sociolinguistics for a language teacher
Lesson Outcomes − Analyse and explain the question of language Variation
You have 180 minitus to study this lesson.
How long?
1.1 Sociolinguistics – Concept and Importance
In the field of Sociolinguistics the key purpose is to investigate the inter-

relations between language and society or, in other words, how language
is used in order to establish social relationships.
According to Hudson (1980:4-5) Sociolinguistics refers to the study of

language in relation to society. He goes on saying that the difference
between Sociolinguistics and the Sociology of Language is very much one
of emphasis, according to whether the investigator is more interested in
language or society, and also according to whether he has more skill in
11
analysing linguistic or social structures. There is indeed a very large

area of overlap between the two and it seems pointless to try to divide the
disciplines more clearly than at the present. (1980:5)
In sum, Sociolinguistics is usually defined as a branch of Linguistics that

has to do with the relationship between language and social strata, in
other words, it has to do with how language is used in different societies,
how it is affected by cultural values and beliefs, among other issues.
Its introduction in a Teacher Training Course is crucial, considering that

we have to look at the Language Classroom as a society in miniature, as
most of our classes are highly heterogeneous, with students having
different linguistic and cultural backgrounds, as well as different attitudes
to each other, to where they come from, etc.
A language teacher has to be equipped with all the tools that will help
him/her eliminate students’ negative attitudes to different languages; a
language teacher has to be aware of a whole number of Linguistic
Taboos, which are common to many societies and cultures. The task of a
Language Teacher is to eliminate any idea concerning the existence of
Primitive Languages or Varieties, Deficient Language Users, etc.
After you have read the notes above, do the following exercises. Refer to
the feedback only after you have done the exercises. Please pay attention
to the timing.
Activity
Time: 40'
Exercise 1
Give a brief definition of Sociolinguistics
Exercise 2
Tick the right answer. Support your answers.
Sociolinguistics is important in your course because:
12
a) You need to know how to deal with heterogeneous classes.
b) You need to get rid, in the students’ minds, of the idea that there are
primitive languages, and mentally deficient language Users.
c) You need to be aware of linguistics taboo, which are common to many

societies and encourage your students to practise or follow them.
d) It will help you to deal with students having different linguistic and
cultural background.
Feedback.
Exercise 1
Sociolinguistics is a branch of Linguistics that deals with the relationship

between language and society, with the purpose of finding out how is the
language affected by culture or how language is used by different social
groups, how cultural values affect the way language is used by different
individuals.
Exercise 2
The right answer are A, B and D.
1) If you have chosen statement A your answer is correct, because it is

true that you need to know how to deal with heterogeneous classes.
2) If you have chosen statement B, your answer is right. It is true that,

you (teacher) need to get rid, in the students’ minds, of the idea that there
are primitive languages, and mentally deficient language Users.
3) If you have chosen statement C, answer is not correct, because it is not

true that you (teacher) need to encourage your students to practice taboos,
on the contrary your aim should be to get rid of negative attitudes related
with the existence of Primitive languages or varieties, Deficient
Language Users.
13
4) If you have chosen statement D, your answer is correct. In fact,

Sociolinguistics is important in your course because it will help you to
deal with students having different linguistic and cultural background.
If you feel you had no difficulty in doing the exercises above, continue.
Otherwise revise the appropriate subtopic.
1. 2 Language Variation
Introduction
In this subtopic you will learn the concept of variation, how society and
individuals use their languages. It will also introduce some basic notions
of variety, language, social, and dialect. It is important that you master
these notions from the outset as they will keep recurring throughout the
course.
Variation is common in any language. As Ronald Wardhaugh states, each

language exists in a number of varieties and is in one sense the sum of
those varieties. (1992:22). Consider, for example, the many different
ways in which the Portuguese language is spoken. We could state without
any major doubt that Portuguese is spoken in different ways; and such
differences can be seen at a societal level (the Portuguese of Brazil, the
Portuguese of Mozambique, the Portuguese of Portugal) and also at an
individual level, that is to say, that even within a particular society, let's
say Mozambique, for example, the Portuguese Language is spoken
differently by different individuals, depending on their geographical
origin (either from the North or the South of the Country), their academic
background, etc. For such a situation there are the concepts of Linguistic
Code or Linguistic Variety, which are neutral terms that can be used to
refer to any kind of system that two or more people employ for
communication. (to be discussed in the following topics).
Considering the introduction above, it can be concluded that the language

we use in everyday living is remarkable varied. Wardhaugh (1992:5.6)
says that, 'there is a considerable variation in the speech of an individual,
but there are also different bounds to that variation, no individual is free
14
to do just exactly what he pleases so far as language concerns. In fact,

there are restrictions to those variations, which must be respected by any
individual. No one is permitted to pronounce words the way he/she
pleases, inflect or not inflect words such as verbs and nouns randomly. If
these happen he/she will end up producing ill and unacceptable sentences.
After you have read the passage above, answer the following question.
Refer to the feedback only after you have done the exercise. Please, pay
attention to the timing.
Activity
Time 40’
Exercise
Tick the right answer. Support your answer.
Portuguese is spoken in different ways because:
a) It is a language, which exists in a number of varieties.
b) The language spoken in Portugal is completely different from the

languages spoken in Brazil, Mozambique, and so on.
c) It is spoken differently by different individuals depending on their

social strata or geographical origin.
d) Different societies use it in a variety of ways.
Feedback
The right statements are A, C and D.
1) If you have chosen statement A, your answer is correct. It is true

that Portuguese is spoken in different ways because it is a
language, which exists in a number of varieties.
15
2) If you have chosen statement B, your answer is not correct. It is

not true that, the language spoken in Portugal is not the same as
the language spoken in Brazil, Mozambique, and other parts of
the world. What could happen is that, the same language
(Portuguese) is spoken in a variety of ways in different societies.
Such differences of speaking Portuguese are surely affected by
people’s first language or mother tongues, their accents, etc.
3) If you have chosen statement C, your answer is correct. In fact,

Portuguese is spoken in different ways because it is spoken
differently by different individuals depending on their social
strata or geographical origin.
4) If you have chosen statement D, your answer is right, because

different societies use Portuguese in a variety of ways.
If you feel you had no difficulty in doing the exercise above, continue.
Otherwise revise the appropriate subtopic.
1.3 Language Variety
In the previous subtopic you learnt that the language an individual speaks
is full of variations and that those variations may be seen at society level.
You also learnt that people have different attitudes to different varieties.
In current subtopic you will learn different attitudes people have to

language or variety. You will also look at factors, which influence people
to have negative or positive attitudes to different languages or variations.
As an illustration, English speakers hold different attitudes to the
pronunciation or not of 'r'. In some communities 'r' pronunciation is
regarded as an example of good speech (positive attitudes), and in others,
'r' pronunciation is regarded as humorous, rustic, and as evidence of lack
of education (negative attitude). Ultimately, attitude to language reflect
attitude to the users and use of language.
16
What is a variety?
A variety is a specific set of linguistic items or human speech patterns,

(presumable sounds, words, grammatical features, etc) which we can
uniquely associate with some external factors (presumable a geographical
area or a social group).
After you have read the brief introduction above, do the exercise below.
Activity
Time: 40’ for each task
Exercise
Comment briefly on the following statements
a) Speakers of the same language may hold different attitudes towards it.
b) English speakers hold different attitudes to 'r' pronunciation.
c) People who pronounce 'r' are regarded as evidence of lack of

education.
Feedback
a) It is true that users of the same language may hold different attitudes
toward to that language, as you learnt in the brief introduction above,
people may use the same language in a variety of ways. Therefore, they
may have different views to the language they speak. One of the social
classes, for instance, may regard its variety as being the most prestigious.
17
b) That is true, because in some communities 'r' pronunciation is regarded

as an example of good speech and in others as an evidence of lack of
education.
c) This is highly dependent on the attitudes different individuals or social

groups hold towards it. Some may view it positively and others
negatively.
If you feel you had difficulty in doing the exercise above, re-read the
notes. If not continue.
1.4 Attitudes to Language
There are many factors, which may influence people’s attitudes to

language. People find it easier to understand and speak languages and
dialects spoken by people they like or admire. Holmes. J. (1992:345).
People may be highly motivated and successful, in acquiring a second
language when they feel positive towards those who use it.
People do not hold opinions about languages in vacuum. They develop

attitudes towards languages which reflect their views about those who
speak the languages, and the context and function with which they are
associated. For example, when people listen to accents or languages they
have never heard before, their assessment is totally neutral.
Attitudes to language are strongly influenced by social, ethnic, cultural

and political factors. In this way, Language Planners must take into
account of attitudes to language when selecting a suitable language for
development as an official or national language. The decision of
promotion or acceptance of an unpopular language or variety as official
language may end up in riot (as we will see later).
Language attitudes can also have great influence in the field of education,
i.e., in decisions, for instance, concerning the language of instruction.
Language attitudes may contribute to the choice of the language to be
used in the school system. Its acceptance has to do with its usefulness and
the access it would give to scientific and technological information.
18
Now that you read the brief introduction above, do the exercise. Refer to
the feedback only after you have done the exercise. Please, pay attention
to the timing.
Activity
Time 30
Exercise
Tick the correct statement and support your choice.
a) Political and social factors contribute strongly to attitudes to language.
b) The decision of promotion or acceptance of language is always

peaceful.
c) Language attitudes can also have great influence in the field of

education.
Feedback
Exercise
Statements A and C are correct.
1) If you have chosen statement A, your answer is correct, because

political and social factors contribute strongly to attitudes to
language.
2) If you have chosen statement B, your answer may not be correct

because of the word ‘always’. For example the recognition or
acceptance of an unpopular language as official may cause
discontentment among social group’s holders of a popular
variety. A feeling of solidarity may impede the promotion of a
language or variety.
19
3) If you have chosen statement C, your answer is right because

Language attitudes can also have great influence in the field of
education.
notes. If not enter the following lesson.
20
Lesson 2: Relationships between Language and Society
Introduction
This is lesson 2 and the main point to be discussed in this lesson is the
Relationship between Language and Society, or, in other words, the
different ways in which the two are said to be related. You should bear in
mind that, any discussion about the relationships between language and
society should start by defining both terms.
− Define Language
− Define Society
Lesson Outcomes − Explain the Relationship between Language and Society.
− Describe and examine how the ways in which we communicate are

constrained by the structures and forces of those social institutions
within which we live and function
How long?
2.1 The Relationship between Language and Society
According to Wardhaugh (1992:1), Society is any group of people who

are drawn together for a certain purpose or purposes. Language is what
the members of a particular society speak. Therefore, Language and
society are not independent entities. The definition of language includes
21
in it a reference to society. Language may act as a symbol of social

structure to which the speakers belong.
One of the objectives of studying language in social life is to highlight

how language in its everyday as well as professional usages enables us to
understand issues of social concern. It is also to examine how the ways in
which we communicate are constrained by the structures and forces of
those social institutions within which we live and function.
Therefore, Language and Society are related on that; Social structure may
influence or determine linguistic behaviour. Some evidence to support
this view has to do with the age grading phenomenon, whereby young
children speak differently from older children and, in turn, children speak
differently from mature adults. The variety of language that speakers use
reflect such matters as their regional, social, ethnic origin and possible
their sex or gender. Men and women’s speech differs because boys and
girls are brought up differently and men and women often fill different
roles in society. (To be discussed in unit 5 about language and gender).
There are also studies showing that a particular way of speaking, the
choice of words or even rules of conversing seem to be determined by
social requirements.
22
Fairclough (1989: 22-23) claims that language is part of society,

linguistic phenomena are social of a special sort, and social phenomena
are in part linguistic phenomena. The author goes on saying that the
relationships between language and society are not symmetrical, as single
equal facets of the single whole. The whole is society, and language is
one strand of the society. Whereas all linguistic phenomena are social,
not all social phenomena are linguistic. For example, economic
production may be determined socially and has a substantial and
irrelevant language element.
After you have read the brief introduction above, do the exercises that
follow. Refer to the feedback only after you have done the exercises.
Please pay attention to the timing
Activity
Time 120 min
Exercise 1
On the basis of what you have just learnt and your own experience, say in
which way language and society are said to be related.
Exercise 2
List some factors used as evidence to show the relationship between

language and society.
Exercise 3
Write True (T) for the statements you believe are true and False (F) for
those you believe are false.
a) Language is any group of people who are drawn together for a certain
purpose or purposes
b) The definition of language to a certain extent excludes a reference to

society.
23
c) Language and society are in part not independent entities.
d) Language and Society are entirely dependent on each other.
Feedback
Exercise 1
There is no cut off answer to this question. You only have to give your
opinion and express your feeling in relation to the issue. But you may
guide yourself through the introductory notes and the definition of
Possible answer
Language and society are related on many different ways; language is

used to communicate ideas, and also to maintain comfortable relationship
between people. For example, phrases such as; Good morning, or please
to meet you, and ritual exchange about health, do not communicate ideas
in the usual sense. Sentences of this kind are usually automatically
produced and stereotyped in structure. The language in situations of this
kind is used for the purpose of maintaining rapport between people.
Think, for instance, about all the things people in many societies are not
supposed to talk about openly, not because there are no words or
expressions to talk about them, but because they are believed to be too
shocking and offensive. I am referring particularly to the many Taboos
that exist concerning Sex, Excretion, for example. This is an area
(Taboos) in which we can clearly see how our cultural values or beliefs
interfere in our use of language.
24
Another possible example of the relationship between Language and

Society is brought up by the new Information and Communication
Technology (ICT). The more technologically developed a society, the
more terms it will have so as to be able to fully function with the new
ICTs If the need arises for a society to start dealing with the ICTs it will
surely have to find/develop terms to refer to things such as software,
hardware, etc
Exercise 2
- Age Grading Phenomenon - it is believed that young children speak

differently from older children and, in turn, children speak differently
from mature adults
- Regional and social - There is an important interaction between social

and regional factors. We may find a social class that uses a standard
dialect with very little regional variation. For example, ‘RP’ usually
referred to as an educated accent, does not show any regional
information. But the more it is moved to lower social class the more it is
encountered the widest range of local accents and dialects
- Sex (or gender) - It is notable in some social strata that men speak more
than women do. The difference between men and women in ways of
interacting may be the result of differences in socialization, upbringing
and acculturation.
Exercise 3
a) If you have chosen alternative A, your answer is not correct because

Language is what the members of a particular society speak
b) If you have chosen alternative B, your answer is not correct because

the definition of language includes in it a reference to society
25
c) If you have chosen alternative C, your answer is correct. In fact,

Language and society are in part not independent entities because the
definition of language includes in it a reference to society. Language may
act as a symbol of social structure to which their speakers belong.
d) If you have chosen alternative D, your answer is not correct because of

the word ‘entirely’. The relationship between Language and Society is
not symmetrical. There are situations where linguistic power have
substantial and underestimate influence.
If you feel you faced problems in the exercises above, review the
appropriate notes. Otherwise continue.
26
Lesson 3: Some Basic Methodological Concerns
Introduction
This is lesson 3 and you will study some principles that guide
Sociolinguistic Research.
− Describe and explain the principles guiding Sociolinguistic Research
Lesson Outcomes
How long?
3.1 Introduction
In this lesson you will study some principles that guide Sociolinguistic
Research. The principles serve as signpost to show the right direction
when collecting data. This may help Sociolinguists to reach a valid and
solid conclusion.
Any approach Sociolinguists adopt to find out about language in society,

should encompass everything from considering 'who speaks (or writes)
what language (or what language variety) to whom and to what end, that
is, the social distribution of linguistic items, to considering how a
particular linguistic variable might be related to the formulation of a
specify grammatical rule in a particular language or dialect, and to the
27
process through which language changes. In this way, whatever

Sociolinguistics is, it must be oriented toward both data and theory, and
any conclusions must be solidly based on evidence. Wardhaugh
(1992:16)
Therefore, the research must be oriented and motivated by questions that

can be answered in an approved scientific way. Since Sociolinguistics is
an empirical science, that is, it is based on observation or experience and
not on theory, it must be founded an adequate data. And the database is
drawn from a wide variety of sources, such as censuses, documents,
surveys and interviews.
As part of an attempt to work out a set of principles, or axioms, which

Sociolinguistic investigations should follow, Bell (1976, p. 187-91) has
suggested eight as worthy of consideration.
3.2 Principles which Sociolinguistic investigation should follow.
1. The cumulative principle. This principle says that, the more we

know about language, the more we can find about it, search for
new knowledge takes into new area of study and into areas in
which scholars from other disciplines are already working.
2. The uniformation principle. The linguistic process which we

observe to be taking place around us the same as which operated
in the past, so that there can be no clean break between
synchronic (i.e., descriptive and contemporary) matters and
diachronic (i.e., historical) ones.
3. The principle of convergence says that, the value of new data

for confirming or interpreting old finding is directly proportional
to the differences in the ways in which the new data are gathered;
particularly useful are linguistic data gathered through procedures
needed in other areas of scientific investigation.
4. The principle of subordinate shift. When speakers of a non-

standard (or subordinate) variety of language, example, a dialect,
are asked direct questions about that variety, their responses will
shift in an irregular way toward or away from the standard (or
28
superordinate) variety, for example, the standard language, so

enabling investigation to collect valuable evidence concerning
such matters as varieties, norms, and change.
5. The principle of style-shifting. It says that, ' there are no ' single
- style' speakers of a language, because each individual controls
and uses a variety of linguistic styles and no one speaks in exactly
the same way in all circumstances.
6. The principle of attention. ‘Styles’ of speech can be ordered

along a single dimension measured by the amount of attention
speakers are giving to their speech, so that the more ‘aware’ they
are of what they are saying, the more ‘formal’ will the style be.
7. The vernacular principle. The style, which is most regular in its

structure and in its relation to history of the language, is the
vernacular that relaxed, spoken style in which the least conscious
attention is being paid to speech.
8. The principle of formality. Any systematic observation of

speech defines a context in which some conscious attention will
be paid to that speech, so that it will be difficult, without great
ingenuity, to observe the genuine ‘vernacular’
After you have read the brief introduction above, do the exercises that
follow. Refer to the feedback only after you have done the exercises.
Please pay attention to the timing
Activity
Time 70 min
Exercise 1
Choose the right statements and support your choice.
a. Sociolinguistics is an empirical science.
b. Sociolinguistic investigations are only based on theory.
29
c. The cumulative principle says that, the more we know about

language, the less we can find about it.
d. The principle of style-shifting claims that there are no ‘single –

style’ speakers of a language.
Exercise 2
1. Mention Bell’s eight principles and comment on two of them.
Feedback
Exercise 1
Statement A and D are correct
a. If you have chosen alternative A, your answer is correct because

it is true that Sociolinguistics is an empirical science; it is based
on observation and/or experience.
b. If you have chosen alternative B, your answer is not correct. It is

not true that Sociolinguistics investigations are only based on
theory because of the reasons mentioned in number one above.
c. If you have chosen alternative C, your answer is not correct,

because the accumulative principle says that, the more we know
about language, the more we can find about it.
d. If you have chosen D, your answer is correct, because it is true

that the principle of style-shifting says that, there are no ‘single
– style’ speakers of a language, because each individual controls
and uses a variety of linguistic styles and no one speaks in
exactly the same way in all circumstances.
Exercise 2
1. The cumulative principle, the uniformation principle, the

principle of convergence, the principle of subordinate shift, the
principle of style shifting, the principle of attention, the
vernacular principle, the principle of formality.
30
If you feel you had difficulty in doing the exercises above, re-read the
31
Lesson 4: Socieolinguistics and Related Subjects
Introduction
This is lesson 4 and in this lesson you wiil be introduced to the main
disciplines related to Sociolinguistics.
− Describe the disciplines related to Sociolinguistics.
− Explain in which way those disciplines relate to Sociolinguistics.
Lesson Outcomes
How long?
Review
You should revise the definitions of Sociolinguistics, language, society,

the importance of Sociolinguistics in your course; the relationships
between language and society to help you understand this topic.
In this lesson you will learn about some disciplines related to

Sociolinguistics and discuss in which way those disciplines are said to be
related to Sociolinguistics.
Related Subjects
32
Linguists and Sociologists are not the only researchers involved in studies
of language in society. Scholars from a variety of other disciplines have
an interest too. You may observe that there are many interconnections
between Sociolinguistics and other disciplines and also between
concerns, which are sometimes called theoretical, and others, which are
said to be practical. Sociolinguistics is a socially relevant variety of
Linguistics.
Anthropology - is the study of the human race, especially of its origins,

development, customs and beliefs. So, Anthropologists have done work,
which can be described as Sociolinguistic in nature, for example in the
exploration of kinship systems, taboos, etc.
Psychology - is the study of mind and how it functions, so it looks

particularly at possible effects of linguistic structure on social and
psychological behaviour of an individual.
Education - in Education many educators must take decision about

matters involving language and the skill of literacy. Sociolinguistics tries
to influence educators in their attitudes toward certain kinds of linguistic
behaviour or varieties of language spoken by a group of children.
Planning - Language Planners need a considerable amount of linguistic

knowledge to make decisions about which language to encourage in
certain circumstances, or in any attempts to standardize a particularly
language or variety, or to change existing relationships between
languages or varieties.
33
Use your general knowledge and your own experience and the
introductory passage above to answer the following questions. Refer to
the feedback only after you have done the exercise. Please, pay attention
Activity to the timing.
Time 50 min
Exercise 1
What are the disciplines you think are related to Sociolinguistics?
Exercise 2
In which way do you think they are related to Sociolinguistics?
Feedback
I hope your answers may have approached to the following feedback
Exercise 1
The disciplines related to Sociolinguistics are: anthropology, psychology,

education and planning.
Exercise 2
Anthropology is the study of the human race, especially of its origins,

development, customs and beliefs. So, Anthropologists have done work,
which can be described as Sociolinguistic in nature, example in the
exploration of kinship systems, taboos, etc.
Psychology is the study of mind and how it functions, so it looks

particularly at possible effects of linguistic structure on social and
psychological behaviour of an individual.
In Education many educators must take decision about matters involving

language and the skill of literacy. Sociolinguistics tries to influence
34
educators in their attitudes toward certain kinds of linguistic behaviour or

varieties of language spoken by a group of children.
Language Planners need a considerable amount of linguistic knowledge

to make decisions about which language to encourage in certain
circumstance, or in any attempts to standardize a particularly language or
variety, or to change existing relationships between languages or
varieties.
35
Lesson 5: Language, Dialects, and Varieties
Introduction
In lesson number 1, you learnt language variation, attitudes to language.

In lesson number 2, you learnt the relationships between language and
society, the definition of language and society. If you feel you understand
these notions enter the following lesson. If not, review the appropriate
lesson.
In this lesson 5 you will learn some of the major topics in sociolinguistics
such as Language, Dialects, and Varieties.
− Distinguish Language and Dialect.
− Explain Regional and Social Variation of the Language.
Lesson Outcomes
− Distinguish and explain differences in speech associated with various
social groups or classes.
− Distinguish and explain different Styles of Speaking.
− Define Regional Dialect, Social Dialect, Dialect Continuum, Dialect

Geography, Dialect Boundary, and Isoglosses.
− Explain the difference between Social and Regional Dialects.
− Explain how language variation can be affected by geographical and

social matters
36
How long?
Previous Knowledge
In this lesson you will learn about Language Variation and the difference
between Language and Dialect. Before entering in today’s lesson, you are
recommended to recapitulate issues you learnt in this unit such as, basic
concepts of Sociolinguistics, its importance in your course, the difference
between language and society, the relationship between Sociolinguistics
and other subjects. These may help you to learn and understand the issues
to be covered in the following lesson.
Now that you reviewed what you learnt in previous lessons of this Unit, it
is time now to move on to our new today’s lesson!
5.1 Language and Dialect
The definition of these two concepts go beyond linguistic terms,

considering that very often such concepts are defined on the basis of
extra-linguistic factors (mainly social and political ones). In order words,
both language and dialects are defined as a vehicle of communication
used by a particular community or society. Thus, both enable an
exchange of ideas, thoughts, feelings, and so on. However, a language is
always seen as a superordinate and standard variety, deserving prestige
and also prestige has been awarded to those who speak it. Dialect, on the
other hand, is often seen as a lower, subordinate and non-standard
variety, lacking prestige and usually spoken by lower social groups.
There is a belief, that groups that enjoy power, social, economic and
political will always speak a language, while the opposite is true for
37
groups who lack power who are rated as speaking something less than a
proper language – a dialect.
The term Variety is more neutral in its nature and ‘safer’ in this way. It
can be used to refer to any linguistic code, that could be bigger than what
we call language or much smaller than what we call a dialect. Moreover,
uniquely associate with some external factors (presumable a geographical
area or a social group).
Use your general knowledge and issues you learnt in previous topics
to answer the following:
Refer to the feedback only after you have done the exercises. Please, pay
Activity
Time 45 min
Exercise 1
Define the concept of Language.
Exercise 2
Define the concept of Dialect.
Exercise 3
Define the concept of Variety.
Feedback
Your answers should approach the following:
Exercise 1
38
Language is a super-ordinate variety that is, a standard variety, which

carries prestige and it is a variety used by higher social classes.
Exercise 2
Dialect is a substandard or non-standard variety of a language, which

lacks prestige. It is spoken by the lower classes in the society.
Exercise 3

which we can uniquely associate with some external factors (presumable
a geographical area or a social group). The term Variety is more neutral
in its nature and ‘safer’ in this way. It can be used to refer to any
linguistic code, be it a language or a dialect.
5.2 Topic Summary
In the subtopic (5.1) you learnt and discussed the difference between
language and dialect. You saw that this issue is a controversial one. There
have been difficulties in attempting to define language and dialect.
Haugen (1966a) has pointed out that language and dialect are ambiguous
terms. Usually people use these terms quite freely in speech; for them a
dialect is almost certain no more than a local non-prestigious, powerless
variety of a real language. You may also share the same view).
In contrast, scholars often experience difficulty in deciding whether one

term should be used rather than the other in a certain situation, that is to
say, in which situation you can argue firmly that you are using a language
or a dialect. This will certainly be your ‘food for thought’ in this topic.
39
After you have read the brief Topic Summary above, do the exercise that
follow. Refer to the feedback only after you have done the activity.
Please, pay attention to the timing.
Activity
Time 45 min
Activity
What could be your attitudes towards to the following question:
- What do you speak (a language or a dialect)?
Feedback
Activity
It is quite possible that this question may be answered quite differently by

people who appear to speak in an identical manner, that is, people who
use the same language or variety. Some may say that what they speak is
language and others may say that what they speak is a dialect.
5.3 The Greek Koiné
Consider this example of Ancient Greece. Ancient Greece was actually a

group of distinctive local varieties (Ionic, Doric and Attic) descendent by
divergence from a common spoken source with each variety having its
own literary traditions and uses. Ionic used for history, Doric for choral
and lyric works, and Attic for tragedy. Later, Athenian Greek, the koiné
or ‘common’ language- became the norm for the spoken language as the
various spoken varieties converged on the dialect of the major cultural
and administrative centre. This situation (Greek) has provided the model
for all later usages of the terms (language and dialect) with the resulting
ambiguity
40
Read the two introductory passages above and do the following activity.
Activity
Time 45 min
Activity
After you have read the notes above about the difference between
language and dialect, what conclusion can you draw so far?
Feedback
Activity
I hope your answer should have approached the following feedback.
In general it can be concluded that, language and dialect are channels

people use to communicate; one thing that we find interesting and
important and that distinguish these two concepts is that the former is
always considered as being a superordinate and standard variety,
deserving prestige and the same prestige also been awarded to those who
speak it. Whereas the latter, is often seen as a lower, subordinate and
non-standard variety, lacking prestige and usually spoken by lower social
groups.
5.4 Dialecte & Patois in France
The next example to observe is the distinction the French makes between
un dialecte and un patois. The former is a regional variety of a language
that has an associated literary tradition, whereas the latter is a regional
variety that lacks such a literary tradition. Therefore, patois tends to be
41
used pejoratively; it is regarded as something less than a dialect because

of its lack of an associated literature.
However, dialecte in French, like Dialekt in German, cannot be used in

connection with the standard language, i.e., no speaker of French
considers Standard French to be a dialect of French. In contrast, it is
common to find references to Standard English being a dialect –
admittedly a very important one- of English.
5.5 The Language Situation in India
Another interesting example is The Hindi- Urdu situation. Hind and Urdu
are the same language, but one in which certain differences are becoming
more and more magnified for political and religious reasons. Hindi is
written left to right, whereas Urdu is written right to left. Since
independence Hindi has become compulsory in Schools, but Urdu
continues to be used extensively in commerce, and the Ghazal, the best
known form of Urdu poetry is universally popular.
Now, you can observe that, the various relationships among language and
dialects discussed above can be used to show how the concepts of
‘power’ and ‘solidarity’ help us understand what is happening. Power
requires some kind of asymmetrical relationship between entities: one has
more of something that is important, e.g. status, money, influence, etc.,
than the other or others. A language has more power than any of its
dialects. It is the powerful dialect but it has become so because of non-
linguistic factors.
Solidarity, on the other hand, is a feeling of equality that people have

with one another. They have a common interest around which they will
bond. A feeling of solidarity can lead people to preserve a local dialect or
an endangered language to resist power, or to insist on independence.
42
Now that you read the passages above, do the following exercises. Refer
to the feedback only after you have done the exercises. Please, pay
attention to the timing
Activity
Time 70 min
Exercise 1
What is the difference between un dialecte and un patois?
Exercise 2
Which factors do you think contributed greatly to promote Hindu as

language of education?
Exercise 3
Choose the right answers. Why are they right?
a) Power and Solidarity may contribute to different attitudes towards the

difference between language and dialect.
b) Power requires some kind of symmetrical relationships between

language and dialect.
c) A powerfulness of a language and dialect is not always determined

by linguistic factors.
Feedback
Exercise 1
Un dialecte is a regional variety of a language that has an associated

literary tradition, whereas un patois is a regional variety that lacks such a
literary tradition. Patois tends to be used pejoratively; it is regarded as
43
something less than a dialect because of its lack of an associated

literature.
Exercise 2
Political factors and the concept of power contributed to some extent to

the promotion of Hindu. Hindu was promoted after independence.
Exercise 3
Statements A and C are correct.
a) If you have chosen exercise A your answer is correct because it is true

that Power and Solidarity may contribute to different attitudes towards
the difference between language and dialect.
b) If you have chosen alternative B your answer is not correct because

power requires some kind of asymmetrical relationship between entities:
one has more of something that is important, e.g. status, money,
influence, etc., than the other or others.
c) If you have chosen alternative C, your answer is correct. In fact a

powerfulness of a language and dialect is not always be determined by
linguistic factors.
If you feel you had no difficulty in doing the exercises above, carry
on. Otherwise review the appropriate notes.
5.6 Dialect Continuum and Mutual Intelligibility
The issues discussed so far are somehow related to the concept of

‘power’ and ‘solidarity’. Let’s now look at the language – dialect along
the border between the Netherlands and Germany. You may have already
heard people, or on the radio or television talking about Netherlands and
Germany
Historically, there was a continuum of dialects of one language, but the

two that eventually become standardized as the languages of the
Netherlands and German, Standard Dutch and Standard German, are not
44
mutually intelligible, that is, a speaker of one cannot understand a

speaker of the other. In the border area speakers of the local varieties of
Dutch and German do still remain largely intelligible to one another, yet
the people on one side of the border say they speak a variety of Dutch and
those on the other side say they speak a variety of German.
The residents of the Netherlands look to Standard Dutch for their model;
they read and write Dutch, are educated in Dutch, and watch television in
Dutch. Consequently, they say they use a local variety, or dialect, of
Dutch in their daily lives. On the other side of the border, German
replaces Dutch in all equivalent situations. The interesting linguistic fact,
is that there are more similarities between the local varieties spoken on
each side of the border than between the one dialect (of Dutch) and
Standard German, and more certainly than between that dialect and
certain south German and Austrian dialects of German.
5.7 The Language Issue in China
If you turn your attention to China, you will find that speakers of
Cantonese and Mandarin will you tell that they use the same language.
However, if one speaker knows only Cantonese and the other only
Mandarin, they will not be able to converse with each other. If the
speaker is literate, however, they will be able to communicate with each
other through a shared writing system. They will almost insist that they
speak different dialect of Chinese, not different languages, for to the
Chinese a shared writing system and a strong tradition of political, social,
and cultural unity form essential parts of their definition of language.
5.8 The Language Issue in Mozambique – The Portuguese and

Vernacular Languages
Mozambique is a multilingual country, in which in addition to the

Portuguese language, many vernacular languages are spoken. If we look
45
at the southern part of the country, for example, what we find is the
following situation:
Tsonga is the language spoken in southern Mozambique, in Inhambane,

Gaza and Maputo provinces, in its three varieties Xitsua, Changana and
Ronga, which are mutually intelligible. According to popular views, the
local indigenous varieties are all dialects (probably, an inheritance from
the Portuguese colonisers who shared the same view), while Portuguese,
French and other European languages are the only ones considered to be
‘good’ and ‘fit’ enough to be seen as a language in their own right.
However, there is no doubt that Tsonga is a language in its own right, not
only spoken in Mozambique, but also in South Africa.
If we consider, for example, the many different ways in which the

Portuguese language is spoken. One could state without any major doubt
that Portuguese is spoken in different ways; and such differences can be
seen at a societal level (the Portuguese of Brazil, the Portuguese of
Mozambique, the Portuguese of Portugal) and also at an individual level,
that is to say, that even within a particular society, let's say Mozambique,
for example, the Portuguese Language is spoken differently by different
individuals, depending on their geographical origin (either from the North
or the South of the Country), their academic background. With no doubt
we may also say that all the above varieties belong to the Portuguese
language and that Portuguese is a language. Hence, there is mutual
intelligibility between speakers of all its varieties.
5.9 Bell’s 7 Criteria on the Language-Dialect Distinction
As Wardhaugh says, perhaps some of the difficulties we have with trying

to define the term language arise from trying to subsume that various
different types of system of communication under that one label. An
alternative approach might be to acknowledge that there are different
kinds of language and attempt to discover how language can differ from
one another yet still be entities that most of us would want to call
language rather than dialect. It might then be possible to define a dialect
as some sub-variety of one or more of these entities.
46
Bell (1976, pp. 147-57) has listed seven criteria that may be useful in
discussing different kinds of languages. According to Bell, these criteria
(standardization, vitally, historicity, autonomy, reduction, mixture, and de
facto norm) may be used to distinguish certain languages from others.
They also make it possible to speak of some languages as being more –
developed’ in certain ways than others, thus addressing a key issue in the
language-dialect distinction, since speakers usually feel that languages
are generally ‘better’ than dialects in some sense.
The following notes will explain you each criterion. Read them
attentively to enable you do the exercises that will follow.
STANDARDIZATION is a process by which a language has been

codified in some way. That process usually involves the development of
such things as grammars, spelling books, dictionaries and possible
literature. Standardization also requires that a measure of agreement be
achieved about what is in the language and what is not. Once a language
is standardized it becomes possible to teach it in a deliberate manner.
Wardhaugh. R ( 1992: 29, 30-5) quoted from Haugen ( 1966a) has

indicated certain steps that must be followed if one variety of a language
is to become the
Standard for that language. In addition to what he calls the ‘formal’

matters of codification and elaboration, the former referring to the
development of grammars and dictionaries and the latter referring to the
use of the standard in such areas as literature, the courts, education,
administration and commerce, there are important matters to do with
‘functions’. For example, a norm must be selected and accepted because
neither codification nor elaboration is likely to proceed very far if the
community cannot agree on some kind of model to act as a norm. That
norm is also likely to be – or to become – an idealized norm, one that
users of that language are asked to aspire to rather than one that actually
accords with their observed behaviour.
Selection of the norm may prove difficult because choosing one

vernacular as a norm means favoring those who speak that variety. It also
47
diminishes all the other varieties and possible competing norms and those
who use those varieties. The chosen norm inevitably becomes associated
with power and the rejected alternatives with lack of power. Not
surprisingly, it usually happens that a variety associated with elite is
chosen. A group that feels intense solidarity may be willing to overcome
great linguistic differences in establishing a norm, whereas one that does
not have this feeling may be unable to overcome relatively small
differences and be unable to agree on a single variety and norm.
The standardization process itself performs a variety of functions. It

unifies individuals and groups within a larger community while at the
same time separating the community that results from other communities.
Therefore, it can be employ to reflect and symbolize some kind of
identity: regional, social, ethnic, or religious. A standardized variety can
also be used to give prestige to speakers, marking off those who employ
it from those who do not, i.e., those who continue to speak a non-standard
variety.
The second Bell’s seven criteria is VITALITY. It refers to the existence

of a living community of speakers. This criterion can be used to
distinguish languages that are ‘alive’ from those that are ‘dead.’ For
example: many of aboriginal languages of the America are dead. Latin is
also dead in this sense too for no-one speaks it as native language; it
exists only in a written form frozen in time, pronounced rather than
spoken, and studied rather than used.
Once a language dies it is gone for all time and not even the so- called
revival of Hebrew contradicts that assertion. Hebrew always existed in a
spoken form as a liturgical language, as did Latin for centuries. Modern
Hebrew is an out-growth of this liturgical variety. It is after all ‘Modern’
Hebrew and the necessary secularization of a liturgical language to make
it serves the purpose of modern life has not been an easy and
uncontroversial matter.
It should be noted that a language can remain a considerable force even

after it is dead, that is, even after it is no longer spoken as anyone’s first
language and exists almost exclusively in one or more written forms,
knowledge of which is acquired only through formal education. For
48
example: classical Greek and Latin still have considerable prestige in the
western world, and speakers of many modern languages continue to draw
on them in a variety of ways.
HISTORICITY refers to the fact that a particular group of people finds a

sense of identity through using a particular language: it belongs to them.
Social, political, religious, or ethnic ties may also be important for the
group, but the bond provided by a common language may prove to be the
strangest tie of all. In the nineteenth century a German nation was unified
around the German language just as in the previous century Russian had
unified around a revitalized Russian language. Historicity can be long-
standing: speakers of the different varieties of colloquial Arabic make
much of a common linguistic ancestry, as obvious do speakers of
Chinese. It can also, as with Hebrew, be applied to as a unifying force
among a threatened people.
AUTONOMY is an interesting concept because it is really one of

feeling. A language must be felt by its speakers to be different from other
languages. However, this is a very subjective criterion. For example:
Ukrainians say their language is quite different from Russian and
deplored its Russification when they were part of the Soviet Union.
Some speakers of Black English maintain that their language is not a
variety of English but is a separate language in its own right. In contrast,
speakers Cantonese and Mandarin deny that they speak different
languages: they maintain that Cantonese and Mandarin are not
autonomous languages but are just two dialects of Chinese. (See 5.7)
above.
REDUCTION refers to the fact that a particular variety may be regarded

as a sub-variety rather than as an independent entity. Speakers of cockney
will almost certainly say that they speak a variety of English, admit that
they are not representative speakers of English, and recognise the
existence of other varieties with equivalent subordinate status. Sometimes
the reduction is in kinds of opportunities afforded to users of the variety.
For example, there may be a reduction of resources; that is, the variety
may lack a writing system. Or there may be considerable restrictions in
49
use; e.g., pidgin languages are very much reduced in the functions they
serve in society in contrast to standardized languages.
MIXTURE is the feeling speakers have about the ‘purity’ of the variety
they speak. This criterion appears to be more important to speakers of
some languages than of others, e.g., more important to speakers of French
and German than to speakers of English. However, it partly explains why
speakers of pidgins and creoles ( see unit 2) have difficult in classifying
what they speak as full language: these varieties are, in certain respects,
quite obvious ‘mixed,’ and the people who speak them often feel that the
varieties are neither one thing nor another, but rather are debased,
deficient, degenerate, or marginal varieties of some other standard
language.
Finally, de fact norms refers to the feeling that many speakers have that
there are both ‘good’ speakers and ‘poor’ speakers and that the good
speakers represent the norms of poor usage. Sometimes this means
focusing on one particular sub-variety as representing the ‘best’ usage.
Standard must not only be established (by the first criterion above), but
they must also be observed. When all speakers of a language feel that it is
badly spoken or badly written almost everywhere, that language may
have considerable difficult in surviving; in fact, such a feeling is often
associated with a language that is dying. Concern with norms of linguistic
behaviour, ‘linguistic purism’ may become very important among
specific segments of society. As an illustration, so far as English is
concerned, there is a very profitable industry devoted to telling people
how they should behave linguistically, what it is ‘correct’ to say, what to
avoid saying.
People’s feelings about norms have important consequences for an

understanding of both variation and change in language. If we apply this
criterion to the different varieties of speech we observe in the world, we
will see that not every variety we may want to call a language has the
same status as every other variety. English is a language, but so are
Dogrib, Haitian Creole, Ukrainian, Latin, Tok Pisin, and Chinese. Each
satisfies a different sub-set of criteria from our list. Although there are
important differences among them, we would be loath to deny that any
one of them is a language. They are all equals as languages, but that does
50
not necessary mean that all languages are equal! The first is a linguistic
judgement, the second a social one.
Finally, two other terms are important in connection with some of the
issues discussed above. Vernacular and koine.
Vernacular is the speech of a particular country or region, or a form of

speech transmitted from parent to child as a primary medium of
communication. If that form of speech is Standard English, then Standard
English is vernacular for that particular child; if it is a regional dialect,
then that dialect is the child’s vernacular.
A Koine is a form of speech shared by people of different vernaculars –

though for some of them Koine itself may be their vernacular. A Koine is
a common language, but not necessary a standard one.
Read the passages above and answer the following questions. Refer to the
feedback only after you have done the exercises. Please, pay attention to
the timing
Activity
Time 120 min
Exercise 1
What are the reasons that make the Chinese insist that they speak the
same language?
Exercise 2
Mention Bell’s 7 criteria.
51
Exercise 3
Present a brief summary of at least one of them
Exercise 4
Standardization says that the selection of the norm may prove difficulty.
Why?
Exercise 5
Comment briefly on the passage below.
Standardization itself performs a variety of functions. It unifies

individuals and groups within a larger community, while at the same time
separate the community that results from the other community.
Exercise 6
What is a Vernacular language?
Exercise 7
What is Koiné?
Exercise 8
On the basis of the notes above, explain the criteria of Mutual

Intelligibility
52
Feedback
Exercise 1
Shared writing system and a strong tradition of political, social, and

cultural unity may be behind this.
Exercise 2
Standardization, vitally, historicity, autonomy, reduction, mixture, and de

facto norm
Exercise 3
Any of your choices is valid, provided that you give a suitable rationale.
Exercise 4
The selection of the norm may prove difficulty because choosing one
vernacular as a norm means favouring those who speak that variety. It
diminishes all the others varieties. The chosen variety gains prestige and
power, and the rejected loses prestige and with lack of power.
Exercise 5
That is true because it may end up with two different social classes. High
class holding the prestigious variety and law class the non-prestige
variety.
53
Exercise 6
Vernacular is the speech of a particular country, or a form of speech

transmitted from parent to child as a primary medium of communication.
Exercise 7
Koiné is a form of speech shared by people of different vernaculars-

though for some of them the koiné itself may be their vernacular.
Exercise 8
Hopefully your answer approaches somehow the following feedback.
The Criterion of mutual intelligibility says that: If two individuals one

who is a speaker of a variety A another of a variety B are able to
understand each other, it means that what they speak are not different
languages but different dialects of the same language.
Or, in other words, the Criterion of mutual intelligibility refers to the fact
that speakers of two or more varieties of language are able to understand
each other, even though each one is still speaking their own variety. This
criterion had been advanced as a probable solution for the language-
dialect question. The major claim was that if speakers of two or more
varieties were mutually intelligible, then we were no longer in the
presence of two distinct languages, but varieties or dialects of the same
language.
54
Lesson 6: Regional Dialects and Social Dialects
Introduction
In lesson 2 you saw the relationships between language and society and
dialect and language in lesson 5. If you feel you understand these notions,
enter the following lesson. If not, review lessons 2 and 5 before
continuing.
In this lesson you will learn how language and dialect convey
geographical information about the speakers. You will also distinguish
regional dialects from social ones.
− Define and distinguish Social Dialects from Regional Dialects.
− Explain and evaluate how linguistic identity is linked to geographical
Lesson Outcomes origin of the speakers.
− Demonstrate and explain the effect of dialect continuum and its

linkage with the concept of mutual intelligible.
− Explain and distinguish the level of formality an individual is subject

to when he/she speaks.
How long?
55
6.1 Regional Dialects
Introduction
It has been said that the most recognized features of linguistic identity are
those that point to the geographical origins of speakers- features of
regional dialect, which prompt us to ask the question ‘Where are they
from?’
They are several ways of response to this question. We might have a

single person in mind, yet all of the following answers might be correct.’
America’, The United Stated of America’, New York.’ People belong to
regional communities of varying extent, and the dialect they speak
changes its name as we ‘place’ them in relation to these communities.
Crystal ( :24, 25).
Language as well as dialects can convey geographical information about

their speakers, but this information varies greatly, depending on the
language of with we are thinking.
Wardhaugh also says that as you travel throughout a wide geographical

area in which a language is spoken and particular if that language has
been spoken in that area for many hundred of years, you are almost
certain to notice difference in pronunciation, the choices and forms of
words, and syntax. There may even be very distinctive local colourings in
the language which you notice as you move from one location to another.
Such distinctive varieties are usually called regional dialects.
After you have read the introductory passage above, do the following
exercises. Refer to the feedback only after you have done the exercises.
Activity
Time 60 min
56
Exercise 1
In which way language and dialect convey geographical information

about their speakers.
Exercise 2
What do you understand by regional dialects?
Feedback
Exercise 1
The way an individual speaks, pronounces, chooses and forms words and
syntax may be a good indicator of what region he/she comes from.
Exercise 2
Regional dialect is intended to be the difference in speech, the distinctive

local colouring in the language, which is noticed in an individual as
she/he moves from one location to another.
6.2 Dialect Geography, Continuum and Isoglosses
Wardhaugh says that in Europe or other part of the world, it is possible to

travel long distances and, by making only small changes in speech from
location to location, continue to communicate with the inhabitants. He
goes on saying that a person could travel from the south of Italy to north
of France in this manner.
57
It is quite clear that such a person began the journey speaking one
language and ended it speaking something entirely different. However,
there was no one point at which the changeover neither occurred, nor is
there actually any way of determining how many intermediate dialect
areas that person passed through. Such a situation is referred to as a
dialect continuum. Over large distances the dialects at each end of the
continuum may well be mutually unintelligible, and also some of the
intermediate dialects may be unintelligible with one or both ends, or even
with certain other intermediate ones.
According to what was stated above, it can be asked the following

questions: In such distribution which dialect can be classified together
under one language? And how many such languages are there?
As Wardhaugh states, these questions are quite ease to answers since the
hardening of political boundaries in the modern world as a result of the
growth of states, particular nations-states rather than multinational or
multi-ethnic states, has led to the hardening of language boundaries.
Above all, political, social, cultural, and educational factors serve to
harden current state boundaries and to make the linguistic differences
among states more, not less, pronounced. Dialects continue therefore
disappear as national languages arise. They are subject to two kinds of
pressure. One from within, to conform to a national standard, and one
from without, to become different from standard elsewhere.
When a language is recognized as being spoken in different varieties, the

issue becomes on of deciding how many varieties and how to classify
them.
Dialect geography is the term used to describe attempts made to map the
distributions of various linguistic features so as to show their
geographical provenance.
For example, in seeking to determine features of the dialects of English

and show their distributions, dialect geographers try to find answers to
questions such as: Is this an r-pronouncing area of English, as in words
dark, car, or is not? What names do people give to particular objects in
the environment, e.g., elevator or lift, petrol or gas?
58
Sometimes maps are drawn to show actual boundaries around such

features, boundaries called isoglosses, so as to distinguish an area in
which a certain feature is found from areas in which it is absent. When
several such isoglosses coincide, the result is sometimes called a dialect
boundary. Then we may be tempted to say that speakers on one side of
that boundary speak one dialect and speakers on the other side speak a
different dialect.
Now that you read the introductory passage above, do the following
Activity
Time 60 min
Exercise 1
Define the following words and expressions:
a. Geography dialects, dialect boundary, isoglosses
Exercise 2
Choose the right answers. Support your choice.
Language boundaries result from:
a. The growth of states
b. The growth of nation-states
c. Political, social, cultural, and educational pressure.
d. Multinational or multi-ethnic states
59
Feedback
Exercise 1
Dialect geography is the term used to describe attempts made to map the
distribution of various linguistics features so as to show their
geographical provenance.
Dialect boundary occurs when several isoglosses coincide.
Dialect continuum is a chain of dialects spoken in an area.
Isoglosses are boundaries drawn in maps to show linguistic features as to

distinguish an area in which a certain feature is found from area in which
is absent.
Exercise 2
Statements A, B and C are correct.
a. If you have chosen alternative A your answer is correct, because it is

true that Language boundaries result from the growth of states.
b. If you have chosen alternative B your answer is correct because

Language boundaries also result from the growth of nation-states.
c. If you have chosen alternative C your answer is correct. In fact,

language boundaries result from Political, social, cultural, and
educational pressure.
d. If you have chosen alternative D your answer is not correct because it

is not true that language boundary result from Multinational or multi-
ethnic states, it result from the growth of nation-states and political,
social, cultural, and educational pressure.
60
6.3 Social Dialects
In the previous subtopic you learnt how language and dialect convey
geographical information about the speakers. In this subtopic you will
learn how language and dialect convey social information about the
speakers.
As you learnt in previous lesson, the term dialect can be used to describe
differences in speech associated with various social groups or classes.
There are social dialects as well as regional dialects. There is a British
‘public School’ dialect, and there is a ‘Black’ dialect found in cities such
as New York, Detroit and Buffalo.
Whereas regional dialects are geographically based, social dialects

originate among social groups and are related to a variety of factors, the
principal ones apparently being social class, religion, and ethnicity.
In India for example, cast, one of the clearest of all social differentiators,
quite often determines which variety of a language a speaker uses. In a
city like Baghdad the Christian, Jewish, and Muslim inhabitants speak
different varieties of Arabic. In this case the first two groups use their
variety solely within the group but the Muslim variety serves as lingua
franca, or common language, among the groups. Consequently,
Christians and Jews who deal with Muslim must use two varieties: their
own variety at home, and the Muslim variety for trade, and in all inter-
group relationship. Ethnic variety can be seen in the United States where
one variety of English has become so identified with an ethnic group that
is often referred to as Black English.
Activity
Time 60 min
61
Exercise 1
What do you understand by the term Social dialects?
Exercise 2
Is there any difference between Regional and Social dialects? If your

answer is positive, could you mention the differences between them?
Exercise 3
What is a Cast? What is its function in that social stratum?
Exercise 4
Read the last paragraph above.
a) What do you think is Lingua Franca?
Feedback
Exercise 1
Social dialects are those originated among social groups and are related to
a variety of factors, the principal ones apparently being social class,
religion, and ethnicity
Exercise 2
Yes. Regional dialects are geographically based, and social dialects

originate among social groups and are related to a variety of factors, the
principal ones apparently being social class, religion, and ethnicity.
Exercise 3
Cast is one of the Hindu social class, one of the clearest of all social
differentiators, quite often determines which variety of a language a
speaker uses.
62
Exercise 4
According to the context in which it appears I hope you attempted to

give the correct answer.
Lingua Franca is a language used for communication between people of

an area where several languages are spoken.
If you feel you had no difficulty in doing the exercises above,

continue. Otherwise review the appropriate lesson.
6.4 Styles and Registers
In the previous subtopics you learnt how language and dialect convey
geographical and Social information about the speakers. In this subtopic
you will learn different styles an individual adopts when speaking. The
study of dialect is further complicated by the fact that speakers can adopt
different styles of speaking. You can speak very formally or very
informally, your choice being governed by circumstances. Ceremonial
occasions almost invariable require very formal speech, public lectures
somewhat less formal, casual conversation quite informal, and
conversations between intimates on matters of little importance may be
extremely informal or casual.
You may try to relate the level of formality chosen to a variety of factors;
the kind of occasion, the various social groups, age, (the level of
formality you use when you address to a young child differ from one used
when you address to an adult) and other differences that exist between the
participant, the particular task that is involved, e.g., writing or speaking,
the emotional involvement of one or more of the participant, and so on.
While it may be difficult to characterize discrete level of formality, it is

nevertheless possible to show that native speakers of all languages
control a range of stylistic varieties. It is quite possible to predict with
considerable confidence the stylistic feature that a native speaker will
tend to employ on certain occasions.
63
A Register is another complicated factor in any study of language

varieties. Registers are set of language items associated with discrete
occupational or social groups. Surgeons, airlines pilots, bank managers,
sales clerks, jazz fans employ different register. People participating in
recurrent communication situations tend to develop similar vocabularies,
similar features of intonation, and characteristic, bits of syntax and
phonology that they use in these situations. This kind of variety is
register.
Activity
Time 60 min
Exercise 1
What do you understand by the terms Styles and Registers?
Exercise 2
How many styles are there in a language? Give at least one example for
each situation.
Exercise 3
What stylistic characteristic do you associate with each of the following

activities: talking to a young child, writing any essay for a professor,
playing a board game with a close friend, approaching a stranger in the
street to ask for direction, attending a funeral, talking to yourself, burning
your finger?
64
Feedback
Exercise 1
Style is a different manner of speaking governed by the circumstance. An

individual may speak very formally or informally.
Register is a set of language items associated with professional or social

groups.
Exercise 2
There are two types of styles: Formal and Informal.
Formal: Ceremonial speech
Informal: Conversation between intimates, etc.
Exercise 3
- Talking to a young child. It is informal style.
- Writing any essay for a professor. It is formal
- Playing a board game with a close friend. It is Informal.
- Approaching a stranger-----------informal
- Attending a funeral---------formal
- Talking to yourself -------------informal

continue. Otherwise review the appropriate lesson.
65
Unit Summary
In this Unit you have dealt with some basic concepts in Sociolinguistics.
You learnt that Language is what a member of particular society

Summary speaks. You also realised that this is an ambiguous term, considering that
there are extra-linguistic factors such as politics and culture that tend to
count for the definition of what actually constitutes a language. Society is
a group of people who are drawn together for a certain purpose.
The problem of Variation was discussed. You learnt that when looking
closely at language it can be discovered time and time again that there is
a considerable internal variation and that speakers make constant use of
many different possibilities offered to them, none speaks the same way
all the time. It was also said that there are definite bounds to that
variation. No individual is free to do just exactly what he/she pleases so
far as language is concerned.
In this unit you learned about Some Basic Methodological. It was

said that Basic Methodological explains the nature of Sociolinguistic
research. Whatever Sociolinguistics is, it must be oriented towards both
data and theory; that is any conclusion we come to must solidly be based
on real life evidence.
As it was suggested above, you learnt eight principles that guide

Sociolinguistic research to mention the following: The cumulative
principle, the information principle, the principle of convergence,
the principle of subordinate shift, the principle of style- shifting, the
principle of attention, the vernacular principle, the principle of
formality.
A relationship between language and society was examined in this unit.

It was explained that, there are many ways in which language and society
are said to be related such as geographical location, grading phenomena,
physical environment, social requirement, and social environment.
66
In the relationships between Sociolinguistics and other subjects, you

learnt that Linguists and Sociologists are not the only researchers
involved in studies of language in society. Scholars from a variety of
other disciplines have an interest too. Anthropologists, Psycholinguistics,
Educators, and Planners are also involved in the study of the language.
Looking at Language and Dialect, you also learnt that Dialect is none
prestige variety, it is equivalent to non-standard or substandard variety it
is associated with the lower working class or group, whereas language is
a variety which deserve prestige. It is a standard variety associated with
the middle and upper class.
You also discussed about the Criterion of Mutual intelligibility where you
learnt that if two individuals, one is a speaker of variety A , and another
a speaker of variety B, are able to understand each other, it means that
what they speak are not different languages on their own but two
different dialect of the same language.
This unit also focused on the seven criterions that may be useful in
discussing different kinds of language. They are the following:
Standardization, vitality, historicity, autonomy, reduction, mixture and de
facto norm
Standardization can also be called codification or elaboration, refers to

the process by which a language has been codified.
Vitality refers to the existence of living community of speakers.
Historicity refers to the fact that a particular group of people find identity
through the language they use.
Autonomy says that a language must be felt by its speakers to be

different from other language.
Reduction is a particularly variety may be regarded as sub-variety rather

than an independent entity. Mixture refers to the feeling speakers have
about the purity of the variety they speak.
67
The fact norm, the feeling that many speakers have that, there are good
speakers and poor speakers of language and the good speakers represent
the norm of proper usage.
In addition, Regional and Social Dialects were dealt with. Regional

dialects are geographically based. Social dialects are originated among
social groups and are related to a variety of factors, the principal ones
apparently being social class, religion and ethnicity.
Finally, Styles and Registers were considered in this unit. You learnt
that Sty is a distinctive manner of speaking, it can be formal or informal
and the choice being governed by circumstances. Registers are sets of
language items associated with discrete occupational or social groups.
If you feel that you understand the following terms:

SOCIOLINGUISTICS, RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN LANGUAGE
AND SOCIETY, LANGUAGE AND DIALECT, REGIONAL AND
Note it! / SOCIAL DIALECT (unit 1), you can do the end test below. If not review
Warning
the relevant lesson(s) in this unit.
68
Assessment (END TEST)

Now that you have completed this Unit, use the end test below to
check whether you have met all learning outcomes set for it.
Assessment Question 1
The following statements define Sociolinguistics. Tick the correct

statements. Support your answers.
a) Sociolinguistics is a branch of sociology that deals with the study of

b) Sociolinguistics is the study of language in relation to society.
c) Sociolinguistics finds out how cultural values affect the way

language is used by different individuals.
d) Sociolinguistics finds out how language is affected by culture or how

language is used by different social groups.
Question 2
Choose the correct answer from sentences below:
Teacher needs to know some basic concepts of Sociolinguistics to enable

him/her deals with:
a) Students from different cultural background
b) Students who bring different linguistic background
c) All students who have psychological problems.
d) Some students who bring languages that lack prestige and others that
have prestige.
69
Question 3
The language we speak is remarkable variable, so there is considerable

variation in speech of any one individual. Tick the correct statement.
a) There are no definite bounds to that variation.
b) Any individual is free to do just exactly what he/she pleases when

speaking.
c) There are group norms as variation is concerned.
d) The variations have no limit and are applied just to individual.
Question 4
There are eight principles for Sociolinguistic research.
Match the following principles to their explanations.
a) The accumulative principle -
b) The uniformation principle
c) The vernacular principle -
d) The principle of Style- Shift
1. ‘Style speech can be ordered along a single dimension measured by

the amount of attention speakers are giving to their speech.
2. The style, which is most regular in its structure and in its relation to
the history of the language, is the vernacular, that relaxed, spoken
style in which the least conscious attention is being paid to speech.
3. The more we know about the language, the more we can find out
about it.
4. Any systematic observation of speech defines a context in which

some conscious attention will be paid to that speech, so that it will be
difficult, without great ingenuity, to observe the genuine ‘vernacular’
70
5. There are no ‘single-style’ speakers of a language, because each

individual controls and uses a variety of linguistic styles and no one
speaks in exactly the same way in all circumstances.
6. The linguistic processes which we observe to be taking place around

us are the same as those which have operated in the past, so that there
can be clean break between synchronic (i.e., descriptive and
contemporary) matters and diachronic (i.e., historical) ones.
Question 5
Relationship between Language and Society
True or False. Write (T) for those you believe are True and False(F) for
the opposite)
a) Language is not part of society and it is somehow external to it.
b) Social structure (age grading phenomenon) may influence or

determine linguistic structure and or behaviour.
c) The particular way of speaking, choice of words and even rules for
conversing are in fact highly determined by certain social
requirements.
d) The relationships between language and society are symmetrical.
Question 6
Which of the following disciplines (Anthropology, Psycholinguistics,

Education, and Planning related to Sociolinguistics do you think match
with the explanation above.
a) The science, which studies the human race, especially of its origins,
development, customs and beliefs. It has done work, which can be
described as Sociolinguistics in nature, example in the exploration of
kinship system.
71
b) The science, which studies the mind and how it functions in an

individual. So it looks particularly at possible effects of linguistic
structure on social and psychological behaviour of an individual.
c) It helps to take decision about matters involving language and the

skill of literacy. Sociolinguistics tries to influence educators in their
attitudes toward certain kinds of linguistic behaviour or varieties of
language spoken by a group of children.
d) A field which needs a considerable amount of linguistic knowledge to

make decisions about which language to encourage in certain
circumstance, or in any attempts to standardize a particularly
language or variety, or to change existing relationships between
languages or varieties.
Question 7
Match the words with the correct definition.
a) Dialect b) Variety c) Language d) Vernacular e) Lingua

Franca f) Indigenous
1. A subordinate variety that is standard variety that carries prestige and

it is a variety used by high class.
2. The speech of a particular country, or form of speech transmitted

from parent to child as a primary medium of communication.
3. Substandard or non-standard variety of a language, which lacks

prestige. It is spoken by low class in the society
4. Belonging to a place, native
5. Specific set of linguistic items or human speech patterns, (presumable

sounds, words, grammatical features, etc) which we can uniquely
associate with some external factors (presumable a geographical area
or a social group).
6. A language used for communication between people of an area in

which several languages are spoken.
72
Question 8
In this Unit 1 you learnt that apart from linguistic factors, the concept of
power and solidarity may contribute to promoting language or a dialect
1. Choose the correct statements and support your answers.
a) Solidarity is feeling of equality that people have with one another
b) A feeling of solidarity can lead people to keep alive a local dialect or

an endangered language to resist power.
c) A feeling of solidarity may sometimes be determinant in promotion

of a language or dialect.
d) A feeling of solidarity can lead people to preserve a local dialect or to

prevent a language to fall into decay, or to insist for independence.
e) The concept of power is always determinant in promotion of a

language or dialect
2. In China, speakers of Cantonese and Mandarin say that they use the
same language, but if one speaker knows only Cantonese and vice-
verse they will not be able to converse with each other.
a) Are these two languages mutual intelligible? Why?
b) What does the Criterion of Mutual Intelligible tell you?
Question 9
Match the following Criterion with their explanations
1 Reduction 2 The facto norm 3 Mixture 4 Autonomy
a) It refers to the process by which a language has been codified.
b) It refers to the existence of living community of speakers.
c) It refers to the fact that a particular group of people find identity

through the language they use.
73
d) It says that a language must be felt by its speakers to be different

from other language.
e) A particularly variety may be regarded as sub-variety rather than an

independent entity.
f) It refers to the feeling speakers have about the purity of the variety
they speak.
g) The feeling that many speakers have that, there are good speakers and
poor speakers of language and the good speakers represent the norm
of proper usage.
Question 10.
Tick the correct sentences and justify your choice
Bell’s seven criteria;
a) Solved definitely the problem of identifying different kinds of

languages.
b) Attempted to solve the problem of identifying different kind of

languages.
c) Attempted to solve the problem of identifying different kinds of

languages of a particular country.
d) Attempted to solve the problem of identifying different kinds of

regional dialect.
Question 11
Tick the right answer
When an individual travels from one point to another, he/she begins the
journey speaking one language and ends it speaking something entirely
different. However, there was no point at which the changeover neither
occurred, nor is there actually any way of determining how intermediate
dialect areas that individual passed through. For such a situation is often
referred to as:
74
a) Dialect geography.
b) Dialect boundary
c) Dialect continuum
d) Isoglosses
Question 12
The term dialect can also be used to describe differences in speech

associated with various groups or class. There are social dialects as well
as regional dialects.
True or False. Write (T) for those you believe are true and write false (F)
for those you believe are false.
a) Social dialects originated among social groups and are only related to
religion factors____
b) Regional dialects are geographically based._____
c) Social dialects originated among social groups and are related to a

variety of factors, the principal ones being social class, religion, and
ethnicity.____
d) Social dialects originated in social groups and are related to ethnicity

factors. ______
Question 13
Tick the correct statements and support your answers
a) Speakers can adopt different ways of speaking; they can speak

formally or informally.
b) The choice of styles of speaking is not governed by the

circumstances; it is only governed by an individual.
75
c) Registers are sets of language items associated with discrete

occupational or social groups.
d) The choice of style of speaking is governed by the circumstances and

not only by an individual
Feedback
END TEST
Question 1.
The correct Statements are B, C, D.

Sociolinguistics is not a branch of sociology; it is a branch of
linguistic.
b) If you have chosen alternative B, your answer is correct because it is

true that Sociolinguistics is the study of language in relation to
society.

Sociolinguistics finds out how cultural values affect the way
language is used by different individuals.
d) If you have chosen alternative D, your answer is correct because it is

also true that Sociolinguistics finds out how language is affected by
culture or how language is used by different social groups.
Question 2.
Statements A, B, and D are correct.
a) If you have chosen alternative A, your answer is correct. In fact,

teacher is going to deal with students from different cultural
background; he/she needs to have good attitudes towards this
situation.
76
b) If you have chosen alternative B, your answer is correct, with the

same reasons described above.
c) If you have chosen alternative C, then your answer may not be

correct, although psychology is related to Sociolinguistics, to deal
with students who have psychological problems you need to study
psycholinguistic.
d) If you have chosen alternative D, your answer is correct. In fact,

teacher is going to deal with some students who bring languages that
lack prestige and other that have prestige, so teacher needs to know
how to change negative attitudes to positive attitudes.
Question 3.
Statement C is correct.

it is not true that there are no definite bounds to that variation, there is
of course limitations to those variations.

it is not true that any individual is free to do just exactly what he/she
pleases when speaking. For example you can not pronounce words
any way you want, inflect or not inflect words arbitrarily, or make
drastic alterations of word order in sentence as the mood suit you.
c) If you have chosen alternative C, your answer is correct because it is

true that there are group norms as variation is concerned.
d) If you have chosen alternative D, your answer is not correct because

it is also not true that the variations have no limit and are applied just
to individual, they have limit and they are applied to group of
speakers and not just to individual.
77
Question 4
a) 3
b) 6
c) 2
d) 5
Question 5
True answers are B and C; False answers are A and D
a) If you have chosen A, your answer is not correct because it is the

opposite, language is part of society and it is not external relationship
but an internal and dialectical relationship.
b) If you have chosen B, your answer is correct, because Social

structure (age grading phenomenon) may influence or determine
linguistic structure and or behaviour on that, young children speak
differently from older children and, in turn, children speak differently
from adults.
c) If you have chosen alternative C, your answer is correct because the

particular way of speaking, choice of words and even rules for
conversing are in fact highly determined by certain social
requirements, social context seems to affect the choice of vocabulary
according to that society.

the relationship between language and society is not symmetrical.
Note that all linguistic phenomenons are social, but not all social
phenomenons are linguistic, the whole is the society, and language is
one strand of the social.
78
Question 6
a) _______________Anthropology
b) _______________Psycholinguistics
c) ______________ Education
d) _________________Planning
Question 7
a) _____3
b) _____5
c) _____1
d) _____2
e) _____6
f) _____4
Question 8
1.
Statements A, B, C, and D are correct:
a) If you have chosen alternative B your answer is correct. In fact, a

feeling of solidarity can lead people to keep alive a local dialect or an
endangered language to resist power.
b) If you have chosen alternative C your answer is right because a

feeling of solidarity may sometimes be determinant in promotion of a
language or dialect.
c) If you have chosen alternative D your answer is correct. It is true that

a feeling of solidarity can lead people to preserve a local dialect or to
prevent a language to fall into decay, or to insist for independence.
79
d) If you have chosen alternative E your answer is wrong because of the

word ‘always’. The concept of power is not always determinant in
promotion of a language or dialect. Social factors such as a feeling of
solidarity may also be determinant in promotion of a language or
dialect.
2.
a) No. Because a speaker of one can not understand a speaker of other.
b) It says that, if two individuals, one is a speaker of variety A one of a

variety B are able to understand each other, it means that what they
speak are not different languages on their own but two different
dialect of the same language.
Question 9
1. ______ e
2. ______h
3. ______f
4. ______d
Question 10.
Statement B is correct.
a) If you have chosen alternative A, your answer is not correct, because

the criterion did not solve the problem definitely. There is an area
where this criterion is not applicable.
b) If you have chosen alternative B, your answer is correct. In fact the

Criteria came to attempt to solve the problem of identifying different
kind of languages.
c) If you have alternative C, then your answer is not correct because it

did not attempt to solve the problem of identifying different kinds of
80
languages of a particular country but the varieties of all over the

world.
d) If you have chosen alternative D, your answer is not correct with the
same reasons given above.
Question 11
a) If you have chosen A, your answer is not correct, because Dialect

geography map the distribution of various linguistics features so as to
show their geographical provenance.

Dialect boundary occur when several isoglosses coincide.
c) If you have chosen alternative C, your answer is correct. In fact

dialect continuum is a continuum of dialects sequentially arranged
over space.

Isoglosses are boundaries drawn in maps to show linguistic features
as to distinguish an area in which a certain feature is found from area
in which is absent.
Question 12
True answers: B and C
False answers: A and D

Social dialects originated among social groups and are not only
related to religion factors they are also relate to religion and ethnicity.
b) If you have chosen alternative B, your answer is correct. In fact,

Regional dialects are geographically based.

Social dialects originated among social groups and are related to a
81
variety of factors, the principal ones being social class, religion, and
ethnicity.
d) If you have chosen alternative D, your answer is not correct for the
same reasons described in answer number one.
Question 13
The correct answers are A, C, and D
a) If you have chosen A, your answer is correct. It is true that Speakers

can adopt different ways of speaking; he/she can speak formally or
informally depending on the circumstances.
b) If you have chosen alternative B, your answer is not right because

The choice of style of speaking is also governed by the
circumstances; and not only by an individual.

Register is set of language items associated with discrete
occupational or social groups.
d) If you have chosen alternative D, your answer is correct. The choice

of style of speaking is governed by the circumstances, and not only
by an individual.
Now check your performance. If you feel you had no problem in

doing this test enter the following Unit. If not review the appropriate
lesson(s)
82
Unit 2
Pidgin and Creole Languages
Introduction
In previous Unit you talked about Sociolinguistics and its importance in

your course. You also talked about language variation, attitudes, the
relationship between language and society, the difference between
language and dialect, regional and social dialects, styles and register. If
you feel you did not master these issues well, please revise appropriate
units because some of them will be recurring along the following Units.
This Unit focuses on a group of languages usually discussed under the

major heading of Pidgins and Creoles, or Marginal Languages or even
referred to as Lingua Franca. Even though these languages have been
around for long, very little is known about them. The reason for this
ignorance or lack of knowledge about Pidgins and Creoles is mainly due
to the fact that such varieties were seen as Marginal. Marginal in the
circumstances of their origin, in the attitudes toward the language and its
speakers. Therefore, this Unit looks at definition and emergence of
Pidgins and Creoles, theory of origin, their Geographical Distribution and
Linguistic characteristics
83
Unit 2 Pidgin and Creole Languages
Describe Pidgins and Creoles.
Explain the concept of Marginal Languages.
Outcomes
Distinguish Marginal Language from the so-called ‘Fully
Fledged’ Languages.
Be acquainted with the Theories concerning the Origin of Pidgin

Languages.
Make critical analyses of each theory.
Describe the origin of Creoles.
Contrast Pidginization from Creolization.
Locate geographically Pidgins and Creoles and comment on the

reasons of this distribution.
Comment on the attitudes of Speakers of both Pidgins and

Creoles on the light of such issues as cultural, ethnic and group
identity.
84
Lesson 1: Pidgins and Creoles
Introduction
In this lesson you will discuss about Pidgins and Creoles. You will study
how Pidgin and Creoles emerged. You will also get to know attitudes
people have towards Creole and Pidgin Languages.
Define and describe how Pidgins and Creoles emerged.
Explain the concept of Marginal Languages.
Explain people’s attitudes toward Pidgins and Creoles

Lesson Outcomes
Make critical analysis of people’s attitudes to Pidgins and Creoles
Distinguish Marginal Languages from the so-called ‘Fully

Fledged’ Languages.
Contrast Pidginization from Creolization
Locate geographically Pidgins and Creoles and explain the

reasons for this distribution
How long?
85
1.1 Pidgins and Creoles
Pidgins and Creoles have generally been viewed as uninteresting

linguistic phenomena. This is due to the fact that it has been said that
these languages lack some linguistic features such as articles, the copula,
and grammatical inflections. The holders of these languages were also
treated with disdain and contempt. Wardhaugh. R. (1992:54)
Hymes (1971:3) pointed out that before the 1930s Pidgins and Creoles
were largely ignored by linguists, who regarded them as “marginal
languages” at best. The situation was so worst that linguists were even
advised not to study them lest they jeopardize their careers. He adds
saying that Pidgins and Creoles are marginal in the circumstances of their
origin and in the attitudes towards them on the part of those who use one
of the languages from which they derive. They are also considered
marginal in terms of knowledge about them.
Fortunately, in recent years such attitudes have changed and, serious

attention has been given to Pidgins and Creoles. Linguists have
discovered many interesting characteristics about them, characteristics
that appear to bear on fundamental issues to do with all languages ‘fully
fledged’ (entirely developed) and marginal alike.
The study of Pidgins and Creoles has become an important part of

Sociolinguistic study, with its own literature, and of course its own
controversies. To some extent, too, the speakers of such languages have
benefited as more and more of them have come to recognize that what
they speak is not just a bad variety of this language but a language or a
variety of language with its own legitimacy, i.e., its own history,
structure, array of functions, and the possibility of winning recognition as
a ’proper’ language
86
Activity
Time 60 min
Exercise 1
a) What were the attitudes of linguists towards pidgins and Creoles

before the 1930s?
b) Why were speakers of pidgins and Creoles treated with disdain

and contempt?
c) Distinguish marginal languages from fully-fledged languages.
Exercise 2
Choose the correct alternative and support any answer you give.
Linguists were advised not to study pidgins and Creoles for fear of:
a) Endangering their careers.
b) Putting at risk their job.
c) Losing prestige
d) Also being called marginal.
Exercise 3
Which of the following statements are correct?
Give a reason for each of your choice.
87
Pidgin and Creole languages were regarded as Marginal Languages,

because:
a) They were largely ignored by linguists
b) They ruined the linguists’ carers
c) They were fully-fledged languages
Feedback
Exercise 1
a) Linguists had negative attitude towards pidgins and Creoles, they

regarded them as ’marginal languages’ at best. And they were
also forbidden to study them.
b) The holders of Pidgin and Creoles were treated with disdain and
contempt because as the holders of marginal languages, they
were also regarded as marginal.
c) Marginal languages are the languages that lack some linguistic

features such as articles, the copula, and grammatical inflections.
Whereas Fully-fledged languages are well developed languages.
They are acquainted with all linguistic features such as well
developed vocabulary, grammar, etc.
Exercise 2
Correct answers are: A, B, C.
a) If you have chosen alternative A, your answer is correct. It is true that

linguists could not attempt to study pidgins and Creoles running the
risk to jeopardize their careers.
b) If you have chosen alternative B, your answer is correct for the

reasons stated below.
88
c) If you have chosen alternative C your answer is correct for the

reasons stated in 1 and 2.
d) If you have chosen alternative D your answer is not correct, because

it is not true that linguists feared to be called marginal because they
were not regarded as such, but they feared to endanger their careers.
Exercise 3
The correct answer is A
a) If you have chosen alternative A, your answer is correct. In fact, they

were regarded as less important than the other fully-fledged
languages. Very little was known about them because no one was
interested in studying them.

it is not true that they ruined linguistics’ careers. Linguists were not
advised to study them.
c) If you have chosen alternative C, your answer is not correct. Pidgin

and Creole languages were regarded as Marginal Languages, because
they lack some linguistic features such as articles, the copula, and
grammatical inflections.

continue. Otherwise review the appropriate lesson 1
1.2 Lingua Franca
A Lingua Franca emerged when people speaking different languages

were forced into contact with each other and had to find ways of
communication. In a publication concerning the use of vernacular
languages in education, published in Paris in 1953, UNESCO defined a
lingua franca as a language which is used habitually by people whose
89
mother tongues are different in order to facilitate communication between

them.
Today, English is used in very many places and for very many purposes
as a lingua franca, for example in travels, and often in trade and
international relations. For example, when an international meeting is
held somewhere English is used as a lingua franca. Swahili was also used
as lingua franca in Tanzania during the struggle for freedom, and is still a
Lingua Franca in eastern Africa
Activity
Time 45 min
Exercise 1
Write (T) to the alternative you believe is true and (F) to the alternative
you believe is false.
a) A Lingua Franca cannot be used in Monolingual countries.
b) Users of Lingua Franca may derive from different settings speaking

different languages.
c) A Lingua Franca may solve the problem of unintelligibility in

settings where a variety of languages are spoken.
d) Pidgins may also be regarded as Lingua Franca.
Exercise 2
Go back in time and History and think about all the Arabic Traders
sailing down the Atlantic and the Indian Oceans, coming with their own
language, the spices, etc., and trading with the native people of Africa.
90
Think about the Portuguese explorers as well, with their own languages,
and dreams of conquering other worlds.
How did they understand each other?
Feedback
Exercise 1
Alternatives B, C, and D are true and alternative A is false.
a) If you have chosen alternative A your answer is not correct because a

lingua franca is not only used in multilingual settings. A lingua franca
can be used in both mono and multilingual countries. Not every
individual within the borders of a monolingual country speaks the
target language. Lingua Franca may also be used in travel,
commerce, and international relations. It may happen that, for
example, a country be asked to hold an international meeting; the use
of a lingua franca will be of a paramount importance.
b) If you have chosen alternative B, your answer is correct. It is true that

the users of lingua franca may derive from different settings holding
different languages.
c) If you have chosen alternative C, your answer is correct. In fact

Lingua Franca solve the problem of unintelligibility in settings were a
variety of languages are spoken. (Recall or see the definition of
lingua franca).
d) If you have chosen alternative D, your answer is correct. It is true that

Pidgins may be regarded as lingua franca because pidgin emerged
from the need of communication among groups from the different
settings.
Exercise 2
There was a need to find a common linguistic code - a Lingua Franca.
91
1.3 Pidgin and Creole Languages: Definition and Key Features
In this subtopic you will learn about Pidgins and Creoles. Definitions will
be presented as well as the attitudes people have towards them.
A Pidgin is a system of communication, which has emerged among

people who do not share a common language, but who want to talk to
each other, for trading or other reasons. Pidgins have been called by
various names: ‘make shift’, ‘marginal, or ‘mixed language’. They have a
limited vocabulary, a reduced grammatical structure, and a much narrow
set of functions, compared to the languages, which gave rise to them.
They are the native language of no-one, but they nonetheless are a main
means of communication for millions of people. Crystal. D. (199:334).
Holm (1988:4-5) quoted by Wardhaugh, defines a pidgin as a reduced

language that results from extended contact between groups of people
with no language in common; it evolves when they need some means of
verbal communication, perhaps for trade, but no group learns the native
language of any other for social reasons that they include lack of trust or
of close contact.
The process of pidginization probable requires a situation that involves at

least three different languages, one of which is clearly dominant over the
others. If only two languages are involved, there is likely to be a direct
struggle for dominance. When three or more languages are involved and
one is dominant, the speakers of the two or more that are inferior appear
to play a critical role in the development of pidgin.
Because of their limited function, pidgin languages usually do not last

very – sometimes for only a few years, and rarely for more than a
century. They die when the original reason for communication diminishes
or disappears, as communities move apart, or one community learns the
language of the other. Alternatively, the pidgin may develop into a
Creole.
92
A Creole is a Pidgin language, which has become the mother tongue of a

community - a definition, which emphasizes that Pidgins and Creoles are
two stages in a single process of linguistic development. First, within a
community, increasing numbers of people begin to use Pidgin as their
principal means of communication. As a consequence, their children hear
it more than any other language, and gradually it takes on the status of a
mother tongue for them. Within a generation or two, native language
users become consolidated and widespread. The result is a Creole, or
‘creolized’ language. The switch from Pidgin to Creole involves a major
expansion in the structural linguistic resources available – especially in
vocabulary, grammar, and style, which now have to cope with the
everyday demands made upon a mother tongue by its speakers.
1.4 Attitude to Pidgins
People have negative attitudes towards pidgins. It is regarded as a ‘bad’

primitive linguistic variety. It is also called a form of ‘baby talk’’ (people
don’t speak it properly). For example, Nigerian pidgin English, is
regarded as some kind of ‘bad’ English, that is, English imperfectly
learned and therefore of impossible interest. Consequently, those who
speak a Pidgin are likely to be regarded as deficient in some way, almost
certainly, socially and culturally, and sometimes even cognitively.
Such a view is quite untenable. Pidgins are not a kind of ‘baby talk’ used
among adults because the simplified forms are the best that such people
can manage. Pidgins have their own rules; many different Pidgins have a
number of similarities that raise important theoretical issues having to do
with their origin.
1.5 Pidginization and Creolization
If we look at the actual processes involved in pidginization and

creolization, we can see that they are almost completely opposed to each
other in certain important ways. Pidginization generally involves some
kind of ‘simplification’ of language, for example, reduction in
morphology (word structure) and syntax (grammatical structure),
tolerance of considerable phonological variations (pronunciation)
93
reduction in the number of functions for which the Pidgin is used

(example, you usually do not attempt to write novels in Pidgin), an
extensive borrowing of from local mother tongues. On the other hand,
creolization involves expansion of the morphology and syntax,
regularization of the phonology, deliberate increase in the number of
function in which the language is used and development of a rational and
stable system for increasing vocabulary.
Activity
Time 45 min
Exercise 1
a) Define and explain how Pidgins and Creoles emerge.
b) How do Pidgins differ from Creoles?
Exercise 2
One of the negative attitudes towards Pidgins is that they are ‘mixed
languages’
a) Why do you think they are called mixed languages?
b) Why are they regarded as not having a unique social identity?
c) Why do people have bad attitudes towards Pidgins, mainly before

1930s?
Exercise 3
Which statements are correct? Justify your answer.
The process of pidginization requires more than two languages one which
is clearly dominant:
94
a) Because two will dominate the other.
b) To avoid struggle.
c) One will dominate the others.
d) Because if there are only two languages involved they will fight for
dominance?
Exercise 4
Think about all the Mozambican men who go to South African mines,
most of them do not speak English. How do you think they communicate
with all the other mine workers (natives of South Africa, people from
Zimbabwe, Zambia, etc?) and the bosses?
In the following sentences choose the best alternative.
a) They only talk to their countrymen.
b) They go to English courses
c) They learn to speak Fanagalo (a linguistic code used in South Africa

mines).
d) They use gestures.
Feedback
Exercise 1
a) A Pidgin is a reduced language that results from extended contacts

between groups of people with no language in common; it evolves
when they have some needs of verbal communication, perhaps for
trade, but no group learns the native language of any other group. A
Creole is a Pidgin, which has expanded in structure and vocabulary
to express a range of meanings and serves a range of functions. A
Creole is a Pidgin that has become the first language of a new
95
generation of speakers. It becomes a mother tongue of those native

speakers.
b) They differ in terms of their emergence, pidgins emerged among

people who do not share a common language, but who want to talk to
each. It has no native speakers. A Creole emerges when a Pidgin
dies. It emerges from a new generation of speakers, it is a mother
tongue of that new generation, and therefore, it has native speakers.
They also differ in terms of their Linguistic features: Pidgins exhibit

simplification of languages, reduction in morphology and syntax,
phonological variations, reduction in number of functions, whereas
Creoles exhibit expansion in the linguistic structure, resources
available – especially in vocabulary, grammar, and style.
Exercise 2
a) It has to do with their nature. Pidgins are called mixed languages

because they emerged from people speaking different languages.
b) It may be true because Pidgins emerged from people coming

from different social groups.
c) People had negative attitudes towards Pidgin because they knew

little or nothing about their origin. There was no scientific study
about them. They viewed them as an uninteresting linguistic
phenomenon.
Exercise 3
a) If you have chosen alternative A your answer is wrong, because

when three or more languages are involved one will be dominant
and others will be inferior.
b) If you have chosen alternative B your answer is correct because if

only two languages are involved, there is likely to be a direct
struggle for dominance.
96

one which is dominant will dominate the others.
d) If you have chosen alternative D, your answer is correct. It is true

that if there are only two languages involved they will fight for
dominance.
Exercise 4
If you have chosen alternative C your answer is correct. In fact, most of

the mine workers do not share a common linguistic code. For that reason,
they develop a very simplified linguistic code that is known as
‘Fanagalo’, which is a mixture of English, Afrikaans, ‘Changana’ and
other native languages.
notes. If not continue
1.6 Geographical Distribution and Linguistic Characteristics
Pidgins and Creoles are distributed mainly, not exclusively in the

equatorial belt around the world, usually in places with direct or easy
access to the ocean.
For example, English based - we have Hawaiian Creole, Gullah or Sea

Island Creole, spoken on the island off the coast of northern Florida,
Georgina, and South Carolina; Jamaican Creole, Guyana Creole, Krio,
spoken in Sierra Leone.
French based – examples are Louisiana Creole, Haitian Creole, and

Mauritian Creole. Unlike English-based Creole, French-based Creoles
(both Caribbean and pacific varieties) are mutual intelligible.
97
Portuguese-based - example is Papiamento (used in Aruba, Bonaire, and

Curacao); Guine Creole, Senegal Creole, and Saramaccan (spoken in
Suriname).
Spanish-based - example is Coco Chile (spoken by Italian immigrants, in

Buenos Aires).
Italian-based - example is Asmara Pidgin (spoken in parts of Ethiopia).
Dutch-based - example is Afrikaans (spoken in South Africa, creolized

in the seventeenth century).
German-based. - examples are Yiddish and Gastarbeiter Detsch.
Consequently, they are found mainly in the Caribbean and the north and
east coasts of South America, around the coast of Africa particularly the
west coast, and across the Indian and the Pacific oceans. They are fairly
uncommon in the more extreme northern and southern areas of the world
in the interiors of continents.
Their distribution appears to be fairly closely related to long-standing of

trade, including trading in slaves. The Caribbean area is of particular
interest to Creoles because of the many variety of language found there.
The language distribution of this whole area reflects its social and
political history. That is the only way you can explain why a French-
based Creole is spoken in St Lucia, which now has English as its official
language; it also may explain why the former island of Hispaniola
contains both the Spanish-speaking Dominican Republic and the French-
Creole-speaking Haiti; it might be the reason why the people of Dutch
Curacao speak Papiamento, which is a Portuguese-based Creole (or
perhaps Portuguese with a little Spanish); once more, it may clarify why
Suriname, officially Dutch-speaking, has two or perhaps three English-
based Creoles.
Other parts of the world are no less complicated linguistically. Sierra

Leone has both pidginized and creolized ‘Englishes’. The Pidgin is west
African (p)Pidgin English, widely used as a trading in west Africa and to
that extent indigenous to the country.
98
Activity
Time 30 min
Exercise
Use the introduction above, your general knowledge, the history you may
have learnt in previous classes and answer the following question:
− What do you think are the reasons for this geographical and language
distribution of Pidgins and Creoles?
Feedback
Exercise
− It is obvious that this geographical distribution of Pidgins and Creoles

has to do with social and political issues, connected with slave trade
or slaves coming from different parts of the world, specially, Africa.
Having some basic needs to communication to each other Pidgins and
Creoles emerged. Pidgins and Creoles are distributed in equatorial
belt around the world because these places have direct or easy access
to the ocean to facilitate the trade of slaves. Language distribution of
this whole area reflects its social and political history.
If you feel you had difficulty in doing the activity above, re-read the
notes. If not continue
99
1.7 Linguistic characteristics of Pidgins and Creoles
In describing the linguistic characteristics of a Pidgin or Creole it is

difficult to resist the temptation to compare them with the standard
language with which they are associated. Each Pidgin or Creole is a well–
organized linguistic system and must be treated as such. Pidgins and
Creoles are likely to have a complete lack of inflection in nouns,
pronouns, verbs, and adjectives. Nouns are not marked for numbers and
gender, and verbs lack tense markers. Transitive verbs, that is, verbs that
take object, may however be distinguished from intransitive verbs, that is,
those that do not take object, by being marketed. Pronouns will not be
distinguished for case, so there will be no ‘I-me,-he-him.’
The sounds of a Pidgin or Creole are likely to be fewer and less

complicated in their possible arrangements than those of the
corresponding standard language.
Pidgins do comfortable without inflections, but it is not surprising that

some people view their absence as sign of deficiency and inferiority in
both languages and speakers in much the same way as they view
acquisition of a set which is dispreferred.
Syntactically, sentences are likely to be uncomplicated in clausal

structure. The development of embedded clauses, e.g., of relative clauses,
is one characteristic of the process of creolization: Pidgins do not have
embedding. The use of particles, that is, usually small isolated words, is
also quite frequent. Negation may be achieved through use of a simple
negative ‘no’ in the English based Krio, e.g., I no tu had (‘it’s not too
hard’) and ‘p’ in the French-based Seychelles Creole, e.g., I pa tro difisil
(‘it’s not too difficult’).
The vocabulary of a Pidgin or a Creole has a great many similarities to

that of the standard language with which it is associated. However,
phonological and morphological simplification often leads to words
assuming somewhat different shapes
100
Activity
Time 40 min
Exercise
− Write a brief summary of the linguistic characteristics of Pidgins and

Creoles.
Feedback
Exercise
Pidgins and Creoles have a complete lack of inflection in nouns,

pronouns, verbs, and adjectives. Nouns are not market for numbers and
gender, and verbs lack tenses markers. Transitive verbs that is, verbs that
take object, may however be distinguished from intransitive verbs, that is,
those that do not take object, by being marked. Pronouns will not be
distinguished for case, so there will be no I-me,-he-him, uncomplicated
in clausal structure.
Otherwise review appropriate notes.
101
Lesson 2: Theories of Origin - Pidgins
Introduction
The previous lesson was about the definition of Pidgins and Creoles, their
emergence, the process of pignization and creolization and attitudes
people have towards these languages. If you feel you are familiar with
these notions enter the following lesson. If not review lesson 1
This is lesson 2 and you will learn some theories of origin of Pidgins and
Creoles. You will also learn how a Creole language becomes decreolized.
− Explain some Theories concerning the Origin of Pidgin Languages.
− Make critical analyses of each theory.
Lesson Outcomes − Describe and explain the process of decreolization.
How long?
2.1 Theory of origin
Introductory Notes
Linguists who have studied Pidgins and Creoles have long been intrigued
by the similarities they have found among them. Pidgin from different
parts of the world exhibits similarities in structure even when the standard
languages with which they are associated are quite different.
Furthermore, Pidgins and Creoles based on the same standard language
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but found in places for distant from one another may have a high degree
of mutual intelligibility (able to communicate to each other; see unit 1
lesson 5.6), e.g., the various pidginized and creolized varieties of French
found geographical as far apart as the Caribbean, the India Ocean and the
south pacific. The question is, how can these similarities be accounted?
Now, you will learn that it has been drawn many theories to explain the
similarities among Pidgins and Creoles. The following passages give a
brief description of each theory.
1. One theory about the origin of Pidgins is easily dismissed. This is the
idea that Pidgins arise because the people among whom they are
found lack the ability to learn the standard languages with which the
Pidgins are associate. Such a new view may sometimes be associated
with another one that European languages are somehow ‘better’ than
others and that many people speak ‘primitive’ language, that is,
language that are deficient in certain respects. Such deficiencies may
then be cited as evidence that people themselves are inferior. We
must note that linguists have been unable to locate a single such
‘primitive language’ that claims about associated intellectual
deficiencies are largely ‘racist’ and that this theory about the origins
of Pidgins ignores many important facts.
There is no evidence either for any ‘foreigner-talk’ or ‘baby-talk’

theory. See Bloomfield (1933:472-3) for the origin of Pidgins and
Creoles, i.e., that they result from European deliberately simplifying
their language in order to communicate with others. According to this
theory, these simplified forms then serve to provide Pidgin with their
basic structure and vocabularies. However, there is plenty of
evidence that it is Europeans who learn the Pidgin from non-
Europeans rather than the opposite, although the use of so much
European vocabulary may tend to conceal that fact. The ‘foreigner-
talk’ or ‘baby-talk’ theory fails to offer an adequate account of these
similarities.
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2. The theory of polygenesis is that Pidgins and Creoles have a variety

of origins; any similarity among them arises from the shared
circumstances of their origins. For example, speakers of English have
had to make themselves understood for the purpose of trade and those
trading with them have had to be understood.
Consequently, certain simplified form of English developed

independently in a number of places, giving rise to variation of
Pidgin English. Because in every case the target language is English,
these local varieties will have certain similarities. In this view a
‘Pidgin X’ or Creole Y’ is a variety of X or Y, much as cockney
English is a variety of English. Then, more generally, since English,
French, Spanish, and *Portuguese are really not so different – they
are all indo-European languages – we might expect similarities. This
view claims that a ‘simplification’ process for any language would
produce much the same results everywhere: a simple set of sounds,
no inflections, basic word order patterns, short uncomplicated
utterances. Various other explanations have been offered for the
resulting similarities including the similar social context of their
origin, the similar communication needs of those who use them, and
most applausive of all a shared substratum.
In this view Atlantic Pidgins and Creoles retain certain characteristics

of ancestral African languages. African slaves were often
multilingual, spoke languages of similar structure but different
vocabulary, and tend to treat English and French, and to a lesser
extent Portuguese, in same way. Therefore, the Pidgins and the
Creoles are European-language–based and were freshly created in
different places.
3. There is a third theory which contrasts such polygenetic view with

monogenic ones. One such view of the similarities among Atlantic
Pidgins and Creoles requires us to examine the very beginnings of the
pidginization process. According to Mcwhorter (1995) their
similarities can be accounted for if we look back to the beginnings of
the slave trade and existence of English and French slave forts on the
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West Africa coast. In these forts contact language developed. These

contacts languages provided the bases for most of the Pidgins and
Creoles, that later developed across the Atlantic.
This view of the development of Pidgins and Creoles is monogenetic

view, claiming that a single source accounts for the perceived
similarities among the varieties we find. Another variant of such a
monogenetic theory is that the similarities among Pidgins and
Creoles might be attributable to a common origin in the language of
sailors in some kinds of nautical jargon. However, the evidence for
this theory is weak, consisting of a few sea-based forms in different
Pidgins. Moreover, it almost completely ignores the more serious
structural similarities among existing Pidgin and Creoles, similarities
that seem to require a more profound explanation.
4. The theory of relexification is an attempt to offer such an

explanation. According to this theory, all the present European-
language-based Pidgins and Creoles derive from a single source, a
lingua franca called Sabir used In the Mediterranean in the middle
age. In the fifteen and sixteen centuries the Portuguese relexified this
language, that is, they introduced their own vocabulary into its
grammatical structure, so that a Portuguese-based Pidgin come into a
pidginized French, English and Spanish. Such a theory attempts to
provide serious explanations for the fact that Pidgins and Creoles
associated with different standard languages have certain common
structure features but quite different vocabularies.
The problem of this theory is that Pidgins are also stripped down that
they lack most of the features that linguist usually rely on to relate
one language to another. The similarities among them are very
general and it is quite possible that some alternative theory may
better explain them. Relexification also asks us to believe that, in
learning a language, people somehow can learn the grammar quite
independently of the vocabulary and that they do indeed learn the
first but completely replace the second during the process of learning.
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5. Bickerton (1981) offers an alternative theory to account for the

similarities we find: his Bioprogram hypothesis or the theory of
universal language learning. He claims that only one hypothesis
adequately explains the similarities among Creoles and that is that
universal principle of first language acquisition are involved.
Typically, Creoles are developed by children who find themselves
born into a multilingual environment in which the most important
language for peer contact is a Pidgin. Children are compelled to
develop that language because each child has a bioprogram to
develop a full language. Children use this bioprogram in the same
way wherever they happen to be and the consequence is that the
grammatical structure of Creoles are more similar to one another
than they are to the structures of any other language. He develops
this theory claiming that children have certain innate language
abilities that they are actually forced to suppress as they learn
language like English and French. It is only in Pidgin-speaking
communities where there is no grammatical model that could
compete with the child’s innate grammar, that the innate grammatical
model is not eventually suppressed. It is in these circumstances that
Creoles arise. He says that the essential difference between
pidginization and creolization is that pidginization is the second
language with restricted input and creolization is the first language
learning also with restricted input.
Now that you read all the theories above give a brief summary in each of
them. Please refer to the feedback only after you have the exercises.
Time 120 min

Activity
106
Feedback
Possible answers
1. The first theory supports the idea that the users of Pidgins and
Creoles are deficient, incapable to learn the associated standard
language. This view is associated with another one which says that
European languages are better than other primitive languages which
they consider as being deficient.
2. The theory of polygenesis says that Pidgins and Creoles have a

variety of origins. And similarities arise from shared circumstances.
Simplified forms of English developed independently in a variety of
places, giving origins to the variety of Pidgins. In every case the
target language is English, therefore the local variety will share
certain similarities. For example, a Pidgin X or Creole Y, is a variety
of X or Y. These similarities are also explained in social context of
their origins and of all shared substratum.
3. Monogenic theory supports that similarities among Pidgins and

Creoles developed at the beginning of the trade of slave and the
existence of English and French slaves’ forts on the West Africa
Coast. It claims that a single source accounts for the perceived
similarities among varieties we find. Another variant says that those
similarities might be attributable to a common origin in language of
sailors in some kind of nautical jargon.
4. The theory of relexification says that European-language-based

Pidgins and Creoles derive from a single source- a lingua franca
called Sabir used in the Mediterranean in the middle age. The theory
of relexification explains that Pidgins and Creoles associated with
different standard languages have certain common structure features
but quite different vocabularies.
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5. Theory of universal language learning. Universal principle of first

language acquisition is involved in the similarities among Pidgins
and Creoles. The theory says that Creoles are developed by children
born into multilingual settings in which the most important language
for peer contact is a Pidgin. This is due to the fact each children has a
bioprogram to develop a full language. Bickerton claims that children
have a certain innate language ability that they are actually forced to
suppress as they learn a language. He says that the essential
difference between pidginization and creolization is that
pidginization is the second language with restricted input and
creolization is the first language learning also with restricted input.
Otherwise review the appropriate lesson.
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109
Lesson 3: From Pidgins to Creoles and beyond
Introduction
In previous lesson you discussed about theories and views which come to
explain the possible origin of Pidgins and Creoles. You may have noticed
that they were different theories with different claims. Each theory has its
strength and weakness. You may also have notice that in all theories
discussed above there is lack of evidences. If you feel you understand
these notions enter the following lesson. If not review lesson 2
In this lesson you will look at some possible explanations behind the
origin of Creoles and how a Creole becomes decreolized.
− Have positive attitudes towards Pidgins and Creoles
− Evaluate and make critical analyse to theories of origin of
Lesson Outcomes Pidgins and Creoles.
How long?
110
3.1 Possible explanations around the origin of Pidgins and Creoles.
It is said that whatever their origin, it is generally acknowledged that a

Pidgin is involved in the earliest stage of each Creole. The Pidgin comes
from the need to communicate, particularly when those who need to
communicate speak a variety of languages and the speaker of the ‘target’
language are ’superior’ in some sense and perhaps transient too. Thus,
pidginization seems to have happened – and seems to happen –
repeatedly, for it is one of the basic means by which linguistic contact is
made among speakers of different languages who find themselves in an
asymmetrical social relationship, i.e., one which there is a serious
imbalance of power.
You will also observed that not every Pidgin eventually becomes a
Creole, i.e., undergoes the process of creolization. In fact, very few do.
Most Pidgins are lingua franca, existing to meet special local needs. They
are spoken by people who use another language or other languages to
serve most of their needs and the need of their children, if a Pidgin is no
longer needed, it dies out. It may also be the case that the Pidgin in a
particular area must constantly be ‘reinvented.’ Wardhaugh. R. ( 1992:
76)
111
Creolization occurs only when a Pidgin for some reason becomes the
variety of language that must be used in situations in which the use of a
‘full’ language is effectively denied them. A Creole is the native
(language) of some of its speakers. We can also see how this must have
happened in Haiti when French was effectively denied to the masses and
the African languages brought by the slaves fell into disuse. We can also
see how, while many of the guest workers in Germany developed
pidginized varieties of German to communicate when necessary with one
another, their children did not creolized these varieties but, with varying
success, acquire standard German, since they had to go school and be
educated in German. A full language was available to them so they had
no need to creolize.
After you have read the brief introduction above, answer the question that
follows. Refer to the feedback only after you have done the exercise.
Please pay attention to the timing.
Activity
Time 30 min
Exercise
Write True (T) to the alternatives you believe are true and False (F) to the
opposite ones. Support your answers.
a) Every Pidgin regardless of its origin becomes creolized.
b) Pidgin is a lingua franca that serves exclusively the needs of

adults.
c) Pidgin may be a native language of an individual
d) Pidgin may eventually be a national language of a country.
e) Creole may be the first language acquisition of a new generation.
112
Feedback
Only answer E is true. A, B, C and D are false
a) If you have chosen alternative A your answer is false. It is not

true that every Pidgin becomes creolized because if a certain
Pidgin is no longer in use may die out.
b) If you have chosen alternative B your answer is wrong. Pidgin is

a lingua franca which serves the needs of any individual
regardless its age.
c) If you have chosen alternative C your answer is false. Pidgin may

not be native language of any individual because it is a result of
people from different settings and they use Pidgin to
communicate to each other.
d) If you have chosen alternative D your answer is not correct

because Pidgin does not represent any social group neither
cultural identity. If new language (from new generation)
emerges, the Pidgin may die out.
e) If you have chosen alternative E, your answer is true. In fact

Creole may become first language of a new generation of
speakers because Creoles are developed by children who find
themselves born into a multilingual environment in which the
most important language for peer contact is a Pidgin.
If you feel you had difficulty in doing the exercise above, revise lesson
2. If not continue.
3.2 Tok Pisin situation
The example of Tok Pisin (originated from more than one source), such
as English, Polynesian, and even German, but now virtually extinct). It
is useful in considering how a Pidgin expands and develop into a Creole.
In Tok Pisin grammatical categories such as time and number have
113
become compulsory. A word formation component that has been

developed, devices for structuring discourse are now present, and there
are opportunities for stylistic differentiation. So far as functions are
concerned, Tok Pisin has become symbolic of a new culture; it is now
used in many entirely new domains, e.g., government, religion,
agriculture, and aviation; it is employed in a variety of media; and it is
supplanting the vernacular and even English in many areas.
Aitchison (1981:203-5) quoted from Wardhaugh (1992: 76) points out

four kinds of change in Tok Pisin. People speak Creoles faster than
Pidgins and they do not speak them word by word. Consequently,
processes of assimilation and reduction can be seen in Tok Pisin. For
example; ma bilong mi (‘my husband’) becomes mamblomi. A second
change is the expansion of vocabulary resources; new shorter words are
formed, so that paintman (‘fighter’) exists alongside man bilong pait
(‘man of fight’). The third change is the development of a tense system in
verbs. Bin is used as past time marker and bai, from baimbai (‘by’ and
‘b’), as a future marker. Finally, greater sentence complexity is now
apparent. Some speakers are now able to construct relative clause because
we (from ‘where’’) is developing as an introductory marker. In ways such
as these, the original Pidgin is quickly developing into a fully fledged
language (completely developed), which we call a Creole only because
we know its origins.
Activity
Time 40 min
Exercise
114
Tok Posin situation is a clear example that Pidgins and Creoles are not
baby talk languages, are not marginal, deficient languages as they used to
be called. If people follow all procedures required to modernized a
language (and this can be done with any other language), Creoles may
also reach high places in a community and serve to the variety of
functions. (Afrikaans is a Creole that became an official language in
South Africa)
− What do you think are the factors that contribute to development

of Tok Pisin language?
Feedback
− The users of Tok Pisin had to make some changes in the structure
of the language. They introduced and developed some
grammatical features such as time and number, word formation
components; they developed devices for structuring discourse;
there were also changes in the following areas, assimilation and
reduction of some words, expansion of vocabulary resources, the
development of a tense system, greater sentence complexity.
Some speakers are now able to construct relative clause.
If you feel you had difficulty in doing the exercise, re-read the notes
above. If not continue.
3.3. Attitudes to Pidgins and Creoles
The last point (of the passage above) is important one. ‘It is only because
we know the origins of Creoles that we know they are Creoles.’
Hall (1966:122-3) quoted from Wardhaugh ( 1992: 77) has observed that
all the evidence available so far indicates that type of linguistic change
and mechanisms involved - sound-change, analogy, borrowing of various
kinds – are the same for Pidgins and Creoles as they are for all other
115
languages. The only difference lies in the rate of change - far faster for a
Pidgin than for most languages. When a Pidgin becomes creolized, the
history of the resultant Creole is, in essence, similar to that of any other
language. Hence, whereas a Pidgin is identifiable at any given time by
both linguistic and social criteria, a Creole is identifiable only by
historical criteria – that is, if we know that it has arisen of a Pidgin. There
are no structural criteria which in themselves will identify a Creole as
such, in the absence of historical evidence.
Activity
Time 40 min
Activity
− Why do you think Hall wrote the following statement? ‘It is only
because we know the origins of Creoles that we know they are
Creoles.’
Feedback
Activity
− Hall wrote the statement above as an attempt to show that Creole

is not a marginal or deficient language; it is obviously a normal
language like many other languages or varieties. The mechanisms
involved modernizing or changing some linguistic form of a
language or varieties are the same for Pidgins and Creoles as they
are for all other languages. And it may serve the same function
like those of other language. The only difference lies on the rate
of change which may identify Creole as such
Hopefully your answer has approached to the feedback above. What

is required is to give your point view regarding the statement.
116
Before entering to this subtopic, you are recommended to revise the

definition of Dialect continuum (see unit one lesson 6.2). if you feel
you understand the concept you can proceed.
3.4 Decreolization Process (Creole continuum)
As scientific study of Pidgins and Creoles developed, recent study of

Pidgins and Creoles has revealed how quickly such languages can and do
changes. Pidginization can occur almost ‘overnight’. Relexification (see
lesson 2) also seems to be a rapid process. Creolization can take as little
as several generations. The particular combination of language and social
contact that gives rise to Pidgins and Creoles seems also to have recurred
frequently in the history of the human species. What this suggests is that
many now traditional views about how languages change may need
revision.
Because a Creole can be related to some other dominant (or super

ordinate) languages, a Creole continuum can arise, for example, English –
based Creole can develop a number of verities when it is in contact with
Standard English. As the range of these varieties increase, Standard
English may more and more influence them in a process of decreolization
so that some varieties will come to resemble Standard English.
In discussing the Creole continuum that exist in Guyanese English,

Bickerton quoted from Wardhaugh (1992: 78) has proposed a number of
terms that may be used to refer its different parts. He uses the term
acrolect (middle class usage variety which really has very few differences
from other varieties of Standard English) to refer to educated Guyanese
English, a variety which really has very few differences from other
varieties of Standard English.
He uses the term basileto (used by old and illiterate rural labours) to refer
to the variety at the other extreme of the continuum, the variety that
would be least comprehensible to a speaker of the standard, perhaps even
incomprehensible.
117
Mesolects (forms found in the lower middle and urban working class) are
intermediate varieties. However, these are not discrete entities, for one
important characteristic of these intermediate mesolects is that they blend
into one another to fill the ‘space’ between the acrolect and the basilect.
As we might expect, there is considerable social stratification involved in

Decreolization process. Bickerton show the following Guyanese varieties
of the Standard English sentences (I told him) may be pronounced in the
various parts of continuum.
Now that you read the passage above, answer the question that follows.
Refer to the feedback only after you have done the exercise. Please pay
Activity
Time 40 min
Exercise
Observe the following variety (1 to 9). Group them according to

continuum criteria (a, b and c).
When do you think you are in the presence of the following forms.
Support your answers.
a) Acrolect
b) Mesolects
c) Basileto
1 ai tculd him
2 ai to: ld him
3 ai to: I im
4.ai tel im
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5 a tel im
6 ai tel l
7 a tel i
8 mi tel i
9 mi tela m
Feedback
Exercise
a) Acrolect, (1-3) middle class usage variety which really has very few
differences from other varieties of Standard English
b) Mesolects (4-7) forms found in the lower middle and urban working
class. They are intermediate varieties. Mutual intelligibility reduces
considerable.
c) Basileto, (8-9) used by old and illiterate rural labours. Least

comprehensible to a speaker of the standard, perhaps even
incomprehensible.
If you feel you had difficulty in doing the activity, re-read the notes
Rationale
You may observe that the first three varieties (1-3) exemplify middle-
class usage and are typical Acrolect forms. The next four (4-7) are
Mesolects forms found in the lower middle and urban working class. Item
8 is found in the rural working-class, 9 is used by old and illiterate rural
labours: these are typical Basilect forms.
119
A continuum can arise only if the two extreme varieties are varieties of
the same language, as with standard X and creolized X (e.g., Standard
English and Jamaican Creole English). When different languages are
involved there can be no continuum, as between Sranan, an English-
based Creole, and Dutch in Suriname. If the total society is highly
stratified, so that there is little or no contact between the groups who
speak the creolized and superordinate variety, and/or if these two
varieties have separate and distinct functions in the lives of people, then
there will be no continuum. We will have a diglossic (see unit 3 lesson 1)
situation as in Haiti between Haitian Creole and French. A continuum
appears to require that there be some kind of continuity in society among
the various sub-groups. It arises from the development of varieties
intermediate between the original Pidgins and the superordinate variety
3.5 Rickford and Dillard theories
Some linguists rejected the idea of continuum as being altogether too

simplistic. It is to simplistic to explain the linguistic choices that speakers
make.
According to theorists such as Rickford (1977) and Dillard (1972), the

process of decreolization can also be observed in the United States in
what has happened in the linguistic history of the black slave population
that was brought to work the cotton plantations. The original slaves
brought with them a number of West African languages, but many must
also have arrived with some knowledge of Portuguese-based or English-
based Pidgins, the trading lingua franca of the African coast. Slaves’
owners deliberately chose slaves from different languages backgrounds to
discourage rebellion. Such circumstances fostered the development of
English-based Pidgins and the process of creolization. So long as whites
and blacks kept a considerable distance apart, physical and socially, there
was little opportunity for decreolization.
You will see that this was the case with Gullah, geographically isolated
on the Sea Island off the southeast coast and still today the most
distinctive indigenous black speech in the United States, particularly
120
because of its large African vocabulary. However, as blacks began to win

more and more recognition of equality under the law and opportunities
for various kinds of advancement increased, Standard English began to
exert a strong influence on the original Creole, so that today a genuine
continuum exists. In fact, this continuum is so strong that many people,
both whites and blacks, regard any characteristics which seem to mark
the speech of US blacks as being instances of either ‘southern’ speech or
‘lower-class’ speech. This means that whatever is left of the original
Creole is now regarded as either a regional or social variant of the
standard language
After you have read the passage above, answer the question that follow.
Activity
Time 60 min
Exercise
Choose the correct answer. Support your answers.
According to the theory above the process of decreolizations take place

when:
a) Original Creole keeps distance with the speakers of standard

language.
b) Creole speakers dismembered from the standard language
c) Creole speakers win recognition from holders of standard

language.
d) Original Creole gains influence among the speakers of standard

language.
121
Feedback
Exercise
Statements C and D are correct.
a) If you have chosen alternative A, your answer is not correct.

According to this theory in the process of decreolization there is a close
relationship with the speakers of the standard language.
b) If you have chosen alternative B your answer is not correct because

dismemberment may hinder or difficult the creolization process.
c) If have chosen alternative C you answer is correct. According to the

theory it is true that the process of decreolization takes place when Creole
speakers win recognition from holders of standard language.
d) If you have chosen alternative D, your answer is correct. Creoles may

become decreolized when they gain influence among the speakers of
standard language.
Otherwise, re-read the notes above
3.6 The Process of Decreolization in Diglossic situation
A diglossic situation is one in which the Creole and the standard lack
continuity so far as functions are concerned, and that functional
discontinuity is generally strong supported by severe social stratification.
Haitian Creole and standard French differ almost as much as two quite
unrelated languages; there are no intermediate varieties in Haiti, and the
two are kept socially and functionally apart. In Haiti one possible solution
to such a diglossic situation would seem to be the elevation of the Creole
to ‘full’ language status through the process of standardization. However,
the socially and politically elite in Haiti, even though they themselves use
Haitian Creole in certain circumstances, officials disdain any language
other than standard French and the general populace find little or no
encouragement for thinking well of the Creole. On the other hand,
122
Afrikaans, of possible Creole origin, has been developed into a ‘full’

language in South Africa; Top Pisin is now used in Papua New Guinea as
a unifying language
Activity
Time 40 min
Exercise 1
Tick the correct answer. Support your answers
It can be considered as Diglossic situation when:
a) There is lack of intelligibility
b) There is a lack of continuity between Creoles and the speakers of

the standard language.
c) There is intermediate variety.
Exercise 2
Which of the following statements are correct? Justify your answers.
The process of decreolization in a diglossic situation may take place:
a) Through the codification process.
b) When Creole speakers gain strong influence among standard

language speakers.
c) Through the process of standardization.
d) When there is a close link between the two languages
123
Feedback
Exercise 1
Statement A and B are correct.
a) If you have chosen alternative A, your answer is correct. In fact, in

diglossic situation there is lack of intelligibility.
b) If you have chosen alternative B, your answer is correct because, it is

true that in diglossic situation there is a lack of continuity between
Creoles and the speakers of the standard language.
c) If you have chosen alternative C, your answer is not correct. In

diglossic situation there is no intermediate variety.
Exercise 2
Statements A and C are correct
a) If you have chosen alternative A, your answer is correct. It is true that

in diglossic environment the decreolization is done through the
codification process.
b) If you have chosen alternative B, your answer is wrong. It is not true

that the process of decreolization takes place when Creole speakers gain
strong influence among standard language speakers.
c) If you have chosen alternative C, your answer is correct. In fact, the

process of standardization takes place through standardization.
d) If you have chosen alternative D, your answer is not correct, because

the two languages are unrelated.
If you feel you had no difficulty in doing the exercise, continue.

Otherwise, re-read the notes above.
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3.7 Haiti Situation
The different linguistic situations create different social and educational

problems for speakers of the Pidgins and Creoles. In diglossic situation
such as in Haiti there are traditional power relationship exemplified in the
distributions of the two varieties of languages, e.g., Haiti Creole and the
local language or variety of French. Every one speaks the former, but
those at the ‘upper’ levels of Haitian society also speak French. The
Creole is associated with ignorance, poverty, and inferiority, even by
those who speak it, but at the same it is marker of Haitian solidarity; it is
what makes Haitian distinctive Haitians. French, though quite alien to
well over three-quarter of the population, is the preferred language of
education and it also provides access to outside world. Those who have
knowledge of French regard it as the language of culture even though, by
the standards of continental French, the Haitian variety of French tends to
be grandiose, flowery, and archaic. The result, predictable, is that little or
no progress is made in Haiti in solving pressing social and educational
problems. Many of these are directly related to linguistic matters so it is
not surprising that they should be as severe as they are if we remember
that Creole is said to have no grammar, that the elite have long resisted
literacy campaigns and that it was not until 1961 that the Creole gained
any limited official recognition at all and not until 1979 that it became the
medium of instruction for the first four years of schooling.
Activity
Time 45 min
Exercise
− Although Haiti Creole is language of solidarity and has gain

considerable acceptance among its speakers, it is far to reach the
125
same level as that of standard language (French). What do you

think are the reasons behind this?
Feedback
Exercise
This has to do with negative attitudes people have towards this language
and this seems to be crucial one. The second reason has to with linguistic
features. It is said that Haiti has no grammar and maybe no sufficient
language function for example, to function in education.
3.8 Problems related to decreolization
Creating a new ‘full’ language from Creole also has its own special
problems. Banana Indonesia had to be standardized and taught to
speakers of much different languages. Afrikaans has already been
standardized. Both states have found that a strong unifying ‘national’
consciousness among potential speakers has been of immense value. To
some extent Tok Pisin (see 3.2) relies on the same motivation, but in this
case the numbers in support of a new language are small and the price to
pay in terms of linguistic isolation, which must be added to the
geographical isolation that already exist, is high.
Currently Tok Pisin is rapidly being creolized, particular in urban area,

and attempts are being made to standardize the emerging Creole. Its uses
are being extended in a variety of ways, e.g., in the house of assembly, in
broadcasting, in newspaper, and in primary education. However, the
process has not been without its problems. One is the growth of varieties
of the language, so that there are now both rural and urban varieties, a
situation which threatens Tok Pisin’s development as lingua franca.
Another is that there has been wholesale borrowing into Tok Pisin of
English words rather than the exploitation of native sources. If Tok Pisin
were to more and more recognizable ‘English’, we might anticipate the
development of a Creole continuum with all attendant problem, not the
least of which, of course, is the threat that such a development poses to
the native Creole, as in Jamaica, Guyana, and Nigeria, placing, as it does,
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that Creole in an even more unfavourable light in the eyes of those that
speak it. Tok Pisin could fall into jeopardy if this should happen.
Activity
Time 45 min
Exercise
Tok Pisin is already decreolized but has not reached a standard level yet
(full language) hence it serves very restricted functions:
- What do you think are the reasons for this?
Feedback
Exercise
There are ranges of reasons for this, such as: the number of people in
support of this language is small, it is not full developed grammatical,
and the growth of varieties of the language in both rural and urban area
may reduce its acceptance.

Unit summary
The issues discussed in this Unit are the following:
− Languages such as Pidgins, Creoles, and Lingua Francas are

Summary usually discussed under the major heading of Marginal
languages: a group of languages seen as ‘not creative adaptations,
but degenerations, not systems in their own right, but deviations
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from other systems. Their origins have been explained, not by

historical and social forces, but by inherent ignorance, indolence,
and inferiority.’ Wardhaugh, R. (1986:55)
− Pidgins are defined as reduced language that results from

extended contacts between groups of people with no language in
common; it evolves when they have some needs of verbal
communication, perhaps for trade, but no group learns the native
language of any other group for social reasons that may include
lack of trust or of close contact. There are at least three languages
involved in the process.
Theories of origins. Theories on the origins of Pidgins include:

Foreigner – Talk or Baby- Talk Theory (Pidgins result from
deliberate attempt of Europeans to simplify their languages to
communicate with others). This theory supports the idea that the
users of Pidgins and Creoles are deficient, incapable to learn the
associated standard language.
The theory of polygenesis. Pidgins and Creoles have a variety of

origins. And similarities arise from shared circumstances.
Simplified forms of English developed independently in a variety
of places, giving origins to the variety of Pidgins. In every case
the target language is English, therefore the local variety will
share certain similarities. For example, a Pidgin X or Creole Y, is
a variety of X or Y. These similarities are also explained in social
context of their origins and of all shared substratum.
Monogenesis theory. Similarities among Pidgins and Creoles

developed at the beginning of the trade of slave and the existence
of English and French slaves’ forts on the West Africa Coast. It
claims that a single source accounts for the perceived similarities
among varieties we find. Another variant says that those
similarities might be attributable to a common origin in language
of sailors in some kind of nautical jargon.
Relexification theory. European-language-based Pidgins and

Creoles derive from a single source; a lingua franca called Sabir
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used in the Mediterranean in the middle age. The theory of

relexification explains saying that Pidgins and Creoles
associated with different standard languages have certain
common structure features but quite different vocabularies.
Theory of universal language learning. Universal principle of

first language acquisition is involved in the similarities among
Pidgins and Creoles. The theory says that Creoles are developed
by children born into multilingual settings in which the most
important language for peer contact is a Pidgins. This is due to
the fact each children has a bioprogram to develop a full
language. Children have a certain innate language ability that
they are actually forced to suppress as they learn a language. The
essential difference between pidginization and creolization is that
pidginization is the second language with restricted input and
creolization is the first language learning also with restricted
input.
− Pidginization implies simplification of languages, while

Creolization implies development of language.
− Pidgin and Creoles languages are mostly spoken in coastal

areas due to the fact that in the past, merchandised goods
(including spices and slaves) were carried in the vessels of
Asiatic Traders and Colonisers. Their studies were not
encouraged because they were seen as ‘Primitive’ languages.
There was the misleading idea that by studying them, linguist
would risk ruining their careers. The study of Pidgins and Creoles
has now become an important part of Sociolinguistics. Speakers
of such languages have benefited as more of them now
recognised that what they speak is not just a ‘bad’ variety, but a
variety of a language with its own legitimacy, that is to say, its
own history, structure, array of functions, and the possibility of
winning recognition as a proper language.
− Attitudes of speakers of Pidgins are usually negative. They do
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not seem to have any sense of identity (cultural, ethnic) towards

these varieties; it is just a variety used to meet immediate
communication needs. However, speakers of Creoles feel a
strong bound towards the variety they speak. Note, that a Creole
is already a mother of a generation of speakers, and thus a
symbol of a group, cultural, and ethnic identity.

Now that you have completed this unit, use the end test below to check
whether you have met all learning needs and Outcomes set for it. But
before you start doing your end test certify that you understand the issues
Assessment
you learnt in this unit:
Definition of Pidgin and Creole (lesson 1), Theories of Origin (lesson

2) and From Pidgin to Creole and beyond (lesson 3). If you feel that
you understand these terms, you can do the end test below. If not review
the relevant lesson(s) in these units.
Question 1.
Choose the correct answer.
− Pidgins emerge as a result of one of the following processes:
a. Fusion of three (3) languages.
b. Fusion of two (2) languages.
c. Simplification of one (1) language.
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d. Expansion of one language.
Question 2
− Marginal languages are:
a. Majority languages.
b. Primitive languages.
c. Lower class languages.
Question 3
– Tick the correct statements. Pidgins emerge as result of:
a. Interaction among different groups of people.
b. Trade.
c. The need for alternative means of communication.
d. Speakers’ mental inability to learn full fledged languages.
Question 4
a) When does a Pidgin become a Creole? (tick the correct answer)
a. When it becomes a native language of a new generation of speakers.
b. When it becomes widely used by a community.
c. When it becomes the official language of a nation.
d. When it is spoken by High Class individuals.
Question 5
Write True (T) for statements you believe are True and False (F) for
those you believe are False.
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a. The Pidginization process requires a situation involving at least three

languages.
b. Creolization always precedes Pidginization.
c. Creolization always implies expansion and development of

vocabulary, syntax morphology, etc.
d. In both process, reduction and simplification occur.
Question 6
True or False? (write T for those you believe are true and F for those you
believe are false)
b) Pidgins and Creoles are spoken in:
a. Coastal or sea areas.
b. Crowed areas.
c. Mozambique.
d. Boarder area.
Question 7
List three advantages and disadvantages of studying Pidgins and Creole

languages.
Advantages Disadvantages
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Question 8
Put a (+) or (-) in each column, where Plus (+) means strong
group/cultural identity and positive attitudes and (-) means weak identity
and negative attitudes. Note that we are talking about speakers’ own
attitudes and feelings towards the variety they speak. Give the rationale.
Language Variety Group/cultural Identity Attitudes
Fanagalo ………………………… ………………………
Afrikaans ………………………… ……………………….
Tok Pisin ……………………….. ……………………
FEEDBACK
END TEST
Question 1
a) If you have chosen alternative A, your answer is correct. In fact, a

key condition for the emergence of a Pidgin is the existence of at
three languages in which one of them is the dominant one.
b) If you have chosen alternative B, your answer is not correct. It is seen

that whenever there are only two languages there is a certain degree
of resistance or reluctance on the part of speakers of either language
to learn the other’s language.
c) If you have chosen alternative C, your answer is not correct.

Simplification is in fact present in the Pidginization process, but a
pidginized variety requires a minimum of three languages.
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d) If you have chosen alternative D, your answer is not correct.

Pidginization always implies simplification or reduction, but never
expansion.
Question 2

these languages are usually spoken by small numbers of people as
means of communication; they are not standard languages.
b) If you have chosen alternative B, your answer is not correct. We have

seen that there is no such thing as primitive languages. All languages
are equally important as long as they are able to convey meaning, in
other words, there is no such thing as first grade or second grade
languages.
c) If you have chosen alternative C, your answer is correct. These

languages are usually spoken by small numbers of people as a means
of communication; they are not standard languages.
Question 3
The correct statements are A, B and C
a) If you have chosen alternative A, your answer is correct, because it

is true that pidgin languages emerged as result of the interaction
among group of people.

true that pidgin languages derived from trading.

pidgin languages resulted from the need for alternative means of
communication.

It is not true that speakers of Pidgin Languages are mentally unable to
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learn fully fledged languages; most of them actually spoke one or

more languages.
Question 4
The correct answer is A.
a) If you have chosen alternative A, your answer is correct because a

Creole is a Pidgin spoken by a new generation of speakers.

it is not true that the number of people decides whether a Pidgin
becomes a Creole.
c) If you have chosen alternative C, your answer is not correct because

they are non-standard languages.

it is not the social class that makes a Pidgin becomes a Creole.
Question 5
The true answers are A and C; the false answers are B and D.
a) If you have chosen alternative A, your answer is correct because

Pidginization arises as a result of contact need of three different
languages groups which do not care about learning each others
languages.

what actually happens is the opposite.
c) If you have chosen alternative C, your answer is correct because in

the Creolization process there is a need to work on the corpus or
internal body of the source language (the Pidgin) and expand it in
terms of vocabulary, grammar, etc.
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these two phenomena usually occur for Pidginization.
Question 6
The true answer is A.
a) If you have chosen alternative A, your answer is correct because in

fact they started in these Coastal areas due to trade purposes.

you have read that there is much more to it than the number of
people.
c) If you have chosen alternative C, your answer is not correct because

there is no data referring to the existence of Pidgins in Mozambique.
d) If you have chosen alternative D, your answer is not correct. It is

known that most borders, especially in the case of Africa, separate
groups of people who otherwise, would be linguistic and culturally
homogeneous.
Question 7
Some of advantages and disadvantages of studying Pidgins and Creoles

languages are shown below. However, there are many others.
Advantages Disadvantages
1 - Give deep insight into the - Reluctance in studying these

understanding of value of languages led to a deep
these languages. ignorance on the nature and
value of these languages.
2 - Expand our knowledge on - The world would not have the

the internal structure of possibility to know anything
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these languages (e.g. how about these languages

plurals are made, the use of
intensifiers).
3 - Help speakers of those - Speakers of these languages

languages to build positive regard themselves as somehow
attitudes towards the inferior because what they
languages. speak is something less than a
proper language.
Question 8
Attitudes of speakers of Pidgins and Creoles towards the variety they

speak.
Language Group/cultural identity Attitudes

variety
Fanakalo - -
Afrikaans + +
Tok Pisin + +
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1. Fanagalo is a language made up to meet the communication needs of

those (from different linguistic backgrounds) who work in mines. As
a result, speakers of this language would not identify themselves with
it, they use it just for work purposes, leading to weak group identity
and negative attitudes towards it.
2. Afrikaans is a nation wide spoken language. It is mostly spoken in

South. Africa, leading to strong group identity and positive attitudes
towards it.
3. Tok Pisin same as in two above, and it is unifying language.
This is the end of your test paper. If you feel you had no difficulty in
doing this test enter the next unit 3. Otherwise review the
appropriate lesson(s).
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Unit 3
Bilingualism & Diglossia
Introduction
In this unit you will be introduced to some concepts which are related to
the choice of a linguistic code for communication purposes. Terms such
as Diglossia, Bilingualism and Code Switching, Mixing and Choice will
be examined. Features that distinguish Diglossia from Bilingualism will
be dealt with below. You will also learn factors, which contribute to the
choice.
Review the term Code.
Define the concept of Diglossia.
Outcomes
Differentiate between H(High) and L(Low) varieties of the same
language.
Contrast H and L varieties.
Explain how H and L are used in the community.
Explain which variety is used for conversation with family and

friends.
Describe how each variety is used.
Explain which variety (H/L) has most prestige.
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Unit 3 Bilingualism & Diglossia
Demonstrate which variety is codified in grammar books and

dictionaries.
Distinguish different attitudes to H or to L in diglossia.
Define a bilingual situation.
Explain factors which contribute to bilingualism.
Describe some bilingual situation.
Analyse Code-switching, Mixing and Choice.
Describe the causes of switching from one code to another.
Analyse types of code- switching.
Code: Is a language or a variety choice
Diglossia: Is when two different varieties of the same

language are kept apart in their functions. One is
Terminology
used in one situation and the other one in a
different set.
High variety: Uses more formal and technical terms learned at

school or college.
Low variety: Uses everyday colloquial language
Attitude: A way of thinking about somebody or something

or behaving towards somebody or something. (
Advanced Learner’s dictionary)
140
Lesson 1: Diglossia - Diglossic Societies
Introduction
This is lesson 1 on this unit, and you will learn about Diglossic situation
- a type of a code choice. The concept diglossia will be studied. You
will also discuss and explain its occurrence.
− Define, describe and evaluate a diglossia situation
− Differentiate and/or contrast between H(High) and L(Low)
Lesson Outcomes varieties of the same language
− Explain and describe how H and L are used in the community
− Explain and show which code is used for conversation with

family and friends and which has most prestige
− Demonstrate which variety is codified in grammar books and

dictionaries
− Distinguish different attitudes to H or to L in diglossia
How long?
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Code Choice and Diglossia
Before you talk about Choosing a code, you will have to learn the
concept of code. As you read in the terminology section, Code may be a
language or a variety of a language that people use in linguistic
communication.
Choosing a code is something people do when they communicate.

Conscious or unconsciously speakers shift from one code to another.
Diglossia is one type of code switch. For its definition, refer back as you
saw in the terminology section. Diglossia is the situation in which two
different codes are used in the same community.
Holmes, J. (1992: 36) argues that Diglossia is a characteristic of speech

communities rather than individuals. Individuals may be bilingual.
Societies or communities are diglossic. In other words, the term diglossia
describes societal or institutionalised bilingualism, where two varieties
are required to cover all the community’s domains
Wardhaugh. R. (1986: 87) argues that a diglossic situation exists in a

society when it has two distinct codes which show clear functional
separation; one code is employed in one set of circumstances and the
other in an entirely different set
Ferguson (1959, p.336) mentions four language situations that show the
major characteristics of diglossic phenomenon: Arabic, Swiss German,
Haitian (French and Creole), and Greek. In each situation there is a ‘high’
variety (H) of language and a ‘low’ variety (L)
As you could see in the definition above, a key defining characteristic of

diglossia is that the two varieties are kept quite apart in their functions.
One is used in one set of circumstances and the other in an entirely
different set. You can have as example the following; the H varieties may
be used in delivering sermons and formal lectures, especially in
parliament or legislative body, for giving political speeches, for
broadcasting the news on the radio or television, fine literature, and
editorial newspapers. In contrast, the law varieties may be used in giving
instructions to workers in low prestige occupations or to household
142
servants, in conversations with familiars, in ‘soap operas’ and popular

programs on the radio, in captions on political cartoons in newspapers,
and in ‘folk literature’
To mention some other differences and these differences are no

symmetrical i.e., you do not use an H in circumstances calling for an L
variety, for example, for addressing a servant, nor do you usually use an
H variety when an L is called for, e.g., for writing a ‘serious’ literature.
The H variety is the prestige variety, the L variety lacks prestige. Another
important difference between H and L variety is that all children learn the
L variety. The H variety is taught and it is codified in grammar books and
dictionaries whereas L is learned naturally. The L variety tends to borrow
learned words from the H variety.
In short, H varieties may be used for delivering sermons and formal

speeches and formal lectures, especially in parliament or legislative body,
for giving political speeches, for broadcasting the news on the radio and
television, and for writing poetry, fine literature, and editorials in
newspapers.
In contrast, the L varieties may be used in giving instructions to workers

in low prestige occupations or to household servants, in conversation with
familiars, in ‘soap operas’ and popular programs on the radio, in captions
on political cartoons in newspapers, and in folk literature.
Activity
Time 30 min
Exercise 1
Fill in about when H or L will be used in the diglossic communities .
1. Religion (sermon, prayers) ____
2. Literature (novels, non-fiction) ____
143
3. Newspaper (editorial) ___
4. Broadcasting (popular radio programme) ___
5. Education (written material) ___
6. Education (lesson discussion) ___
7. Shopping ___
8. Gossiping ___
Exercise 2
Using your knowledge of a Diglossic situation, write T (True) or F

(False) on the following statements:
1 H and L varieties are not used in mutually exclusive situations.

Where H is appropriate, L is and vice versa. ____
2 Only L is used for conversation with family and friends ____
3 L is learned ‘naturally’ in the home situation. H is learned more

formally – usually in school _____
4 L is generally standardised and codified in grammar books and

dictionaries. _____
5 Literature is usually written in H variety _____
Feedback:
Exercise 1
1. Religion H
2. Literature H
3. Newspaper H
4. Broadcasting (popular radio programme) L
5. Education (written material) H
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6. Education (lesson discussion) L
7. Shopping L
8. Gossiping L
Exercise 2
1. H and L varieties are not used in mutually exclusive situations.

Where H is appropriate, L is and vice versa. F
2. Only L is used for conversation with family and friends T
3. L is learned ‘naturally’ in the home situation. H is learned more

formally – usually in school T
4. L is generally standardised and codified in grammar books and

dictionaries F
5. Literature is usually written in H variety. T
If you feel you had no difficulty in doing the exercises, continue.

145
Lesson 2: Bilingualism and Multingualism
Introduction
This is lesson 2 and you will learn the concepts of Bilingualism and
Multilingualism. It is important that you have grasped the concept of
diglossia before you proceed here. If you feel that you are not confident
on your knowledge about Diglossia above, you should re - read the lesson
on it, before you progress.
− Explain factors which contribute to bilingualism and multilingualism
− Describe some bilingualism and multilingualism situations.
Lesson Outcomes
How long?
Bilingualism and Multilingualism
This is the second topic on the unit and is about Bilingualism and
Multilingualism. It introduces you to the situation in which speakers
know and use more than one language. Bilingualism and multilingualism
mean that the speakers can communicate fluently in two or more different
languages and the shift is made smoothly without hesitation.
By definition, monolingualism is the ability to use only one language, in

this way, bilingualism can be said to be the ability to use two languages.
146
However, there are people who use more than two languages, and those
are called multilingual.
Bilingualism or multilingualism may result from immigrations,

visitors from different communities or children from ‘mixed’ marriage,
to mention just a few reasons.
In many parts of the world it is just a normal requirement of daily living

that people speak several languages: perhaps one or more at home,
another in the village, still another for purposes of trade, and yet another
for contact with the outside world or wider social or political
organization. These various languages are acquired naturally and
unconsciously, and the shift from one to another are made without
hesitation.
Wardhaugh. R. (1986: 95) mentions The Tukano of the northwest

Amazon as a real example of multilingualism. In this community men
must marry outside their language group; that is, no man may have a
wife who speaks his language, for that kind of marriage relationship is
not permitted and would be viewed as incest. Men choose the woman
they marry from various neighbouring tribes who speak other languages.
Furthermore, on marriage, women move into men’s households on
longhouses. Consequently, in any villages several languages are used:
the language of the men; the various languages spoken by women who
originate from different neighbouring tribes; and widespread regional
‘trade’ language.
Children are born into this multilingualism environment.

Multilingualism is taken for granted in this community. It is a norm. It
result from the pattern of marriage and the living arrangements
consequent to marriage
In many parts of the world people speak a number of languages and

individuals may not be aware of how many languages they speak. They
speak them because they need to do so in order to live their lives.
147
Activity
Time 30 min
Activity
What factors do you think contribute to Bilingualism or multilingualism?
Feedback:
Various factors may contribute to bilingualism or multilingualism. Some

of them are listed below:
a) Immigrants are potentially bilingual or multilingual because they

already know a language from the place of their origin.
b) Visitors or tourist are people who visit many different places, thus
need to know the language of a place to visit.
c) Children of ‘mixed’ marriage tend to learn the languages of their

parents
d) Business people may meet people from different parts of the world,
so this may force them learn and speak other languages.
e) Daily requirements may demand knowledge of two or more

languages. One language may be used at home, another in the village,
for trade, for contact with outside world of social or political
organization.
Hopefully your answers have approached to the ones given above. If not
re-read the notes above.
148
Lesson 3: Code - Switching Choice
Introduction
Now you will see lesson 3 in this Unit. In previous Units you learnt that a
language might be used in a variety of ways. In this lesson, you will learn
the process of code switching or mixing. First you need to be clear of the
concept Code in order to carry on in your studying.
− Distinguish Code Choice, Code Switching and Code Mixing
− Describe the causes of Code Switching, Mixing and Choice
Lesson Outcomes − Analyse types of Code Switching.
How long?
Code-Switching, Mixing and Choice
People are usually required to select a particular code when ever they
choose to speak, and they may also decide to switch from one code to
another or to mix codes even within some very short utterances and
thereby create a new code. Wardhaugh R ( 1986: 100) quotes Gal (1988,
p.24:70) saying that code switching is a conversational strategy used to
establish, cross or destroy group boundaries; to create, evoke or change
interpersonal relations with their rights and obligations.
149
Now the question is: What might cause a speaker to switch from variety
X to variety Y or from language A to language B?
Many answers have been suggested. One of the causes can be solidarity
with listeners, choice of topic, and perceived social and cultural distance.
In short, the motivation of the speaker is an important consideration in the
choice. It is also essential to say that the motivation is not always
conscious. Sometimes the speaker is not even aware that the switch has
occurred.
There are two kinds of code switching described below: situational and
metaphorical. Situational code-switching occurs when the languages used
change according to situations in which the conversants find themselves
in. They speak one language in one situation and another language in a
different situation, no topic change is involved.
Metaphorical code-switching happens when a change of topic requires a

change in the language. This change of code adds distinct flavour to what
is said about the topic. The choice encodes certain social values. The
situation is defined as being formal or informal, official or personal,
serious or humorous, politeness or solidarity.
Activity
Time 30 min
Exercise
Contrast diglossia and code-switching by writing D for diglossia and CS

for code switching
a) The situation controls the choice of variety; the choice is defined by

the activity and by the relationship of the participants that are
involved and it reinforces differences _____
150
b) It tends to reduce the differences between participants. _____
c) People are quite aware that they have switched from L to H or H to L.

_____
d) Speakers may not be aware that they have switched or report which
code they used for a particular topic. _____
Feedback:
a) D
a) CS
b) D
c) CS
In diglossic communities the situation controls the choice of variety; the

choice is defined by the activity and by the relationship of the participants
that are involved and it reinforces differences,
whereas code-switching tends to reduce the differences.
In diglossia people are quite aware that they have switched from L to H
or H to L.
Code switching, on the other hand, people may not be aware that they
have switched or may not even be able to report which code they used for
a particular topic. This is due to the fact that in code switching the change
of code may happen unconsciously, although it can also happen
consciously.
151
Unit summary
In this unit you learned about how speakers happen to choose a code.
Terms such as diglossia, bilingualism and code-switching were discussed.
You also learnt that a Code can be defined as a language or a variety of a
Summary
language. It is used to refer to any kind of system that two or more people
employ for communication.
A Diglossia situation is said to exist in a society when there are two

distinct codes, which show clear functional separation, that is, one code is
employed in one set of circumstances and the other in an entirely
different set. One code is High variety (H) and the other is Low variety
(L)
People generally admire the H variety even when they can’t understand it
Attitudes to it are usually very respectful. It has prestige in the sense of
high status.
These attitudes are reinforced by the fact that the H variety is the one,
which is described and ‘fixed ‘, or standardised, in grammar books and
dictionaries.
As most people command several varieties of any language they speak,

bilingualism or multilingualism is the norm for many people in the
world.
In a society in which more than one language or variety is used you must
find out who uses what, when, and for what purpose if you are to be
socially competent your language choices are put of the social identity
you claim for yourself
Code-switching is also a term associated with choosing a code. People

are usually required to select a particular code when ever they choose to
speak, and they may also decide to switch from one code to another or
mix codes even within sometimes very short utterances and thereby
create a new code. Code switching is likely to happen unconsciously.
152

Now that you have completed this unit, use the end test below to check
whether you have met all learning needs. But before of start your end test
certify that you understand:
Assessment
Diglossia (lesson 1) Bilingualism& Multilingualism (lesson 2), and

code choice (lesson 3), were discussed in Unit 3, If you feel that you
understand these terms, you can do the end test below. If not review
the relevant lesson(s) before you proceed.
Question 1- Choose the right ending
Diglossia is
a) When two different languages are used in the community. ( _______)
b) When two different varieties of the same language are used in the
community. ( ___________)
c) When two varieties of different languages are used in the community.

( ___________)
Question 2 - Write True (T) for statements, you believe are true or False
(F) for those you believe, are false.
In a diglossia situation:
a) H and L variety are mutually exclusive _____
b) H and L variety are interchangeable. ______
c) Only L is used for chat with friends. _______
d) H is learned formally at school setting. ______
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e) L variety is generally standardised and codified in grammar books

and dictionaries. ______
Question 3 Tick the right factors
Factors that contribute to bilingual or multilingual situation are:
a) Solidarity ___
b) Immigration ___
c) Tourism ___
d) Language change ____
e) Trade ___
f) Daily requirements.__
Question 4
Compare situational and metaphorical code- switching. Label SCS for

situational code switching and MCS for metaphorical code switching
a) It occurs when the languages used change according to situations in

which the conversants find themselves in. ____
b) It happens when a change of a topic requires a change in the language

____
c) The speakers use one language in one situation and another language
in a different situation. ____
d) The choice encodes certain social and cultural values. _____
e) There is no topic change involved. _____
Feedback
END TEST
When you have done your test, check your answer below
154
Question 1
1). If you have chosen a) your answer is not right. Diglossia is not
described in two languages.
2). If you have chosen b) your answer is correct.. Diglossia occurs when
two different varieties of the same language are used in the community.
3). If you have chosen c) your answer is wrong. Two different languages
would be described as bilingual community.
Question 2 In diglossia situation
a) True. H and L varieties are mutually exclusive. Where you have to

use H you can not replace it by using L and vice versa.
b) False. For the reasons mentioned in a), H and L varieties are not
interchangeable.
c) True. When you speak to your friend, you do not use well elaborated
language. On the contrary you use colloquial expressions.
d) True. H variety is learned in formal settings. E.g. at school
e) False. L is not generally found in grammar books neither in

dictionaries. It is learned naturally in the community
Question 3
Factors that contribute to bilingualism or multilingualism
a) Solidarity does not contribute to bilingualism. It has nothing to do

with bilingualism.
b) Immigration (right). Immigrants tend to learn the language of the

place they have immigrated to, however they already know a
language of their origin.
c) Tourism (right) tourists or visitors need to learn the languages of the

place to visit.
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d) Language change has nothing to do with bilingualism. Language

change is in reference to a certain language, while bilingualism
means two different languages are used in the community.
e) Trade (right). Trade contribute to greatly bilingualism. Business

people need to know the languages of other people involved in so as
to succeed.
f) Daily requirements (right). People may need two or more languages

for their daily routine. One language to use at home, another at
work, and one more for socialization
Question 4
Situational Code Switching (SCS)
Metaphorical Code Switching (MCS)
a) SCS
b) MCS
c) SCS
d) MCS
e) SCS
Situational code-switching occurs when the languages used change

according to situations in which the conversants find themselves in. They
speak one language in one situation and another language in a different
situation. (On the same topic)
Metaphorical code-switching happens when a change of topic requires a

change in the language. This change of code adds distinct flavour to what
is said about the topic. The choice encodes certain social values
156
appropriate lesson(s)
157
Unit 4 Language and Culture
Unit 4
Language and Culture
Introduction
In Unit 1 (one) you learnt about the relationship between language and
society, and it was said that there is surely a relationship between
language and society, although it is asymmetrical. If you feel you do not
have deep understanding of these notions, review the appropriate unit,
otherwise enter the next unit.
In this Unit you are to learn about the relationship between Language and
Culture. In fact, you will see that there is a relationship between language
and culture. This relationship is said to be between the sounds, words,
and syntax of the language and the ways in which speakers of that
language experience the world and behave in it. Now the question is
deciding on the nature of the relationship and finding suitable ways to
demonstrate it.
You will learn also various ways in which language and culture have
been said to be related. As you will see some of the resulting claims are
unprovable, others are intriguing, but only one or two are potentially of
great interest. But firstly you need to know what it is intended by the
word ‘culture’ here. It is not intended to use the word culture in the sense
of ‘high culture’, i.e., the appreciation of music, literature, the arts, and so
on. It is intended to use it in the sense of whatever a person must know in
order to function in a particular society.
This is the sense as in Goodenough’s well-known definition ( 1957, p.

167): ‘a society’s culture consists of whatever it is one to know or believe
in order to operate in a manner acceptable to its members, and to do so in
any role that they accept for any one of themselves.’ That knowledge is
socially acquired: the necessary behaviours are learned and do not come
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from any kind of genetic endowment. Culture therefore, is the

‘knowhow’ that a person must possess to get through the task of daily
living.
Describe the relationship between Language and Culture
Analyse Sapir- Whorf Hypothesis
Outcomes Discuss kinship systems
Interpret taxonomies in societies
Analyse the implication of Prototypes in the relationship between

language and culture
Relate Taboos and Euphemisms to the formation of the world-view
Evaluate the claims and comment critically on the contributions made

by kinship system, taxonomies, colour terminology prototype and
taboo and euphemism and relationship between language and culture
Language: For the purpose of the discussion here, language

could be said to be a system of sounds and words
used by humans to express their thoughts and
Terminology feelings
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Culture: Culture consists of whatever it is one has to know

or believe in order to operate in a manner
acceptable to its members, and to do so in any role
that accepts for anyone of themselves.
Culture is whatever a person must know in order

to function in a particular society. That is, the
know-how that a person must possess to get
through the task of daily living
Kin: One’s family relations (e.g. mother, son, etc )
Taxonomies: A particular system of classifying things
Prototype: The first model or design of something from which

other forms are copied or developed
Taboo: A cultural or religious custom that forbids people

to say, do, touch, use or talk about certain things,
believed to be too shocking or offensive. E.g.
death
Euphemism: An expression that is gentler or less direct than the

one normally used to refer to something
unpleasant or embarrassing. It is a kind of
roundabout or circumlocution. E.g. pass away,
make love
Robin: A small brown European bird with a red breast.
Ostrich: A very large African bird with a long neck and

long legs.
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Metaphoric: The imaginative use of a word or phrase to

describe somebody or something as another object
in order to show they have the same qualities and
to make the descriptions more forcefully.
Metalanguage: The words used in talking about or describing a

variety of a language or a language.
161
Lesson 1: Whorfian Hypothesis
Introduction
This is lesson 1 on the unit about Language and Culture. You need to
review the terms of language and culture before you start this lesson!
− Explain the main claims concerning the relationship between

language and culture
Lesson Outcomes − Evaluate the weaknesses of Whorfian Hypothesis
How long?
Claims on the Relationship Language & Culture – The Whorfian

Hypothesis
What are the main claims concerning the relationship between language
and culture? You will find out the answer by reading through what comes
next.
R. Wardhaugh, (1986:216) mentions the following claims: The structure

of a language determines the way in which speakers of that language
view the world. A weaker version is that structure does not determine the
world-view but is still extremely influential in predisposing speakers of a
language towards adopting a particular word-view. Opposing there is a
claim, which says that the culture of a people finds reflection in the
language they employ: because they value certain things and do them in
162
certain way, they come to use their language in ways what they value and
what they do. In this claim, cultural requirements influence how language
is used and perhaps determine why specific bits and pieces are the way
they are. A third claim is a neutral. It would claim that there is a little or
no relationship between language and culture.
The first claim, mentioned above, is associated with the linguist Edward
Sapir and his student Benjamin Lee Whorf. The claim is referred to as
Sapir – Whorf Hypothesis or Whorfian Hypothesis.
Sapir acknowledged the close relation between language and culture,

saying that they were inextricably related so that you could not
understand or appreciate the one without knowledge of the other.
The strongest claim of all is that grammatical categories available in a

language not only help to perceive the world in certain ways, but also
limit such perception. They act as blinkers. You perceive only what your
language allows you, or predispose you to perceive. Your language
controls your ‘world-view’. Speakers of different languages will,
therefore, have different world-view. R. Wardhaugh (1992,p.218)
In this view, language provides a screen or filter to reality; it determines

how speakers perceive the world and organize the world around them,
both the natural world and the social world. Consequently, the language
you speak helps to form your world-view. It defines your experience for
you; you do not use it simply to report that experience. It is not neutral
but gets in the way, imposing habits of both looking and thinking
To come to such conclusions, Whorf studied American Indian

Languages. He contrasted the linguistic structure of Hopi with the kinds
of linguistic structure he associated with languages such as English,
French, German, and so on, that is familiar European languages. He saw
these languages as sharing so many structural features that he named this
whole group of language Standard Average European Languages (SAE).
According to Whorf, Hopi and SAE differ widely in their structural
characteristics. For example, Hopi grammatical categories provide a
“process“ orientation towards the world, whereas the categories in SAE
give SAE speakers a fixed orientation toward time and space so that they
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not only “ objectify” reality in certain ways but even distinguish

,between things that .must be counted, for example trees, hills, and those
need not be counted, for instance, water, fire, and courage.
What are the weaknesses of Whorfian Hypothesis?
Some weaknesses of Whorfian Hypothesis:
First, much of the evidence of Whorf’s claims is provided by literal

translation. For example ‘breakfast’ was understood as ‘a break in a
fast’.
Another weak point is that an obligatory grammatical category will allow

that certain things to be said in one language, but these things need not be
said in another language.
Moreover, people with very different cultures speak languages with

similar structural characteristics, for instance, Hungarians, Finns. And on
the other hand, people who speak languages with very different structures
often share the same culture, for example Germans and Hungarians,
widespread Islamic culture
It is also important to say that every natural language not only provides
its speakers with a language for talking about every other language, but it
also provides them with an entirely adequate system for making any
kinds of obviations that they need to make about the world. In this way,
every natural language must be an extremely rich system, one that allows
its users to overcome any predispositions that exist and do this without
much difficulty.
164
In order to do the tasks in this unity, you need to revise concepts such as
language, culture and society. This will help you tackle any question on
this issue.
Activity
After you have read the notes above do the following exercises. Refer to
the feedback when you have done the exercises below. Please, pay
Time: 60 min
Exercise 1
a) Mention the three claims about Language and Culture referred above.
b) Which one is closely related to Whorfian Hypothesis.
Exercise 2
Mention the weaknesses of Whorfian Hypothesis.
Feedback:
Exercise 1
a):
1. The main claim of three concerning the relationship between

language and culture says that the structure of a language determines
the way in which speakers of that language view the world.
Its weak version says that the structure does not determine the world
–view, but it still extremely influences in predisposition of the
speakers of a language towards adopting a particular world-view.
2. Another claim maintains that the culture of people finds reflection in

the language they employ. This is because people value certain things
and do them in certain ways. They come to use their language in the
165
way that reflects what they value and what they do. In this view,
cultural requirements do not determine a structure of a language, but
they influence how language is used and perhaps determines why
specific bits are the way they are.
3. The third claim is ‘neutral’. It claims that there is little or no

relationship between language and culture.
b) The first claim is related to Whorfian Hypothesis.
Exercise 2
a) First, much of the evidence of Whorf’s claims is provided by literal

translation for example ‘breakfast’ was understood as ‘a break in a
fast,’
b) An obligatory grammatical category will allow that certain things to

be said in one language, but these things need not be said in another
language.
c) People with different cultures speak different languages with many of

the same structural characteristics e.g. Portuguese-Spanish. And
people who speak languages with very different structures often share
much of the same culture. E.g. Germans- Hungarians.
166
Lesson 2: Kinship Systems
Introduction
This is lesson 2 in this unit. You should review family terms of

relationships in your local language as you will need to compare to those
used in other societies.
− Define the concept of kinship system
− Describe and exemplify kinship terms
Lesson Outcomes
How long?
Kinship System
Do you know what a kinship is? Before you read any definition below
you should try to define kinship.
Now that you have made a reflection on what kinship is, read what it is
said about a kinship.
One interesting way in which people use language in their daily living
is to refer to various kinds of kin. There is a considerable literature
on kinship terminology, describing how people in various parts of the
167
world refer to relatives by blood (or descent) and marriage. So

kinship can be defined as a family relationship, close feeling between
people that develop as a result of common origins, attitudes, etc.
People use language in an interesting way in every day life when

referring to various kinds of kin, that is, one’s family relation, for
instance, mother, son, etc.
It is crucial to mention that Kinship systems are a universal feature of

language; every language has terms for referring to father, mother, uncle,
etc because kinship is so important in social organization. All systems use
factors such as sex, age, marriage, generation, blood etc.
What is intriguing is that in some society’s kinship terms maybe used to

refer to people who are not kin. For example, the Vietnamese use terms
equivalent to English words sister, brother, uncle, and aunt in various
social relationships. Notice also those non-kin relationships, as when
children are sometimes taught to use English word ‘uncle’ for close
friends of their parents. Children at a nursery, may call ‘aunt’ at a lady
who takes care of them.
Another question that arise is why sometimes different relationships are

described by the same term, e.g. Spanish tio is equivalent to both English
uncle and to either father’s or mother’s male cousin . That is, in Spanish
the term ‘tio’ has the same meaning as the term ‘uncle’ in English. But
‘tio’ is also used to refer to male cousin of one’s mother or father.
In some societies a single term may refer to different type of relationship,

e.g. father, (Fa), Father’s brother (Fabr) etc. In order to understand this
system we need to assume that there is some .typical concept as ‘father’
and that there are certain ‘equivalence rules such as a man’s sister is
equivalent to his mother; siblings of the same sex are equivalent to each
other. People living in different societies may use the same term to refer
to different relationships; this is caused by the fact that they are living in
different circumstances.
It is necessary to mention that when a term like father, mother, brother, or

older brother is used in a kinship system, it carries with it ideas about
how such people ought to behave towards the others in the society that
168
uses that system. Fathers, brothers, and older brothers are assumed to
have certain rights and duties. It is the kinship system that determines
who is called what; it is not the behaviour of the individuals which leads
them to be called this or that.
After you have read the notes above, do the following exercise. Refer to
the feedback when you have done the exercise .Please, pay attention to
the timing.
Activity
Time: 45 min
Exercise
Terms such as uncle, father, mother, sister, brother, son, and cousin are
also used outside the English kinship system and sometimes with a
different meaning. Do you notice them being used outside kinship
system, (e. g. calling sister or mother someone who is not your real
mother or sister) in your local language? Can you describe these uses and
try to account for them.
Feedback:
Generally in many cultures, terms mentioned above (father, mother,

sister, etc) may be noticed being used outside the kinship system. It can
be due to the individuals’ age, social functions, religious relations (sister
or brother of the same religion), neighbouring families, etc, that allows
him or her to be called so. E.g. an old person may call a small boy in the
street as “my son” so as to attract the boy’s attention.
169
Lesson 3: Taxonomies
Introduction
Now you will learn about folk taxonomies. You will have some real
examples on how crucial are certain systems of classifications in
language and society. Your background knowledge on local language
will, certainly, be useful here.
− Define and explain taxonomies
− Describe a taxonomy in your community
Lesson Outcomes
How long?
Taxonomies
As you could see, the discussion above on kinship terminology shows

how basic is certain system of classification in language and society.
Language itself has its own classes of units: vowels and consonants,
nouns and verbs, etc. People use language to classify and categorise
various aspects of the world in which they live. Taxonomies are the
system of classification of things in a non-scientific way, a folk
taxonomy. Wardhaugh. R. (1986: 227)
170
In the local community you can even see people who had never been to
school, for formal education, however, they are capable of creating some
sort of classification of anything or phenomena around them.
Wardhaugh. R. (1986: 227) points an example of Folk taxonomy of the

terms that the Subanun of Mindanao in the Southern Philippines uses to
describe diseases. The Subanan have a variety of categories available to
them when they discuss a particular set of symptoms. These categories
allow them to discuss symptoms at various levels of generality. For
instance, nuka can refer to skin disease in general but it can also mean
‘eruption.’ A nuka may be rather further distinguished as a beldut
‘sore’ rather than a meŋabag ‘information’ or bani ‘ringworm’ , and
then the particular beldut can be further distinguished as telemaw ‘distal
ulcer’ or even telemaw glai ‘shallow distal ulcer. ‘What we have is a
hierarchy of terms with terms like nuka at the top and telemaw at the
bottom.
Analyses into taxonomies and components are useful in that they help us
to organise data in ways that appear to indicate how speakers use their
languages to organise the world around them. The analyses show how
systematic much of that behaviour is and do so in a rather surprising way.
A folk taxonomy of disease is something that develops with little
conscious attention. That it can be shown to have a complex hierarchical
structure is therefore surprising finding. Evidently , language and culture
are related very closely, and much of the relationship remains hidden
from the view of most of us.
Now that you read the notes above, do the following activity. Refer to
the feedback when you have done the activity. Please, pay attention to the
timing.
Activity
Time: 25 min
171
Activity
For this question, you also need to hear some other people (your
colleagues, friends, neighbours, relatives etc) in order to expand your
view on the issue.
How do you discuss an illness, injury, or disease with other people? What
kind of terms do you use? Do you ever experience difficulty because your
terms and the terms that another (e.g. a physician) uses fail to match?
Feedback:
Activity
Suggested answer
Your reflection is crucial here. However, many societies have their own
terms to talk about diseases. Various categories are available to people
when they discuss a particular set of symptoms. These categories allow
the speakers to discuss those symptoms at various levels of generality. Of
course, the terms used in the communities will not necessarily coincide
with those used scientifically.
172
Lesson 4: Colour Terminology
Introduction
In previous lessons of this unity you came across with the effort by
certain scholars to explain the relationship between language and culture.
Before you start this lesson, you should consider the single term of
colours you are able to say in your local language.
− Relate colour terminology to the relationship between language and

culture.
Lesson Outcomes − Explain that the more developed a society the more colour terms it
will have
How long?
Colour terminology
Colour terminology has also been used to explore the relationship

between language and culture. Colour spectrum is a physical continuum
showing no breaks at all. Yet we parcel it out in bits and pieces and
assign names to the various components parts: green, blue, yellow, red
etc However, there are some interesting questions such as:
173
How are colours referred to in different languages?
Are colours arbitrary?
What is your reflection on these two questions? You have an idea or not
about the issue, proceed your reading below.
R. Wardhaugh (1986: 230) says that all languages make use of basic
colours. A basic colour term must be a single word .e.g. blue. It must
have general use and it must also not be highly restricted in sense that it is
used by only a specific sub-set of speakers e.g. fashion writers.
According to Berlin and Kay, an analysis of the basic colour terms found
in a variety of languages reveals certain very interesting patterns. If a
language has only two terms, they are for equivalents to black and white
(or dark and light). If a third is added, it is red. The fourth and fifth terms
will be yellow and green. The sixth and seventh terms are blue and
brown. Finally, as in English, come terms like grey, pink, orange, and
purple, but not in a specific order. In this view there are eleven basic
colour terms. All other terms are combinations or modifications of the
basic colour terms.
An attempt, to relate colour terminology in specific languages with the

level of cultural and technical complexity of the societies in which these
languages are spoken, has been made. And the conclusion was that
communities that show little technological development employ the
fewest colour terms, e.g. the Jalé of New Guinea has words
corresponding to dark and light.
On the other hand, technologically advanced societies have terms

corresponding to all eleven colours mentioned above. Societies in
intermediate stages have intermediate numbers of colours: for example
the hanunóo of the Philippines have four colour terms.
R. Wardhaugh (1986: 231) presents the following points: cultural and

technological changes occur; it becomes more and more necessary for
people to differentiate within the colour spectrum. Instead of picking bits
and pieces of the spectrum at random as it were and naming them, people,
174
no matter what languages they speak, progressively sub-divide the whole

spectrum in a systematic way.
The second point is that if speakers of any language are asked to identify
the parts of the spectrum, they find one system of such identification
much easier than another. They find it easy and do reach a better
consensus, if they are required to indicate some part of the spectrum they
would call typically orange, typically blue, or typically green. They have
consistent and uniform ideas about typical colours. Speakers of different
languages exhibit such behaviour.
After you have read the notes above, do the exercise below. Refer to the
feedback when you have done the exercise. Please, pay attention to the
timing.
Activity
Time: 15 min
Exercise
a) What are the English basic colour terms?
b) Name basic (one word) colour terms in your local language.
Feedback
a) English basic colours are 11: white, black, red, yellow, green, blue,
brown, grey, pink, orange, and purple.
b) Your background knowledge of local language is crucial here for

naming basic Colour terms in your local language. You can either consult
people you know they master such language if you are not sure of the
right answer.
175
Lesson 5: Prototype Theory
Introduction
In lesson 5, you will read and learn about the categorisation of all items
around you. You will find out that all societies do this. You will also
notice that this lesson is related to the lesson about taxonomies discussed
above. Therefore you should refer back to taxonomies if you feel you
have not mastered its concept before you continue.
− Explain the essence of the Prototype Theory
− Mention typical and non-typical instances of an item
Lesson Outcomes
How long?
Prototype theory
Now, first of all we need to start with a definition of prototype. Prototype

may be defined as the first model or design of something from which
other forms are copied. (Advanced learner’s dictionary).
Roch (1976) quoted by R. Wardhaugh (1986: 232) proposes that concepts

are best viewed as prototypes. Prototype theory defines things by
referring to them by using typical instances, that is, a representative item
176
among the other items. For instance a prototypical bird is something more
like a robin than it is like a penguin or ostrich.
As you have read above individuals do have instances of colours, and

these ideas are similar among various cultural groups.
People, in fact, do classify objects of various kinds according to what

they regard as being instances. For example (1) a chair is a typical
example of furniture, whereas an ashtray is non typical of furniture; (2)
an apple is a typical example of fruit, whereas coconut is non typical; (3)
a coat is a typical example of clothing, whereas a bracelet is non typical.
Some Sociolinguists believe that prototype theory leads to an easier

account of how people learn to use language, particularly linguistic
concepts, from the kinds of instances they come across
Prototype theory may be applied to the social situations in which speech

occurs. It is somehow suggested that when we hear a new linguistic item,
we associate with it who typically seems to use it and what apparently is
the typical occasion of its use.
Surely, prototype theory, then, offers us a possible way of looking not

only at how concepts may be formed but also at how we achieve our
social competence in the use of language. We judge circumstances as
being typically this or typically that, and we place people in the same
way.
the feedback after you have done the exercise. Please, pay attention to the
timing.
Activity
Time 20 min
177
Exercise
What is typical or not typical of these words?
1. Furniture (chair/ashtray)
2. Fruit (apple/coconut)
3. Clothing (coat/bracelets)
Feedback
1. Typical : chair , Not typical: ashtray
2. Typical : apple, Not typical: coconut
3. Typical : coat , Not typical: bracelet
Rationale
This has to do with how people judge circumstances as being typically

this or typically that. So chair is typically furniture while an ashtray is
not. It can not be used as an instance of furniture; an apple serves as a
typical example of fruit (although this may vary from place to place) and
for clothing bracelet can not be said to be a typical example whereas coat
is similar to many other clothing sort.

178
Lesson 6: Taboo and Euphemism
Introduction
This is the last lesson in the unit about Language and Culture. It discusses
how cultural meanings are expressed in language. You will notice that
language can be used to avoid saying certain things as well as to express
them.
− Define the concepts of Taboo and Euphemism
− Exemplify tabooed and euphemistic terms and topics
Lesson Outcomes
− Explain how taboos and euphemisms affect people’s linguistic
behaviour
How long?
Taboo and Euphemism
What is a Taboo? What is a Euphemism?
From your knowledge and experience can you recall what is Taboo and
Euphemism? Now read down below what some scholars say about Taboo
and Euphemism.
179
R. Wardhaugh. (1986: 234) defines taboo as the prohibition or avoidance

in any society of behaviour believed to be harmful to its members in that
it would cause them anxiety, embarrassment, or shame.
Euphemism, on the other hand, is talking about tabooed terms or objects

etc, in a very roundabout ways, that is, referring to something in through
circumlocutions.
Tabooed subjects vary widely from culture to culture. R. Wardhaugh

(1986: 234) advances the following: sex, death, excretion, body
functions, religious matters, and politics. Tabooed objects: include your
mother- in- law, certain game animal, and use of your left hand.
Euphemistic expressions allow us to talk about unpleasant things and

disguise or neutralise the unpleasantness e.g. death. They also allow us to
give labels to unpleasant tasks and jobs in an attempt to make them sound
almost attractive.
Do taboos and euphemism affect us? The answer is yes. We all probably
have a few things we refuse to talk about and still others we do not talk
directly. Some words we know but we never say. Some other words we
may express ourselves in a very indirect way.
the feedback after you have done the exercise. Please, pay attention to the
timing.
Activity
Time 60 min
Exercise 1
To start with, use your background knowledge and experience to answer

the following questions.
1. How could you define taboo and euphemism?
2. What topics do you think are treated as taboos in your culture?
3. Which expressions do you think are euphemistic?
180
Exercise 2
1. Do you think taboos and euphemism serve any social purpose?
2. How do you think taboos affect people?
Feedback
Exercise 1
1. Taboo is the prohibition or avoidance in any society of behaviour

believed to be harmful to its members in that it could cause them
anxiety, embarrassment, or shame. While euphemism is to talk about
something in roundabout, i.e. not mentioning it directly.
2. This question depends exclusively on your background knowledge.

In many societies , Tabooed subjects may be sex, death, excretion,
religious matters, and politics; the use of the left hand, your mother-
in-law can be taboos.
3. This question is similar to task 2. The answer may depend on your

culture. To illustrate, pass away is euphemistic expression in English
for the die (taboo).
Exercise 2
a) Taboos are somehow a way of controlling the society so that no one

says what he or she want about any thing at anytime thus , causing
embarrassment to his or her listeners.
On the other hand, Euphemistic words or expressions allow us to talk

about unpleasant things and disguise and neutralise the
unpleasantness. E. g: subject of sickness, death, dying,
unemployment and criminality.
b) Taboos affect all of us direct or indirectly, and conscious or

unconsciously they do. E.g.:
a) There are things we refuse to talk about
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b) Some other things we never mention directly,
c) Some words are hardly ever said,
d) Some thoughts are too deep to put into words,
e) Some other thoughts are hard to prove, etc

Unit summary
Language and Culture
In this unit you learned that Culture is whatever a person must know in
Summary order to function in a particular society. That is , the know-how that a
person must possess to get through the task of daily living.
The Claims
There are three major claims concerning the relationship between

language and culture. The first says that the structure of a language
determines the way in which speakers of that language view the world.
Its weak version says that the structure does not determine the world –
view, but it still extremely influences in predisposition of the speakers of
a language towards adopting a particular world-view.
The second claim maintains that the culture of people finds reflection in
the language they employ. This is because people value certain things and
do them in certain ways. They come to use their language in the way that
reflects what they value and what they do. In this view, cultural
requirements do not determine a structure of a language, but they
influence how language is used and perhaps determines why specific bits
are the way they are.
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The third claim is ‘neutral’. It claims that there is little or no relationship

between language and culture
Whorfian strongest claim is that the grammatical categories available in a

language not only help the users to perceive the world in certain way but
also limit such perception. They act as blinkers. You perceive only what
your language allows you to perceive. Your language controls your world
–view. The speakers of different languages will have different world-
view.
Much of the evidence of Whorf’s claims is provided by literal translation

for example ‘breakfast’ was understood as ‘a break in a fast,’
Another weak point is that an obligatory grammatical category will allow

that certain things to be said in one language, but these things need not be
said in another language
It may be that people with very different cultures speak languages with
similar structural characteristics, for instance, Hungarians, Finns. And on
the other hand, people who speak languages with very different structures
often share the same culture, for example Germans and Hungarians,
widespread Islamic culture
Kinship system is a universal feature of languages
A term like mother, father, and elder brother is used in kinship system. It
usually carries with it ideas about such people ought to behave towards
others in the society that uses that system
Fathers, mothers, older brothers, older sisters have rights and duties. In
fact, it is the kinship system which determines who is called what; it is
not the behaviour of individuals which leads them to be called this or that
way
Taxonomies are particular system of classifying things. People use

language to classify and categorise various aspects of the world in which
they live in.
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Colour Terminology has also been used to explore the relationship

between language and culture.
Prototype consists of classifying objects of various kinds according to

typical instances. For example, chair can be used as a typical instance of
furniture.
Taboos and Euphemisms were also discussed in this unit. Language is

used to avoid saying certain things as well as to express them. Certain
things are not said, not because they cannot be, but because people don’t
talk about those things, or if those things are talked about, they are talked
about in round about ways. In the first case we have instances of
linguistic taboo; in the second we have the employment of euphemism so
as to avoid mentioning certain matters directly.
Now that you have come to the end of this unit (4), if you feel you are
familiar with the notions explained in the above lessons, take the End
Test below. If not, review the relevant lessons in this Unit.
184

Question 1
Explain the main claims about the relationship between language and
Assessment culture:
a) Claim 1:
b) Claim 2:
c) Claim 3:
Question 2
Write True (T) or False (F) about Whorf ‘s claims:
a) Grammatical categories help people perceive the world in certain

ways. _____
b) Grammatical categories limit the perception of the world. ____
c) You perceive what your language predisposes you to _____
d) Your way of thinking shapes your world-view. _____
e) Your language controls your world-view. ____
f) Grammatical categories are the result or the world view. ___
Question 3
Write typical and non-typical instances of each of the following.
Word Typical Non-typical
Furniture
Clothes
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Question 4
Match the terms to its appropriate definition
Taxonomy, prototype, kinship
a) ………. Is the classification of objects of various kinds according

to typical instances.
b) ……… is the categorisation of things in a non- scientific way.
c) …… ……is a family relationship, close feeling between people

that develop as a result of common origins, attitudes, etc.
Question 5
Complete the definition with the right answer.
Taboo is…
a) …….. a the prohibition in the community of certain words or

expressions believed to be harmful to its members in that it could cause
them anxiety, embarrassment, or shame
b) ……. just avoidance of using certain terms believed to be harmful to

its members in that it could cause them anxiety, embarrassment, or shame
c)….. the prohibition or avoidance in any society of behaviour believed

to be harmful to its members in that it could cause them anxiety,
embarrassment, or shame
Feedback
END TEST
Now that you have done your test, check your answers below:
Question 1
a) Claim 1:
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This is the main claim of thee concerning the relationship between

language and culture. It says that the structure of a language determines
the way in which speakers of that language view the world.
Its weak version says that the structure does not determine the world –
view, but it still extremely influences in predisposition of the speakers of
a language toward adopting a particular world-view.
b) Claim 2:
This claim maintains that the culture of people finds reflection in the
language they employ: This is because people value certain things and do
them in certain ways. They come to use their language in the way that
reflects what they value and what they do. In this view, cultural
requirements do not determine a structure of a language, but they
influence how language is used and perhaps determines why specific bits
are the way they are.
c) Claim 3:
The claim is ‘neutral’. It claims that there is little or no relationship

between language and culture
Question 2
a), b), c) ,e) are True. They are true concerning Whorfian claims.
d) and f) are false.
a) This is true concerning Whorfian claims. He strongly argues that

grammatical categories help people perceive the world in certain
ways.
b) This also true in Whorfian claims. He maintains that grammatical

categories not only help people to perceive, but also limit the
perception of the world.
c) This also true in Whorfian claims. He argues that you perceive what
your language predisposes you to.
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d) This statement is false. It is likely that your way of thinking shapes

your world-view, however, this statement is not concerned with
Whorfian claims, in this way it is false.
e) This is true. Whorf maintains that your language controls your world-
view. That is to say you understand the world as you do because your
language allows you to do so.
f) This statement is false. This statement (grammatical categories are

the result or the world view) is a complete contradiction to Whorfian
claims.
Question 3
Suggested answer
Word Typical Non-typical
Furniture Chair ashtray
Clothes coat bracelets
Question 4
Taxonomy, prototype, kinship
a) Prototype is the classification of objects of various kinds according to

typical instances.
b) Taxonomy is the categorisation of things in a non –scientific way.
c) Kinship is a family relationship; close feeling between people that

develop as a result of common origins, attitudes, etc.
Question 5
Taboo is…
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a) ….. the prohibition or avoidance in any society of behaviour

believed to be harmful to its members in that it could cause them
anxiety, embarrassment, or shame
a) If you chose alternative a), your answer is not right because you it
excludes the expression avoidance.
b) If you chose alternative b), your answer is not right because you it
excludes the expression prohibition.
c) If you chose alternative c), your answer is right. Taboos are a matter of
prohibition or avoidance as clearly defined in c).
189
Unit 5 Language and Gender
Unit 5
Language and Gender
Introduction
There are many questions concerning the relationship between Language

and Gender. This unit discusses questions such as do men and women
who speak a particular language use it in different ways? If they do, do
these differences arise from the structure of that Language, or do any
differences that exist simply reflect the ways in which sexes relate to each
other in that society?
In this unit, our concern is on gender roles. We will look at some possible
explanations on gender differences in language use. We are also going to
analyse whether Languages are sexist or the speakers are sexist. Or is the
language learning tied to gender- learning?
Describe gender linguistic differences
Analyse the possible explanation of the differences
Outcomes
You need to draw the differences between the following terms: gender
and sex. You may confound them.
190
Gender: Is the whole gamut of psychological , social and

cultural differences between males and females
Sex: Is biologically determined difference between

Terminology
males and females.
191
Lesson 1: Gender Differences
Introduction
In this lesson, you will be introduced to the differences between sexes.

Attention will be drawn to the following aspects: physical, linguistic, and
grammatical as well as speech difference.
− Describe the gender linguistic differences
− Analyse the possible explanation of the differences
Lesson Outcomes − Evaluate the evidence and explain how good it is.
How long?
Gender Linguistic Differences
From your experience and observations do you think that men and
women speak differently? Holmes, J. (1992 164) says that the answer to
the question whether women and men speak differently, is certainly
‘yes’ for all speech communities. He goes on saying that the linguistic
forms used by women and men contrast in all speech communities
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One of the most obvious speech differences between men and women is
in the pitch of their voices. Most people believe this difference develop
at puberty. Holmes, J. (1992: 181). Sure you will agree with that since
women tend to have a thinner voice than men.
It is also claimed that women are linguistically more polite than men, for
instance, and that men and women emphasise different speech functions.
And to the question for the reasons of men not using more standard
forms, Holmes says men prefer vernacular forms (it refers to language
which has not been standardised and does not have official status)
because they carry macho connotations of masculinity and toughness. If
this is so it will also explain why women might not use such forms.
Can languages be sexist?
Holmes, J. (1992: 336) argues that there are a number of ways in which
it has been suggested that English language discriminate women. For
instance, animal imagery where the images of women seem
considerably less positive than those of men. Consider the negativity of
bitch (bitch may refer to a woman, especially a cruel and unpleasant
one) and cow compared to stud (a young man who is thought to be very
active sexually) and wolf. Women are said to be chicks or kitten, but
these are helpless pets.
Women may also be described or referred to in terms of food imagery,

which is equally insulting. Terms such as sugar, sweetie, and honey are
frequently used. That is, a woman is something man wants to eat, get the
taste and then he may throw away when there is nothing else to devour.
There is much evidence of sexism expressed through the vocabulary.

Many words reflect a view of a woman as a deviant, abnormal or
subordinate group. For example, in English morphology- its word –
structure- generally takes the male form as the base form and adds a
suffix to signal ‘female’: e.g. Lion/lioness, actor actress/ usher/usherette
etc. This is true for a number of European languages, such as French and
German.
193
And when you think of your language, is it the same or there is some
difference? Share your thinking on this issue with your colleagues and
the tutor if possible.
It is also said that ‘generic’ structures provide further evidence to

support the claim that the English language marginalizes women and
treat them as abnormal. Generic words like ‘he’ and ‘man’ can be said
to render women invisible.
Now read the passage below as an example :
“Man loves to hunt. He sees it as a tradition and a rite. He believes that

deer herds should be managed so that his son after him can hunt them.
He cannot understand his brother’s claim that deer diminish the range of
plants. After all his brother couldn’t name a single plant that deer had
made extinct “.
Reading this passage with references to man, his son, his brother, it is
difficult to believe that the writer had ever conceived the possibility that
woman might go into the bush and hunt.
The use of generic form man has long history. However many English
speakers tend to avoid it now.
Reed the notes above and answer the questions that follow. Refer to the
feedback when you have done the exercises below. Please, pay attention
to the timing.
Activity
Time: 60 min
Exercise 1
To refresh your memory, read the following items and decide whether
they may be seen in Males (M) or Females (F)
a). More fat ___
194
b) Less muscles ___
c) Less fat ___
d) More muscles ____
e) Weigh less ____
f) Mature more rapidly ___
h) Stronger ____
i) Mature later ___
Exercise 2
Below there are instances of English sex-based words. Fill in the missing
ones.
Man Woman
a) Actor …………………..
b) Waiter ……………………
c) ……….. Mistress
d) ………… Girl
e) Gentleman …………………
f) Bachelor …………………
g) ………… Widow
Feedback
Exercise 1
195
The answers show the usual tendency. It is not that necessarily every
woman or man will follow this way
a). More fat F
b) Less muscles F
c) Less fat M
d) More muscles M
e) Weigh less F
f) Mature more rapidly F
h) Stronger M
i) Mature delayed M
Feedback
Exercise 2
Some instances of English sex-based words
Man Woman
a) Actor Actress
b) Waiter Waitress
c) Master Mistress
d) Boy Girl
e) Gentleman Lady
f) Bachelor Spinster
g) Widower Widow
196

197
Lesson 2: Gender Linguistic Differences - Some Possible Explanations
Introduction
Now that you have described gender linguistic differences in the lesson
above, in this lesson you will read some possible reasons of such
differences
− Identify gender linguistic differences and
− Analyse some explanations of gender linguistic differences.
Lesson Outcomes
How long?
Gender linguistic differences: Some reasons
Some scholars have tried to find some explanations on the gender

linguistic differences between males and females. Some of the
differences can easily be noticed. For instance, men seem challenge men,
in terms of their speech and they also do this with women because they
feel strong and powerful enough to do this and it is great pleasure to
compete.
Categorical statements have to do with power and feeling of

independence among others. In families in which man is the leader, his
wife will tend to listen to him. In this way the children then learn this
social behaviour, that is, the boy learns to be a father while the girl learns
to be a mother. So, while the mother asks questions, the husband gives
long explanations of the issues. Men will interrupt women when they talk
so as to give clarifications, or defend a certain point etc. Men may need to
198
protest to defend their power or authority, whereas women have nothing

to defend, on the contrary they need to be defended by men.
Do you agree so far with what was said from the attitude of men and
women? What is your experience regarding to that? And ever you have
thought on the reasons for such behaviour?
Wardhaugh.R. (1986: 316) says that when we look at how men and
women use language in social interaction and to achieve certain ends, we
find clues to possible explanations for gender differences in language. He
also states that men and women exhibit the power relationship that exists
in society, with men dominant and women subservient. However it is also
said that languages can be sexists.
There are some other claims made on this issue. One of the claims
maintains that men and women are biologically different and that this
difference has serious consequences for gender. Women are somehow
predisposed psychologically to be involved with one another and to be
mutually supportive and competitive. On the other hand, men are innately
predisposed to independence and vertical rather than horizontal
relationships, i.e. men are predisposed to exercise power, for instance, in
a certain group of people where men and women are present, there will
be a man leading in terms of ‘argument’, whereas women tend to express
solidarity in their relationship.
The second claim says that social organization is best perceived as some
kind of hierarchical set of relationships. This is a social fact. Language
behaviour reflects the social dominance of men. It is they who try to take
control, to specify topics, to interrupt etc. They do it with each other; they
do it with women, who feeling powerless, let them get away with it,
preferring to seek support from other women.
The third claim states that men and women are social beings who learned
to act in certain ways. Language behaviour is largely learned behaviour.
Men learn to be men and women learn to be women, linguistically
speaking. Wardhaugh.R (1986: 318).
Holmes, J. (1992: 329) gives some interesting explanations below, on the
199
gender differences between women and men’s speeches.
She says that it is clearly gender rather than occupational status, social
class, or some other social factor, which most adequately accounts for the
interactional patterns. Women doctors were constantly interrupted by
their patients, while male doctors did most of the interrupting in their
consultations. He also mentions a study of women in business
organizations showed that women bosses did not dominate the
interactions. Male dominated regardless of whether they were boss or
subordinate. The societal subordinate position of women reflected in such
study has more to do with gender than role or occupation.
Women’s cooperative conversational strategies, however, may be

explained better by looking at the influence of context and patterns of
socialisation. The norms for women's talk may be the norms for small
group interaction in private contexts, where the goals of interaction are
solidarity stressing – maintaining good social relations. Agreement is
sought and disagreement is avoided. By contrast, the norms for male
interaction seem to be those of public referentially – oriented interaction.
The public model is an adversarial one, where contradiction and
disagreement is more likely than agreement and confirmation of the
statements of other. Speakers compete for the floor and for attention and
wittiness, even at other’s expense is highly valued.
What about your community, do you notice the same behaviour

encountered above?
After you have read the notes above, do the exercises that follow. Refer
to the feedback when you have done the exercises. Please, pay attention
to the timing
Activity
Time: 120 min
Exercise 1
200
Which of the following topics are likely to be spoken by men or women,

in your opinion? Legal matters, politics, food, drinks, life’s styles, taxes,
sports, life’s troubles
Men Women
…………….. ………………
…………….. ……………….
…………….. .………………
…………….. ………………
Exercise 2
Write True (T) for the statements you believe are true, False (F) for those
you believe are False.
In conversation between men and women
a) Women challenge men ____
b) Men try to control the topics discussed ____
c) Women tent to make categorical statements _____
d) Men interrupt women in talk ___
e) Women ask more questions ___
f) Man don’t protest much ____
Feedback
Exercise 1
Man’s topics could usually be: Legal matters, politics, taxes and sports
Women’s topics could usually be: food, drink, life’s styles, and life’s
troubles
201
This differentiation does not mean that women never talk about the topics
assigned for men and the men never talk about the women’s topics. The
suggestion above is show the frequency of choice within topics and how
easily men and women handle them.
Exercise 2
In conversation between men and women the tendency is that:
g) Women challenge men F
h) Men try to control the topics discussed T
i) Women tend to make categorical statements F
j) Men interrupt women in talk T
k) Women ask more questions T
l) Man don’t protest much F
Men challenge men and they do this with women because they feel strong
and powerful enough to do this and it is great pleasure to compete.
Categorical statements have to do with power and feeling of
independence among others. In families in which man is the leader, his
wife will tend listen to him. In this way the children then to learn this
social behaviour, that is, the boy learns to be a father while the girl learns
to be a mother. So, while the mother asks questions, the husband gives
long explanations of the issues. Men will interrupt women when they talk
so as to give clarifications, or defend a certain point etc. men may need to
protest to defend their power or authority, whereas women have nothing
to defend, on the contrary they need to be defended by men.
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Unit summary
Language and Gender
In this unit language and gender were discussed. Gender linguistic

Summary differences in language and some possible explanation for these
differences were presented.
So as not to allow misunderstanding, gender and sex were contrasted.

Sex is a biologically determined difference between males and females,
whereas gender is a social construct involving the whole gamut of
psychological, social and cultural differences between males and females.
Linguistic aspects (grammar and vocabulary) were mentioned to exhibit

gender differences. For instance many languages have terms for men and
other terms for women. English uses the pronouns ‘He’ for men and
‘She’ for women. There are also terms, which identify which sex is
being referred to, e.g. we say actor, waiter for men and actress, waitress
for women.
In interactions between the two sexes (Male and Female) - some evidence
claim that men are said to be interruptive and topic controllers and they
usually initiate the interaction, while women tend to be listeners, agreeing
what men say.
Sociolinguists find some explanations for these gender differences. It is

stated that men and women exhibit the power relationship that exist in
society, with men dominant and women subservient. However, it is also
said that languages can be sexists. Most of the male-female linguistic
differences are claimed to be a result of socialisation and upbringing; in
other words, we educate our girls to behave like girls and women in
linguistic terms, and the same is true for our boys, who are supposed to
sound like men in their later life.
Now that you have come to the end of this unit (5), if you feel you do
not understand the notions explained in the above lessons, review the
203
relevant lessons in this Unit. , before you take the End Test below.

Question1
1. Write the term in the appropriate definition considering: man,

Assessment gender, sex, woman
a) ………………..Is the whole gamut of psychological , social and

cultural differences males and females
b) ……………….Is biologically determined difference between males

and females
Question 2
1. Write true (T) or False (F) about the physical aspects of male and
female.
a) Women tend to have more fat than men. ___
b) Women show fewer muscles than men. ___
c) Men weigh less than women. ___
d) Men grow mature more rapidly than women. ___
e) Man become stronger than women. ____
Question 3
1. Now that you have read and discussed this unit, decide whether right
or wrong:
a) Men and women who speak a particular language use it in different

ways _____
b) The gender differences may arise from the structure of language

people speak _____
204
c) Differences that exist may simply reflect the ways in which sexes
relate to each other in that society ____
d) Languages are not sexist ___
e) The speakers are never sexist. ___
f) The language learning is tied to gender-learning ___
Question 4
Read this quotation and answer the question
Wardhaugh.R. (1986: 322) argues ‘men’s and women’s speech differ

because boys and girls are brought up differently and men and women
often fill different roles in society. Moreover, men and women know this
and behave appropriately
− How are boys and girls brought up in your community?
Feedback
END TEST
Question 1
a) Gender is the whole gamut of psychological , social and cultural

differences males and females
b) Sex is biologically determined difference between males and females
Question 2
a) Women tend to have more fat than men T
b) Women show fewer muscles than men. T
c) Men weigh less than women. F
d) Men grow mature more rapidly than women. F
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e) Man become stronger than women T
Question 3
Suggested answers
a) Men and women who speak a particular language use it in different

ways - R. The linguistic forms used by women and men contrast- to
different degrees – in all communities.
b) The gender differences arise from the structure of language people

speak - R There are many examples of language structure that contain
gender differences. In many languages, all pronouns have appropriate
words for women and men. English third person singular (he/she) is
just an example
c) Differences that exist do not reflect the ways in which sexes relate to
each other in that society - W. The responsibilities of women and
men are different in such communities
d) Languages are not sexist - W. For the same reasons for b) above.
e) The speakers are not sexist - W. There is no way you can be a person,
but not being either man or woman. So biological fact may
predispose psychological and social.
f) The language learning tied to gender-learning – R. From the time a

child starts learning to speak a language he or she also learns to
appropriateness of behaviour and attitudes of gender differences
Question 4
Suggested answer
The answer will depend on your real experience for this question.
However, it can be said that in many societies boys and girls are brought
up differently and men and men tend to take different roles. For example
a young girl , too early, may be taught to care of the house, that is, by
learning to cook, wash up, etc while a young boy may be taught to care of
the sister ( as she is weak), and for this task the boy need to exercise his
power and toughness
206
Unit 6
Language Change
Introduction
Language change occurs throughout the time. What we say today that is
right pronunciation or correct spelling, it is likely that 500 years ago was
said to be wrong. As time passes by, new words come and others vanish;
207
Unit 6 Language Change
some words change their meaning as they dress new signification or

connotation. For instance the k in English words knit and knife was not
in the fifteenth century ‘silent’.
In the same way, the word nice once meant ‘precise’ and before that it
meant ‘fastidious’ and earlier still it meant ‘ignorant’.
Truly analysing, we should describe speakers’ creativity and/or

innovation rather than language change. Speakers innovate, occasionally
spontaneously, but often by imitation, speakers diffuse to other
communities. If the innovation is accepted in the new communities, as the
result the linguistic change occurs.
In this unit you are introduced to the language change. The discussion is
on how changes spread the study of language change as well as reasons
for language change.
Analyse language change
Interpret language changes occurring in a language
Outcomes
Describe language change in real time
Explain reasons of language change in the world
HRT: high -rise terminal (arising intonation pattern on

utterances which function as statements)
Terminology
Lesson 1: Variation and Change
Introduction
208
This is the first lesson on language change. In this lesson, and as you
have seen in previous units, languages vary in many ways. You will
therefore learn about the variation and change of a language.
− describe a linguistic variation
− explain any linguistic change in progress
Lesson Outcomes
How long?
Variation and change
As you have learnt along this module, languages vary in many ways.
Holmes, Janet (1992: 211) argues that language varies in three major
inter-related ways: over time, in physical space and socially. Variation
over time has its origins in spatial (or regional) and social variation
Variation can easily be noted in the vocabulary and pronunciation. The

tendency is that people may complain for a new and different way of
pronouncing certain items of vocabulary or new terms being introduced
to replace some already existing ones. Some terms may disappear after
sometime. However, others may persist and become incorporated into the
standard dialect. For instance, the English word bus was once regarded as
shortening of omnibus.
All language change has its origins in variation. There is a strong

possibility of a linguistic change as soon as a new form develops and
begins to be used alongside an existing one. If the new form spreads,
the change is in progress. If it replaces the old form, change has occurred.
209
Post-Vocalic [R] - Its Spread And Its Status
Holmes, Janet (1992: 214) argues that in many parts of England and
Wales, Standard English has lost the pronunciation of [r] following
vowels in words like star and start. Post-vocalic [r] does not occur in RP
(Received Pronunciation) or in London Cockney dialect. The loss of post
-vocalic [r] seems to have begun in the seventeenth century in the
southeast of England , and it is still in progress, since there are areas ,
such as the south-west of England , where [r] is still regularly
pronounced. Post-vocalic [r] is also pronounced in Scotland and Ireland.
Look at the example below of use or silent [r]:
‘Elisabeth lives in the town of Ryde on the Isle of Wight, a popular

British holiday resort and place for retirement. Her family has lived
there for three generations, originally farming, but they now run a
small grocery business. Elisabeth’s grandfather pronounces [r] pretty
consistently in words like start and car. Elisabeth’s parents pronounce
[r] in such words too, though not all the time. Her mother uses a fewer
than her father, and both tend to use fewer when serving the mainland
visitors in the shop than when they are talking to older relatives and
friends at home. Elisabeth, however, doesn’t use post-vocalic [r] at all.
She did occasionally when she started school, but she stopped’
This example of use of post-vocalic [r] shows change in progress. The

post- vocalic [r] is used as some kind of variation and in most of the
situations speakers are aware its occurrence or non-occurrence.
Accents with post-vocalic [r] are called ‘rhotic’. In large areas of

England, rhotic English accents are regarded as rural and uneducated.
In large pars of America, on the other hand, post-vocalic [r] is alive
and well extensively used. Many American accents are rhotic and it is
seen as prestigious. While, in England, [r] less speech is the prestigious
form which is still spreading.
The spread of vernacular forms
It can be noticed that not only prestigious form spread, but also
vernacular spread throughout the speech community
210
The HRT or high-rise terminal (arising intonation pattern on utterances

which function as statements) is a vernacular feature which is increasing
in Sydney speech. For instance, ‘statements such as I went to school in
Sydney or we played tennis’ might be uttered with an HRT in dialects in
which HRT occurs. This has been noted in many English-speaking
communities.
to the timing
Activity
Time: 40 min
Exercise
Read the brief introduction below and say what linguistic problem is the
speaker worried about? Who does the speaker seem to blame?
“Children these days are putting the language at risk with their careless
and sloppy pronunciations. From many possible examples I select just
one. The distinctions between which and witch, and whether and weather,
are slowly but surely disappearing in children’s speech. Do other
listeners regret this loss as I do? When I heard a child asking which
witch? Recently, it sounded as if she was a stutter. ‘
Feedback
Exercise
The speaker mentions pronunciation problems between words like

whether/ weather and which/witch. He seems to blame young speaker,
particularly children for careless and sloppy pronunciation.
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Lesson 2: How do changes spread?
Introduction
In this lesson you will get to know the answer of the above question. But
first you need to be confident on the existence of linguistic changes,
otherwise refer back to unit introduction and first lesson of this unit
before you proceed.
− Analyse the spread of linguistic changes
Lesson Outcomes
How long?
How do linguistic changes spread?
Below there are four ways (with their corresponding explanations) in

which linguistic change may spread.
From Group To Group
Many linguists have used the metaphor of waves to explain how

linguistic changes spread through a community. Any particular change
typically spreads simultaneously in different directions. Social factors
such as age, status, sex and region affect the rates of change and the
directions in which the waves roll most swiftly.
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You belong simultaneously to a particular age group, region, and social

group. A change may spread along any of these dimensions and into
another group. Linguistic changes infiltrate groups from the speech of
people on the margins between social and regroups - via the ‘middle’
people who have contacts in more than one group.
From Style To Style
When a change is a prestigious one it usually starts at the top of the

speech community - in the most formal style of the highest status group
and spreads downwards. A vernacular change tends to begin in people’s
more casual styles. Innovating groups who introduce new vernacular
sound changes tend to be around the middle of the social class range - in
the upper working class. For instance younger people tend to adopt new
forms more quickly than older people do and they use them more
extensively.
From Word To Word – Lexical Diffusion
Sounds change spread through different words one by one. This is called
lexical diffusion. The change occurs first in one word, and then in
another, and so on. In Belfast, for instance, a vowel change affected the
vowel in the word pull before put, and put before should.
The theory of lexical diffusion has been defended by many linguists. This
theory make claims concerning how a particular change spreads through
the set of words in which the feature undergoing change actually occurs.
to the timing
Activity
Time: 45 min
Exercise
Choose the right alternative
213
Linguistic changes can spread through
a) word to word or lexical diffusion
b) a social group (of age, sex, regional etc) to another
c) a style to another speech style
d) word to word or lexical diffusion, or a social group to another, or

style to another speech style
Feedback
The right choice is D. It incorporates all possible ways in which a

linguistic change can spread. Linguistic change can occur through word
to word or lexical diffusion, or a social group to another, or style to
another speech style
Options A, B, C are not acceptable because each of them misses the other
processes.

214
Lesson 3: How do we study language change?
Introduction
Now, as you have had some examples of language change from the
previous lessons, you are introduced to the main methods of research on
Language Change. In fact, there are two main ways of study on Language
change: apparent-time study and real time method.
− Describe the methods of study on Language Change.
Lesson Outcomes
How long?
How is language change studied?
Now you are being introduced to some of the methods of study of

language change: Apparent-Time Studies Of Language Change and
Language Change In Real Time
Apparent-Time Studies Of Language Change
The use of different age groups may reveal the direction of linguistic
change. Here is an example from Holmes (1992: 225)
215
‘I discovered recently that my 11 year-old son, avid, did not know what
the word wireless meant. Neither did his friends. On the other hand, my
great-grandfather never heard the word radio, and, my grandmother knew
what a radio was, she considered the term new-fangled. My mother used
both wireless and radio to refer to the same object, and though I
understood both terms I have always used radio for preference’.
Comparing the speech of people from different age groups can be a

useful clue then to language change. This has been called apparent-time
method of studying change. Differences between the speech of older
people and younger people are interpreted as indications of changes in
progress. Younger speakers tend to use more of the newer or innovative
forms, and the older speakers use more of the older, conservative forms,
the ones they adopted in their own teenage years. When the change
involves the spread of a prestige form or an admired usage, then, it is
easy to see the evidence of its spread. An increase in the use of these
forms in the speech of younger people is a clue that a new form is being
introduced.
Language Change In Real Time
Another method of studying a language change is language in real time. It

is possible to build on the work of earlier linguists when studying change.
Dictionaries which provide date when a form was first noted can assist in
tracing changes in vocabulary over time.
One interesting real time study was reported by Peter Trudgill who
returned to Norwich fifteen years after his original study of speech
patterns of Norwich people. He discovered that some of variation he had
noted had led to linguistic change, as predicted. The vowels of beer and
bear, for instance, which were still distinct for many speakers in 1968,
had completely merged by 1983 for all speakers except those from the
highest social group.
216
to the timing
Activity
Time: 40 min
Exercise
Which kind of method of study could be said for the example below?
Apparent-time study or real time method? Say why for your answer.
“In 1970 an American visiting New Zealand noticed with surprise that
some children pronounced words like milk and fill with a vowel where he
expected to hear [l]. Twenty years later he re-visited the country and was
fascinated to find that the pronunciation he had perceived as so odd on his
earlier visit was now widespread throughout the community. Most people
seemed to be using a vowel where he used [l] in words like feel, real,
fool, fail, sail and salt. He had in the meantime discovered that this
process of replacing post-vocalic [l] with a vowel was well-established in
the south of England”.
Feedback
Exercise
The method of studying language change in the example above is change

in real time. First the changes were noticed about twenty years ago when
they were still in process and then confirmed later. Firstly, the younger
speakers were seen introducing new sound, but 20 years later those
children became adult who used the well-established pronunciation
change.

217
Lesson 4: Reasons for Language Change
Introduction
This is the last lesson of Language change. In this lesson you are
introduced to the brief explanation on why language changes. Many
linguists have given several reasons for language change. In order to
understand this lesson you need to re-read the first three lessons on
language change
− Explain how languages change
− Describe factors involved in language change
Lesson Outcomes
How long?
Reasons For Language Change
Social Status And Language Change
Linguistic change can be introduced by any social group. But different

types of change are associated with different groups. Members of a group
with most social status, for example, tend to introduce changes into a
speech community from neighbouring communities which have greater
status and prestige in their eyes. Whereas lower-class speaker are more
influential in spreading less conscious linguistic changes. Low-class men
in particular often adopt speech forms from nearby local workers to
express solidarity, rather than status or prestige.
218
In Australia the HRT, mentioned above, seems to be spreading among

lower socio-economic groups. People in lower paid jobs use this
intonation most frequently, and it clearly functions as solidarity marker
for this group. However, it is currently regarded by older higher status
speakers, in particular as vulgar, and it may remain within the lower
social echelons. Alternatively, it may spread into the informal speech of
young people from the higher social groups, and so gradually spread
upwards in this way.
Sex And Language Change
Differences in women’s and men’s speech are another source of variation

which can result in the linguistic change. Sometimes it is women who are
the innovators, leading the linguistic change, and sometimes it is men. In
general, women tend to introduce the prestige forms, whereas men tend to
lead changes in the opposite direction, introducing new vernacular forms.
For instance, in Belfast women are introducing changes towards the
standard forms, while men are introducing new vernacular speech.
However, there are some exceptions: there are communities in which
women may introduce new vernacular forms, and also communities in
which women do not play any role in the linguistic change at all. The
introduction of new vernacular forms by women may reflect their daily
networks and broader range of contacts through their work. It indicates
the importance of solidarity in favouring and consolidating vernacular
forms in the speech of any group, male of female, who both work and
play together. In societies where women do not hold public life, they
don’t lead any linguistic change, in Iran and India, for instance.
Interaction And Language Change
Interaction and contact between people is crucial in providing channels

for linguistic change. Linguistic change progresses most slowly in tightly
knit communities which have little contact with the outside world. For
instance, Scottish Gaelic has survived best in the Western Isles of
Scotland. Another best-known example of linguistic conservation is
Iceland. Icelandic has altered relatively little since the thirteenth century,
and it has developed very little dialectal variation. By contrast, during the
219
same period English has changed radically and has been characterised by
gross dialect al variation
One explanation to this difference is that Iceland is much more

geographically isolated than England. And that the Icelandic communities
had very strong political and cultural ties and they maintained contact
with each other. They held regular annual assemblies at which important
chiefs gathered. They attached great importance to kinship and friendship
links and so people kept in close contact from generation to generation
and over long distances. Interaction was the crucial factor which
prevented the development of differences in Icelandic.
to the timing
Activity
Time: 40 min
Exercise 1
Do you think women or men are most likely to lead a linguistic change?
Exercise 2
The high rise terminal (HRT) has been as an example of change in

progress in some English-speaking speech communities. Which sex
would you predict is leading this change?
Feedback
Exercise 1
The answer depends on the kind of linguistic change is being discussed.

As a broad generalisation, women tend to lead changes in the direction of
the standard or prestige norms, while men tend to lead changes involving
vernacular variants.
220
Exercise 2
Since HRT is a vernacular rather standard variant, one would expect it to

be more common in male than in female speech.

Unit summary
In this unit you learned the occurrence of language change; how language
change spread into other communities and discussed how language
change is studied and some reasons of linguistic change were briefly
Summary
explained.
It is argued that languages vary and they do so in three interrelated ways:

regional or spatial, social and over time. Variation can easily be noticed
in pronunciation and vocabulary. Variation is crucial so that linguistic
change can occur.
Post –vocalic [r] has been mentioned as a living example of variation in

English speaking communities. In some communities , it is of high status
( in large parts of America) while it is seen as belonging to lower status
in other communities , e.g. in large parts of England
Linguistic changes can develop and spread through different ways. One
way is the move from one group to another. This can be a social, sex,
regional, age group etc. It was also mentioned the development and
spread of a linguistic change from one style to another. And last, lexical
diffusion was described.
Two main ways of studying language change were presented. Apparent –
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time study, which consists of comparing the speech of people from

different age groups, and the second method, is study in real time, which
consists of recording the current linguistic change in progress, then
twenty years or later study again the same community. If the first
observations occur in the second study, then surely the linguistic change
has occurred.
Many factors are involved in for the language change. Social status plays
an important role in the language change. For example, a high social
group may introduce a more prestigious linguistic change. Gender may
also contribute to the chance. Differences in women’s and men’s speech
force a variation in speech which may result in linguistic change. Finally,
interaction was mentioned in providing source for language change.
Now that you have come to the end of this unit (6), if you feel you
understand the notions explained in the above lessons, take the End
Test below. If not, review the relevant lessons in this Unit.

Question 1
Read this text and answer question a) and b).

Assessment
Text A
‘Elisabeth lives in the town of Ryde on the Isle of Wight, a popular

British holiday resort and place for retirement. Her family has lived
there for three generations, originally farming, but they now run a
small grocery business. Elisabeth’s grandfather pronounces [r]
pretty consistently in words like start and car. Elisabeth’s parents
pronounce [r] in such words too, though not all the time. Her mother
222
uses a fewer than her father, and both tend to use fewer when
serving the mainland visitors in the shop than when they are talking
to older relatives and friends at home. Elisabeth, however, doesn’t
use post-vocalic [r] at all. She did occasionally when she started
school, but she stopped’
a) What kind of variation has been referred to in text A?
b) What are the reasons of such linguistic variation in the situation

of text A?
Question 2
Text B
‘I discovered recently that my 11 year-old son, avid, did not know what
the word wireless meant. Neither did his friends. On the other hand, my
great-grandfather never heard the word radio, and, my grandmother
knew what a radio was, she considered the term new-fangled. My mother
used both wireless and radio to refer to the same object, and though I
understood both terms I have always used radio for preference’
− How can this change occur or spread, on the situation described in

text B?
1. From style to style
2. Lexical diffusion
3. From group to another group
Question3
Choose one statement which best describes reasons of linguistic change.
− The linguistic change may be due to:
223
A. Social status , speakers’ style and origin
B. The gender of the speakers, interaction and time
C. Interaction, social status and gender of the speakers
Feedback
Question1
a) In text A the linguistic variation is in pronunciation of [r]. It may

sound or sometimes silent, depending on the communities to
communities, or social status.
b) Elisabeth does not pronounce [r] for social status as it is thought

being less prestigious. Her parents use it for social contact or
interaction with visitors; it carries some kind of solidarity here.
Question2
1. if you chose 1, your answer is not correct. Style usually involves

social status. In the text we have members of the same family using
different vocabulary items for the same object.
2. If you chose 2, your answer is right. This is a lexical diffusion. The

variation or change is from one word to another, i.e. wireless to
radio.
3. If your choice is 3, your answer is not correct., for the same reasons
of 1.
Question 3
A. If you chose alternative A, your answer is wrong. This statement

contains some correct (social status) and wrong part (speakers’ style
and origin)
B. If you chose alternative B, your answer is not correct. It has got one
wrong item, Time.
224
C. If you chose alternative C, your answer is fully correct. It

incorporates the factors which contribute to linguistic change
(Interaction, social status and gender of the speakers)
225
Unit 7 Language Planning
Unit 7
Language Planning
Introduction
This Unit is about the study of Language Planning. Language Planning is

a process used by Governments to alter the function of language in
Society for the purpose to solve communication problems. According to
Williams (1992) Language Planning appeared after the Second World
War, side by side with the theory of modernization which not only was
closely integrated with a specific theoretical perspective- structural
functionalism – but also involved a specific conception of the world. This
world view involved dividing states into the modern and the traditional.
In the modern states it was assumed that economic development was

rendered more possible in ethnically homogeneous states. These states
which lack ethnic, religious, social class and linguistic variation were
held to be economically more successful than those in which the converse
is true. The reasoning behind this argument is that communication
facilitates economic development and that a single language facilitates
communication. On the other hand, the other features of heterogeneity –
religion, social class, and ethnicity, were held to generate conflicts which
hinder the progress. J.A. Fishman (19680)
Therefore, the economic development of the modernization settings to

take place, it was necessary to set up a type of linguistic infrastructures
so that in area where many vernacular languages were in use a common
language of wider communication was also available.
226
Define Language Planning
Explain reasons for Language Planning
Outcomes
Define and explain status planning and corpus planning
Describe the four typical ideologies that may motivate actual

decision making in Language Planning in a particular
Society
Explain the Linguist’s role in Language Planning
Distinguish Official Language from National Language
227
Lesson 1:
Introduction
In the previous Units you learned the relationship between language and
society, language and culture, differences between language and dialect.
You also learned Bilingualism, Multilingualism, language and culture,
language and gender as well as Language Change and some possible
reasoning behind Language Change. If you feel you did not mastered
these issues well revise the appropriate units, otherwise do the entrance
exercises that follow.
− Define Language Planning
− Explains reasons for Language Planning
Lesson Outcomes
− Discuss and explain Ideologies motivating Language Planning
Decisions
How long?
228
1.1 Revisions
Before going through this Unit, you will engage yourself in a revision of
the previous units by doing a couple of exercises below.
Time: 90 min
Activity
Exercise
a) What is language?
b) What is a dialect?
c) What is variety?
d) What is a vernacular?
e) What is a society?
f) What is Lingua Franca?
g) Is there any relationship between language and society?
h) What is Monolingualism, Bilingualism and Multilingualism?
Feedback
Exercise
a) The definition language was viewed in variety of ways, depending on

the purpose of discussion.
− Language is what the members of particular society speak.
229
− Language could be said to be a system of sounds and words used by

humans to express their thoughts and feelings
− Language is subordinate variety that is, standard variety which

carries prestige and it is a variety used by high class.
b) Dialect is a substandard or non-standard variety of a language which

lack prestige. It is spoken by low class in the society.
c) A variety is specific set of linguistic items or human speech patterns,

uniquely associate with some external factors (presumable a
geographical area or a social group).
d) Vernacular is the speech of a particular country, or form of speech

transmitted from parent to child as a primary medium of
communication.
e) Society is any group of people who are drawn together for a certain
purpose or purposes.
f) Lingua Franca is a language used for communication between

people of an area in which several languages are spoken.
g) There is a relationship between language and society. Language is

social process; it is a socially conditioned process. Language is a part
of society, linguistic phenomena are social phenomena of a special
sort, and social phenomena are in part linguistic phenomenon. But
this relationship is not symmetrical.
h)
− Monolingualism is the ability to use only one language;
− Bilingualism is the ability to use two languages;
− Multilingualism is the ability to use more than two languages;
230
If you feel you had no difficulty in doing the exercises, enter the
following unit 7. Otherwise, review the relevant units.
1. 2 Definition of Language Planning
Language Planning
Now you will learn some basic concepts in Language Planning and types
of Language Planning. You will also learn reasons for Language
Planning.
Language Planning is an attempt to interfere deliberately with a language

or one of its Varieties. That attempt may focus on either its status with
regard to some other language or variety or its internal condition with a
view to change that condition, or on both of these since they are not
mutual exclusive. The first focus results in status planning; the second
results in corpus planning. Wardhaugh (1992: 347)
Weinstein (1980:56) says that ‘Language Planning is a Government

authorized long-term, sustained, and conscious effort to alter a language’s
function in a society, for the purpose of solving communication
problems.’ In fact, in multilingual countries i.e., countries where many
languages are spoken, the Government has to find out a national or
official language as a channel to unify the country (language of unity).
This process involves assessing resources, complex decisions-making, the

assignment of different functions to different language or varieties of a
language in community, and the commitment of valuable resources.
Language Planning can take a variety of form and produce different kinds
of result as you will see in the following topics.
231
After you have read the introduction above, do the following exercise.
Activity
Time: 70 min
Exercise
Write True (T) in the statements you believe are true, and False (F) in the
statements you believe are false.
a) Language Planning emerged in the modern world with the purpose to

alter the function of only high variety.
b) Language planning appeared after the modernization of states, and

each state wanted its own language to express their national identity.
c) It was assumed that in multilingual countries with no unification

language or variety may hinder or difficult the development of the
country.
d) It was assumed that Monolingual countries were more likely to

succeed economically.
Feedback
Statements B, C, D are true. Statements A, is false.
a) F- Alternative A is false because Language Planning emerged in the

modern world not only with the purpose to alter the function of only
a high variety but to alter the function of any language or its varieties,
it may be low or high variety.
b) T- Alternative B is true. In fact, Language planning appeared after

the modernization of states, and each state wanted its own language
to express their national identity
c) T- Alternative C is true, because it was assumed that in multilingual

countries with no unification language were held to generate conflicts
which might hinder the progress, because there was no unique
language to facilitate communication.
232
d) T- Alternative D is true, because it was assumed that in Monolingual

countries there were no communication problems, so the country was
more likely to succeed economically.
233
Lesson 2: Types of Language Planning
Introduction
In lesson 1 you learnt that Language planning is an attempt to

interfere deliberately with a language or one of its varieties. That
attempt may focus on two types of Language planning: Status
Planning and Corpus Planning. Wardhaugh (1992: 347)
In this lesson you will learn the functions of status and corpus
planning.
− Define and describe Status planning and Corpus planning.
− Evaluate the function of each type of planning.
Lesson Outcomes
− Explain constraints resulted from language planning.
− Mention and describe the four ideologies that may motivate actual
decision-making in a language planning.
How long?
2.1 Status Planning and Corpus Planning
Status Planning focuses on the change of the status of the language with
regard to some other language or variety. It also changes the function of a
234
language or a variety and the rights of its speakers. For example, when
speakers of a minority language are denied the use of that language in
educating their children, their languages has no status. Alternatively,
when a Government declares that henceforth two languages rather than
one of these alone will be officially recognized in all functions, the newly
recognized one has gained status. As a clear example we have Swahili
language in Tanzania. Swahili was declared as a national language.
Before this, English was the unique national and official language in
Tanzania. In this concrete example we may say that Swahili has gained
status. (to discuss in the following lessons)
Corpus Planning seeks to develop a variety of a language or a language,

usually to standardize it, that is, to provide it with the means for serving
every possible language functions in society. Consequently, corpus
planning may involve such matters as the development of an orthography,
new source of vocabulary, dictionaries, and a literature, together with the
cultivation of new uses so that the language may extend its use into such
areas as government, education, and trade. These types of planning are
not mutual exclusive as it was stated above. These two types of planning
often co-occur, for many planning decisions involve some combination of
a change in status with internal changes.
Language planning may either be deliberate or proceed randomly, even

accidentally; therefore the result may be deliberately intended or not at all
as intended. Even though it is possible to recognise most of relevant
parameters, language planning is still far from being any kind of exact
science.
2.2 IDEOLOGIES
The following are the four typical ideologies that may motivate actual
decisions-making in language planning in a particular society:
Linguistic assimilation, linguistic pluralism, vernacularization and

internationalism.
1. Linguistic assimilation is the belief that everyone,
235
regardless of origin, should learn the dominant language of

the society. For example France applied this policy to various
peoples within its borders. You may also have the example of
Mozambique; every individual has to learn Portuguese
language, it is a language of unity. This language (colony
language) is recognized in all functions. It came to solve
communication problems, since Mozambique is a
multilingual country.
2. Linguistic pluralism is the recognition of more than one

language and it takes a variety of forms. It can be territorially
based or individually based or they may be some
combination of the two. It can be complete or partial, so that
all or only some aspects of life can be conducted in more
than one language in a society. Examples, in South Africa
both Afrikaans and English are recognised as official and
national languages.
3. Vernacularization is the restoration or elaboration of an

indigenous language and its adoption as an official language.
4. Internationalization is the adoption of a non-indigenous

language of wider communication either as an official
language or for such purposes as education or trade.
And now that you have studied the notes above, do the following
Activity
Time: 120 min
Exercise 1
a) Distinguish Status Planning from Corpus Planning.
b) Give a brief comment on the following statement:
236
- Status Planning and Corpus Planning are not mutually exclusive.
Exercise 2
Tick the right answers.
Support your choice in each statement.
a) When the holders of low variety are denied the use of that language
in educating their children, their language has lost status.
b) When a Government recognizes two languages rather than one of

these alone will be officially recognized in all functions, the newly
recognized one has gain status.
c) When the users of a minority language are denied the use of that
language in educating their children, the language has lost prestige.
d) Language planning is always an exact science.
Exercise 3
Match the following explanations with appropriate ideology.
a) Linguistic assimilation b) Linguistic pluralism c) Vernacularization

d) Internationalization
1- The restoration or elaboration of an indigenous language and its

adoption as an official language
2- The recognition of more than one language as official or national

language
3- The adoption of a non-indigenous language of wider communication

either as an official language or for such purposes as education or
trade.
4- The belief that everyone, regardless of origin, should learn the

dominant language of the society.
237
Feedback
Exercise 1
a) Status Planning focuses on the change of the status of the language

with regard to some other language or variety. Therefore, it changes
the function of a language or a variety and the rights of its speakers.
Whereas Corpus Planning seeks to develop a variety of a language or
a language, usually to standardize it, that is, to provide it with the
means for serving every possible language functions in society.
b) Status Planning and Corpus Planning are not mutually exclusive,

because there are situations where one can supplement the function of
the other. For example, a language planner may be asked to change
the status of any language and at the same time provide it with means
for serving every language functions of a society – it can be to
develop grammatical features or an orthography, etc.
Exercise 2.
The right answers are A, B and C.
a) If you have chosen alternative A, your answer is correct, because it is

true that when the holders of low variety are denied the use of that
language in educating their children, their language has lost status.

certain that when a Government recognizes two languages rather than
one of these alone will be officially recognized in all functions, the
newly recognized one has gain status.
c) If you have chosen alternative C, your answer is correct, it is true that

when the users of minority language are denied the use of that
language in educating their children, the language has lost prestige.
d) If you have chosen alternative D, your answer is not correct. It is not

true that Language planning is always an exact science because the
results may be influenced by other factors such as political ones.
Exercise 3
238
1_______________c
2_______________b
3_______________d
4_______________a
If you feel you had difficulty in doing the exercises above, re-read
appropriate notes . If not continue.
2.3 Language planning decisions
As a result of planning decisions, a language or variety can achieve one

of a variety of statuses (Kloss, 1968) to mention the followings:
- A language may be recognized as the sole official language. This

factor does not necessarily mean that the status must be
recognized constitutionally or by statutes.
- Two or more languages may share official status in some

countries. Example of English and French in Canada.
- A language may also have official status but only on a regional

basis.
- A language may be a ‘promoted language’, lacking official status

but used by various authorities for specific purposes.
- We may also have a situation where a particularly language is not

promoted nor proscribed or restricted. This is called tolerated
language.
- Discouraged or proscribed language is one against which there

are official sanctions or restrictions.
Planning decisions obviously play a very large role in determining what
239
happens to any minority language or languages in a country. They can

result in deliberate attempts to eradicate such a language. Official neglect
may result in letting minority languages die by simple not doing anything
to keep them alive.
The second issue concerns the problem of identifying the right kinds of
data that must go into planning decision. Planning must be based on good
information, but sometimes the kinds of information that go into planning
decision are not reliable. Census –takers, for example, may have
difficulties in determining just who speaks what language when and for
what purposes. The gathers of such information may have difficulties in
getting answers. The answer may be different according to the way the
gather phrase the question. Besides this, the questions and the way they
are answered may be politically motivated. As Williams G. (1992) says,
‘language planners are accused by members of minority language groups
of merely serving the interests of the state and thereby being agents of
socio-political dominance.’ The different answers are also subject to a
wide range of interpretations.
2.3 The language rights of immigrants
The language rights of immigrants is a controversial issue almost every

where. One view is that immigrants abandon to their rights to their
languages and their cultures by migrating.
The converse view is that no one should be required to give up a mother

tongue because of such movement, and that this is a particularly
regrettable in a world in which population movement is either
encouraged. Both UNESCO and United Nations have declared that ethnic
groups have the right to maintain their language.
Read the notes above and do the following exercise. Refer to the
feedback only after you have done the exercise. Please, pay attention to
the timing.
Activity
Time: 30 min
240
Exercise
a) Mention and explain three statuses that a language or variety may

achieve as a result of language planning decisions.
b) Results from language planning decisions may sometimes not be

reliable. Why?
Feedback
Mention any of your choices
a)
- A language may be recognized as the sole official language. This

factor does not necessarily mean that the status must be
recognized constitutionally or by statutes.
- Two or more languages may share official status in some

countries. Example of English and French in Canada
- A language may be a ‘promoted ‘language, lacking official status

but used by various authorities for specific purposes.
b) Results from language planning may not be reliable because

language planners may face difficulties in gathering good
information, and the decision may be political influenced.
If you feel you had difficulty in doing the exercise above, re-read
appropriate notes. If not continue.
241
Lesson 3: Official and National Language
Introduction
The previous lesson was about Language Planning. You learnt that
Language Planning is an attempt to alter a particular variety of a language
or a particular language. You also learnt about difficulties language
planners face for decision making. You also learnt that the results may
end up by choosing a particular language or variety to function as official
or national language or both.
In this lesson, you will learn about National and Official language. As
you saw in the lesson above, one of the objectives of language planning
is to promote a language or its variety into either Official or National
language. In this lesson you will also learn that one language or variety
may be promoted to serve as National or Official language.
By the end of this lesson you should be able to:
− Define National and Official language.
− Distinguish National from Official language.
Lesson Outcomes
− Explain the function of National and Official language.
How long?
3.1 Distinction between Official and National language
242
In Sociolinguistics, the distinction between a national language and

official language is generally made along the effective-referential
dimension, or more precisely in the context of ideological instruments
dimension. A national language is the language of a political, cultural and
social unit. It is generally developed and used as a symbol of national
unit. Its functions are to identify the nation and unite the people of the
nation.
An official language is simply a language which may be used for

government and business. Its function is primarily utilitarian rather than
symbolic. It is possible, of course for one to serve both functions. For
example in Paraguay the Government declared both Guarani and Spanish
to be national language and while Spanish were also identified as official
language. In Tanzania just the reverse is found. There is one national
language, Swahili, but two official languages, Swahili and English.
Many countries make no distinction between a national language and an

official language. In countries which regard themselves as monolingual
nations, the same language serves both purposes. In multilingual
communities, all kinds of permutations have been used in order to satisfy
both political and social goals on the one hand, and more practical and
utilitarian needs on the other.
In a multilingual country, the Government often declares a particular

language to be national language for political reasons. The declaration
may a step in process of asserting the nationhood of a newly independent
or established nation. Where this national language cannot serve all the
internal and external functions of Government business, however, it has
been necessary to identify one or more official languages as well.
The identification of official languages may also be necessary when the

choice of national language is problematic. In multilingual country India
for example, attempts to give Hindu sole status as the national language
have not succeeded (it was compulsory recognized as national language
after independence, ( see unit 1 lesson 5.5). Fourteen regional Indian
languages are recognized as official languages alongside English and
Hindu for the country as a whole, and in addition different states each
243
have their own official languages.
Many minorities would like to gain official status for their language, but
the costs in terms of proving services and information in all official
languages are considerable, and most government count them carefully.
3.2 What is the price a national language?
Many countries have regarded the development of a single national

language as a way of symbolising the unity of a nation. ‘One nation, one
language’ has been a popular and effective slogan. Holmes. J.
(1992:111).
In earlier centuries the national language of a political entity often

emerged naturally and relatively unselfconsciously over a period of time.
English in England, French in France, etc., seem obvious examples.
There were very few languages with this kind of status before 1500. Then
the number increased dramatically, especially in the nineteenth century as
linguistic nationalism in Europe grew. It has almost doubled again in the
twentieth century with the emergence of colonized countries from
colonial rule into independence.
Over the last hundred years nationhood and independence have been very
important political issues throughout the world. In the struggle to
establish a distinctive national identity, and to secure independence from
colonial rule, the development of a national language has often played an
important part. The symbolic value of a national language as a unifying
rallying point in the fight for independence was quickly appreciated in
countries such as Tanzania. In multilingual countries such as China and
Russia, etc., where there are large populations speaking hundreds of
different vernacular, a national language is not only a useful lingua franca
and official language, it also serves a symbolic unifying function for
those nations too. In countries where there is a single dominant group, the
issue of which language to choose as the official language to represent
the nation generally does not arise. It is also said that numerical
dominance is not always what counts, however. Political power is the
244
crucial factor. In multilingual countries the significance of political power

in the choice of national language is particular clear.
Now that you read the notes above do the following exercises. Refer to
the feedback only after you have done the exercises. Please, pay attention
to the timing.
Activity
Time: 90 min
Exercise 1
a) Define National and Official language.
b) How do they differ?
c) What language (official or national) do you think people feel proud

of? Why?
d) Why do you think in multilingual setting the government had to

promote two distinctive languages to function as official and national
language respectively?
Exercise 2
The struggle for political recognition usually ends up with the

proclamation of independence.
− What is the role or the importance of National language in a newly

independent country?
Feedback
Exercise 1
a) National language is the language of a political, cultural and

social unit. It is generally developed and used as a symbol of
245
national unit. And Official language is a language which may be

used for government business.
b) They differ mainly in terms of their functions. National language

functions are to identify the nation and unite the people of the
nation. Whereas Official language function is primarily utilitarian
rather than symbolic.
c) People usually feel proud of national language because it

expresses national identity of any individual. It is a symbol of
national unit.
d) To satisfy both political and social goals on the one hand, and
more practical and utilitarian needs on the other.
Exercise 2
− The role of a national language is to establish a distinctive national

identity, and to secure independence from colonial rule.
lesson. Otherwise, review the relevant notes.
3.3 Planning for a national official language.
Form, functions and attitudes
What is involved in developing a code or variety (whether dialect or

language) so that it is suitable for official use? Addressing this
challenging involves issues relating to the form of the variety, the
functions it serves, and the attitudes people hold towards it.
There are generally four interrelated steps.
a) Securing its acceptance: the status of the new variety is

important, and so people’s attitudes to the variety being
developed must be considered. Steps may be needed to enhance
its prestige, for instance, and to encourage people to develop
pride in the language or loyalty towards it.
246
b) Selection: choosing the variety or code to be developed.
c) Codification: standardising its structural or linguistic features.

This kind of ‘linguistic processing’ is sometimes called corpus
planning.
d) Elaboration: extending its functions for use in new domains.

This involves developing the necessary linguistic resources for
handling new concepts and contexts.
Selecting the code to be developed is often an entirely political decision,

though linguistics may point out different linguistic problems presented
by selecting one variety rather than another. Acceptance by the people
will generally require endorsement by politicians and socially prestigious
groups. So selection and acceptance are steps which involve social and
political factors. Codification and elaboration of the code to handle a
wider range of function are, by the contrast, essentially linguistic process.
Producing a dictionary and ensuring there are words available for
teaching maths in the variety, for instance, are problems for linguistics. In
practice, however, all these steps are closely interrelated and the example
bellow will demonstrate.
After you have read the notes above do the following exercises. Refer to
the feedback only after you have done the exercises. Please, pay attention
to the timing.
Activity
Time: 60 min
Exercise 1
a) Match steps for planning for a national or official language with

the corresponding explanation.
247
1 Selection, 2 Codification, 3 Elaboration, 4 Securing acceptances
a) Extending its functions for use in new domains. This involves

developing the necessary linguistic resources for handling new
concepts and contexts.
b) Choosing the variety or code to be developed.
c) People’s attitudes to the variety being developed.
d) Standardising its structural or linguistic features. This kind of

‘linguistic processing’ is sometimes called corpus planning.
Exercise 2
Planning for national or official languages, that is, selecting a code to

develop not only require the participation of linguistics but as well as of
the government (political/social factors).
− What do you think is the function of each part? Justify your choice.
Feedback
Exercise 1
1________________b
2________________d
3________________a
4________________c
Exercise 2
248
a) Selection and acceptance constitute a social and political

responsibility. The government has to select the variety to be
codified, and involve social entities to secure its acceptance.
Linguistics tasks are Codification and elaboration of the code to
handle a wider range of function. After the government has
selected a code and secured its acceptance, Linguistics then, have
to decide the type of language planning to take place (corpus or
status).
lesson. Otherwise, review the relevant notes.
249
Lesson 4: Official and National Language (Pararguay's and Tanzania'

Case)
Introduction
The previous lesson discussed about the distinction between Official and
National language. You learnt that a national language is the language of
a political, cultural and social unit, and an official language is simply a
language which may be used for government and business. You also
learnt issues involved in developing a code or variety (whether dialect or
language) so that it is suitable for official use.
In this lesson you will learn how Guarani and Swahili were promoted as
national and official languages.
By the end of this lesson you should be able to:
− Explain the value and importance of national an official using real

examples.
− Explain the process of standardization of Swahili.

Lesson Outcomes
How long?
4.1 National and Official Languages.
Paraguay’s Case
Language expresses our cultural value and social identity. ‘Language

rights’ is the first demand made by any minority social group almost
everywhere in the world. This short passage comes to support the
Reinaldo Decoud Larrosa a highly educated Paraguayan who spent many
250
years fighting to develop and encourage pride in Guarani the indigenous

language.
Upper class Paraguayans have always regarded Spanish as the language

of culture, education and civilization and Guarani as the language of the
ill-bred and uneducated. Larrosa pointed to the richness of Guarani, with
its fourteen indicative tenses, and extensive vocabulary in areas such as
botany, medicine and agriculture. He emphasized its importance saying
that Guarani is the only language which can adequately express
Paraguayan national identity. As a result of his efforts and those of
others, Guarani is a language most Paraguayans are proud of.
Paraguay is the only Latin American nation with a distinctive national

language – Guarani. Guarani is an indigenous American Indian language
spoken by over 90 per cent of the population, and Spanish which is
spoken by no more than 60 per cent of the people.
Spanish, the H language, used in formal contexts, for administration, a

great deal of education, and legal business, and Guarani, the L language
of solidarity, the language of love, humour and poetry. Guarani is an
indigenous language with the status of national language. Spanish and
Guarani were both declared national languages in 1967. it is Guarani
which most people regarded as their real national language. Guarani is
felt to be the language which best express their distinctive culture and
traditions. These positive feelings towards Guarani make Paraguay
unique among Latin American countries. In other countries the
indigenous languages have little status compared to Spanish or
Portuguese, the colonial languages. (Example, Mozambique).
Many Paraguayans consider that Guarani is an important symbol of

Paraguayans identity. People feel that you cannot be a true Paraguayan
unless you can speak the language. Some claim that there are things they
can say in Guarani which are more difficult to express in Spanish. People
find Spanish a useful language, and the most appropriate for more formal
interactions and business, but they are also proud of Guarani and express
strong loyalty towards it. Paraguayans, who meet overseas, often address
to each other in Guarani.
251
the feedback only after you have done the exercise. Please pay attention
to the timing.
Activity
Time: 120 min
Exercise
Which of the following factors do you consider most relevant in assessing

the suitability of Guarani as national language of Paraguay? Order them
according to their importance. Justify your choice.
a) Guarani is an interesting language with complex tense system.
b) Guarani is spoken by over 90 per cent of people and is the only

language of many rural people.
c) Guarani has an extensive vocabulary, especially in areas such as

botany, medicine and agriculture.
d) Guarani is the language of solidarity between Paraguayans both

at home and abroad.
e) Guarani is considered a melodious language, especially

appropriate for declaration of love.
f) Guarani is an indigenous language which attracts many

languages loyalty from Paraguayans.
g) Guarani is a morphologically interesting language which forms

words using additive and synthetic processes.
252
Feedback
We hope you have approached to the following answers, although,

there can certainly be no definitive answer. Nevertheless, linguistics
features of the language are less relevant than attitudinal, political
and social factors. So statements a) and g) may be least relevant.
Statements c) and e) are relevant only to the extent that they express
Paraguayans’ attitudes to their language.
Statements b), d) and f) are the ones that would be rated highest.
Overall, it must be recognised that the preservation of and
maintenance of the language has owed much to political and social
factors. Guarani has proved useful politically as a unifying symbol
for the nation.
4.2 Tanzania
Selecting a code
Tanzania faced the dilemma of which language to choose as its official

national language. Choosing one language from over a hundred
indigenous languages, each associated with a particular tribe, would have
simple provoked discontent, if not inter-tribe warfare. Choosing English
for a newly independent nation seemed inappropriate (though many other
nations have had little choice but to use the language of the colonisers as
their official language). The first president of Tanzania, Julius Nyerere,
chose Swahili, a language of the Bantu language family, which was
widely used throughout the country as a lingua franca in many contexts.
There were some obvious reasons for his choice. Some were pragmatic.
Swahili was already the medium of primary education, for instance, and
so all Tanzanians learned the language at school. Other obvious reasons
were more ideological. Ninety-six per cent of Tanzania’s languages are
253
Bantu languages, like Swahili, so it could be clearly identified as an

African language. In addition to this, Swahili had served as the lingua
franca of the anti-colonial political movement for independence. In this
role it had acted as a kind of social cement between very disparate
groups. It could hardly have had better credential from a political and
social point of view.
4.3 Codifying and elaborating Swahili.
The process of standardising Swahili was initiated by the British

Administration well before independence. In the 1920s a southern variety
of Swahili, used in Zanzibar, was selected as the basis for the standard.
The fact that it was being used in primary education and for
administration meant standardization was essential. Its codification
involved developing a standard spelling system, describing the grammar
of the variety selected as the new standard, and writing a dictionary to
record its vocabulary.
Following Tanzania’s independence in 1961, Swahili was used in more

and more contexts for education, administration, politics and law. Its
vocabulary was expanded to meet the demands of new contexts by
borrowing freely from Arabic and English appearance. President Nyerere
intended that eventually it should be used for post-primary education, in
the Higher Courts, and in all area of government. This meant intensive
work in order to develop the necessary vocabulary and technical terms,
and an enormous amount was achieved in a short space of time. In 1984,
however, the government decided not to extend Swahili-medium
education to secondary and tertiary education. English is being retained
for these levels.
to the timing.
Activity
Time: 120 min
254
Exercise 1
The choice or selection of code in multilingual countries has been a

controversial issue and it may end up with discontentment or inter-tribe
warfare. The Tanzanian is a good example to praise. The selection of
Swahili among many other varieties as the national language was
peaceful.
− What are the reasons behind this?
Exercise 2
a) Why do you think English might be regarded by some politicians

as more suitable than Swahili for secondary and tertiary
education in Tanzania?
b) What are the counter-arguments (the opposite view)?
Feedback
Exercise 1
a) Swahili was already the medium of primary education, and so all

Tanzanians learned the language at school. Other obvious reasons
were that, the majority of Tanzania’s languages are Bantu, like
Swahili, so it could be clearly identified as an African language.
Moreover, Swahili had served as the lingua franca of the anti-
colonial political movement for independence.
Exercise 2
a) The obvious answer is the fact that materials are already

available in English for teaching at these levels, and it will
clearly be cheaper to use these than to develop new materials in
255
Swahili. As a world language, English will also give students

access to a wider information base.
b) The counter-argument involve considering the level of linguistic

competence in a language which is necessary before it is possible
to learn effectively through it at secondary and tertiary level.
Most Tanzanians identify strongly with Swahili and they are
fluent in it by the end of primary school. The switch to English as
the medium for education is likely to create a barrier for at least
some Tanzanians. Those from poor backgrounds and rural areas
are most vulnerable. Not all will succeed in mastering English
well enough to gain the benefits it offers.
4.4 Attitudes to Swahili
The role of Swahili, in unifying the people of Tanzania to work for

independence, guaranteed it prestige and positive attitude. The charisma
of Nyerere himself carried over to the language he used extensively in his
speeches and his political writings. People have often seen the success of
Swahili as the national language in Tanzania as due to its ‘neutral’ status
– it is not identified with a particular tribe. But its widespread acceptance
was also due to the fact that Tanzanians developed a strong loyalty
towards the language which united them in working towards uhuru
(‘freedom’).
The story of the acceptance of Swahili as a national language of Tanzania

is therefore an interesting one. Swahili serves as a lingua franca in a
country with hundreds of different tribal vernaculars. It provides an
economical solution to the problem of which language to use for local
administration and primary education. It provides a culturally acceptable
symbol of unity.
Linguistic diversity can seem problematic to those working for political

unification. It is potentially divisive. Swahili has provided a very
convenient comprise in Tanzania. But, finally, it is important to
256
remember that the story of how Swahili became the national language of
Tanzania might be told rather differently by a group whose tribal
vernacular was a competing lingua franca.
In this unit the steps involved in developing a particular code or variety

for use as a national language have been discussed in relation to a large
multilingual setting, Tanzania, where the competing varieties are
distinctive languages. Exactly the same processes and steps are relevant
in the deliberate development of a particular dialect for use as national
language in a monolingual setting.
4.5 Some functions of national language.
In the notes above you learnt reasons behind the choice of a code as well
as codifications and elaboration of Swahili. Now you will learn that a
successful national language needs to serve a variety of functions such as
unifying, separatist, prestige and frame-of-reference function. The notes
below give a brief explanation of each function.
Unifying: It must unify the nation, and offer advantages to speakers over
their dialects and vernaculars.
Separatist: it must set the nation off from surrounding nations. It should
be an appropriate symbol of separate national identity.
Prestige: it should be recognised as a proper or ‘real’ language with

higher status than local dialects and vernacular language.
Frame-of-reference function: the standard variety serves as a yardstick

for correctness. Other varieties will be regarded as non-standard in some
respect.
to the timing.
Activity
Time: 60 min
257
Exercise
− Are all the functions stated above served for the Tanzanian nation by
Swahili?
Feedback
We hope that your answer has approached to the following.
− The discussion you had about Swahili shows that it can be regarded
as serving all these functions in Tanzania.
a) Unifying: Swahili serves to unify Tanzanians, since it is not the

language of a particular tribe. It offers advantages over tribal
languages as a means of communication, education and access to
government jobs, for instance.
b) Separatist: since Swahili is used throughout East Africa as a lingua

franca, this function is not as clearly realised as others. Guarani in
Paraguay is a better example of a language serving this separatist
function, since it clearly distinguishes Paraguay from other South
American nations.
c) Prestige: there is no doubt about the status of Swahili as a proper or

‘real’ language. It has much greater status in the nation as a whole
than any tribal vernacular language.
d) Frame of reference function: there is a standard variety of Swahili

which exist alongside a range of regional varieties. The standard was
developed from the variety spoken in Zanzibar town. The standard is
clearly recognized as the norm and other varieties are regarded as
regional marked.
258
Unit summary
In this unit you learned that Language Planning is an attempt to change a
particular variety of a language or a particular language or some aspects
of how either of these functions in society. It is a government authorized
Summary
long-term, and conscious effort to alter a language’s function in a society
for the purpose of solving communication problems.
The process of planning is classified into two ways. Corpus and status
planning. In corpus planning, you learnt that there is a development of a
language or variety of language to provide it with the means for serving
very possible language functions in a society. This involves the
development of new sources of vocabulary, dictionaries, grammar,
proposed spelling, pronunciation and a literature. In status planning,
changes are made to such a chosen language or variety and the rights of
those who use it.
Cobarrrubias (1983) describes four typical ideologies that motivate

decision- making in language:
- Linguistic assimilation: it is a belief that everyone, regardless of

origin, should learn the dominant language of the society.
Linguistic pluralism: it is the recognition of more than one

language, so that all or some aspect of life can be conducted in more
than one language in a society.
- Vernacularization: it is the restoration or elaboration of an

- Internationalization: the adoption of a non-indigenous language

of wider communication either as official language or for the
purposes of education or trade, as English in many countries.
You also read about National and Official languages and you learnt
259
that Language planning may be aimed at promoting a language or

variety into either a national language or an official language, and it
is also very possible for one language to serve for both functions.
A national language is a language of a political, social and cultural

unit. It is generally developed and used as a symbol of unity. Its
functions are to identify the nation and to unite the nation.
An official language, contrarily, is a language which may be used

for government business.
In this unit you also learnt that solving the matters of

communication involves paying much attention on the functions a
certain language serves and attitudes people hold towards. The
following are steps needed during the process of language planning:
- Selection: a code or variety is chosen there is need to standardize

its structural or linguistic features so that it may in fact serves as
a real medium of national or international communication.
- Elaboration: extending its use for new domains.
- Acceptance: the status of the new variety is important, and so

people’s attitudes to the variety being developed must be
considered.
In countries which regard themselves as monolingual you learnt that they

virtually ignore other languages so that there is little national interest in
any move to try to detect how many people speak other languages. In
such countries the same language is used in order to satisfy both political
and social goals as well as utilitarian and symbolic aim. As an illustration
of this situation, we have France and English in Canada. In multilingual
countries, you also learnt that, the government declares a particular
language to be national language for political reasons. Both the
government and social institutions must effectively and equitably meet
the needs of the population so that groups varied in linguistic repertoire
have an opportunity to participate in their government and to receive
services from their government. This may be a process of asserting the
nationhood of a newly independent or established nation.
260
Promoting a language in a multilingual country may bring disadvantages.

Sometimes when governments promote a certain language or variety they
demote others and there can be a discontent minority because any social
group wishes to see its languages identities and interests maintained.
You then moved to Language planning, and you discussed that language
planning may face obstacles because of not identifying the right
information that must go into planning decisions; it is realized that
sometimes the kinds of information that often go into planning decisions
are not always completely reliable.
Lastly, you learnt that Tanzania faced a dilemma of which language to

choose as its official national language from over hundred indigenous
languages, each associated with a particular tribe. The first President of
Tanzania Julius Nyerere, chose Swahili, a language which was widely
used the country as a lingua franca in many context. There were many
reasons for his choice of Swahili: it was already the language of primary
education; it was a Bantu language as many language of Tanzania, which
clearly identified it as an Africa language; it served as lingua franca
during the fight for independence.
The variety of Swahili used in Zanzibar was selected and standardised. Its
codification involved developing a standard spelling system, describing
the grammar and writing a dictionary to record its vocabulary.
The Tanzanians have often seen the success of Swahili as the national
language because it is not identified with a particular tribe. Its acceptance
became immediately spread through the fact that people had used it as a
tool of unity on the work towards uhuru (freedom).
Now that you have come to the end of this unit (7), if you feel you do
not comprehend the notions explained in the above lessons, please
review the relevant lessons in this Unit before you take the End Test
below.
261

Question 1
There are two types of Language Planning; Status Planning and Corpus
Assessment Planning.
Write True (T) for the statements you believe are true and False (F) for
those you believe are false.
a) Status Planning develops the function of a language or a variety of a

language and the right of those who use it.
b) Corpus Planning seeks to develop a variety of a language or a

language, usually to standardize it.
c) Corpus Planning involves the development of orthography, new

sources of vocabulary, dictionaries, etc.
Question 2
Mention and explain four typical ideologies that may motivate actual
decisions-making in language planning in a particular society.
Question 3
The purpose of Language Planning is to change a language or variety or

develop it, usually through standardization. As a result of this process, a
language may achieve a variety of statuses.
- Mention all statuses a language or variety may achieve.
Question 4
Choose the correct answer. Support any choice you make.
a) Language Planning decisions are always reliable.
262
b) Language planning decisions may sometimes suffer political

influence.
c) Censures takers may sometimes face difficulties in gathering

good information.
d) Language planning decisions may be unreliable.
Question 5
Place the following words to their definitions
a) National language b) Official language.
1. Language of political, cultural and social unity.
2. Its function is primarily utilitarian
3. A symbol of national unit
4. Language used for government business.
5. Its function are to identify the nation and unite the people of the nation
6. Sometimes used just to satisfy political needs.
Question 6
There are steps language planners follow so that a variety to be chosen

should be suitable for official uses.
- Mention and explain each step.
Question 7
a) Why do you think English might be regarded by some politicians as

more suitable than Swahili for secondary and tertiary education in
Tanzania?
b) What are the counter-arguments (the opposite view)?
263
Question 8
Successful national language needs to serve a variety of functions. The

following have been identified as important.
• Unifying: It must unify the nation, and offer advantages to speakers

over their dialects and vernaculars.
• Separatist: it must set the nation off from surrounding nations. it

should be an appropriate symbol of separate national identity.
• Prestige: it should be recognised as a proper or ‘real’ language with

higher status than local dialects and vernacular language.
• Frame-of-reference function: the standard variety serves as a

yardstick for correctness. Other varieties will be regarded as non-
standard in some respect.
− Are all these functions served for the Tanzanian nation by Swahili?
Feedback
END TEST
Question 1
Statements B and C are true and Statement A is false
a) If you have chosen statement A your answer is not correct, because

status planning changes the function of language rather than
developing it.
b) If you have chosen alternative B your answer is correct. In fact,

Corpus Planning seeks to develop a variety of a language or a
language, usually to standardize it.
264
c) If you have chosen alternative C, your answer is correct. It is true that

Corpus Planning seeks to develop a variety of a language or a
language, usually to standardize it
Question 2
- Linguistic assimilation: it is a belief that everyone, regardless of

origin, should learn the dominant language of the society.
- Linguistic pluralism: it is the recognition of more than one

language, so that all or some aspect of life can be conducted in more
than one language in a society.
- Vernacularization: it is the restoration or elaboration of an

- Internationalization: the adoption of a non-indigenous language of

wider communication either as official language or for the purposes
of education or trade, as English in many countries.
Question 3
- Two or more languages may share official status in some countries.

Example English and French in Canada.
- A language may also have official status but only on a regional basis.
- A language may be a ‘promoted‘language, lacking official status but

used by various authorities for specific purposes.
- We may also have a situation where a particularly language is not

promoted nor proscribed or restricted, this is called tolerated
language.
- Discouraged or proscribed language is one against which there are

official sanctions or restrictions
265
Question 4
Statements B, C and D are true and statement A is false
a) If you have chosen alternative A, your answer is no correct, because

the information gathered from census ( see unit 7, lesson 2.3) may not
be reliable. The decision may be politically influenced.
b) If you have chosen alternative B, your answer is correct. In fact,

Language planning decisions may sometimes suffer political
influence
c) If you have chosen alternative C, your answer is correct. It is true

that, Census takers may sometimes face difficulties in gathering
reliable information.
d) If you have chosen alternative D, your answer is correct. It is true that

Language planning decisions may be unreliable.
Question 5
1_________a
2_________b
3_________a
4_________b
5_________a
6_________b
Question 6
- Selection: choosing the variety or code to be developed.
266
- Codification: standardising its structural or linguistic features. This

kind of ‘linguistic processing’ is sometimes called Corpus Planning.
- Elaboration: extending its functions for use in new domains. This

involves developing the necessary linguistic resources for handling
new concepts and contexts.
- Securing acceptance: the status of the new variety is important, and

so people’s attitudes to the variety being developed must be
considered
Question 7
a) The obvious answer is the fact that materials are already

available in English for teaching at these levels, and it will
clearly be cheaper to use these than to develop materials in
Swahili. As a world language, English will also give students
access to a wider information base.
b) The counter-argument involves considering the level of linguistic

competence in a language which is necessary before it is possible
to learn effectively through it at secondary and tertiary level.
Most Tanzanians identify strongly with Swahili and they are
fluent in it by the end of primary school. The switch to English as
the medium for education is likely to create a barrier for at least
some Tanzanians. Those from poor backgrounds and rural areas
are most vulnerable. Not all will succeed in mastering English
well enough to gain the benefits it offers.
Question 8
- The discussion of Swahili shows that it can be regarded as
267
serving all these functions in Tanzania.
• Unifying: Swahili serves to unify Tanzanians, since it is not the

language of a particular tribe. It offers advantages over tribal
languages as a means of communication, education and access to
government jobs, for instance.
• Separatist: Since Swahili is used throughout East Africa as a lingua

franca, this function is not as clearly realised as others. Guarani in
Paraguay is a better example of a language serving this separatist
function, since it clearly distinguishes Paraguay from other South
American nations.
• Prestige: There is no doubt about the status of Swahili as a proper or

‘real’ language. It has a much greater status in the nation as a whole
than any tribal vernacular language.
• Frame of reference function: There is a standard variety of Swahili

which exists alongside a range of regional varieties. The standard was
developed from the variety spoken in Zanzibar town. The standard is
clearly recognized as the norm and other varieties are regarded as
regional marked.
268

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MODULE

Rua Comandante Augusto Cardoso, nº 135

Fax: +258 21-322113

Author: Teresa Adriano

Instructional Designing: António Franque

Language Review: Sarita Monjane Henriksen

Graphic Designing: Anilda Ibrahimo Khan

Edition: Anilda Ibrahimo Khan

Getting around this MODULE 8

Unit summary ............................................................................................................... 127

Lesson 1:.............................................................................................................. 228

About this MODULE

How this MODULE is structured

If the course is suitable for you.

What you will already need to know.

What you can expect from the course.

The overview also provides guidance on:

Where to get help.

Course assignments and assessments.

We strongly recommend that you read the overview carefully before

The course content

An introduction to the unit content.

Core content of the unit with a variety of learning activities.

Assignments and/or assessments, as applicable.

Course content and structure.

Course reading materials and resources.

Course support (assigned tutors, technical help, etc.)

Your constructive feedback will help us to improve and enhance this

The present Module is focussed on the study of Sociolinguistics, one of

—is this course for you?

It is a new subject for teachers in Mozambique and it is introduced

 Discuss and explain the importance of Sociolinguistic in your

 Distinguish Language from Dialect

 Define key concepts such as Linguistic Codes, Vernacular,

 Discuss the Origin, Nature, and Characteristics of Pidgin and

 Comment on the major factors leading to Bilingualism and

 Talk about Diglossic Societies, and main features

 Discuss the causes of Male and Female Linguistic Differences,

 Explain causes and importance of Language Change and Planning.

 Discuss and evaluate effects of Language change and Planning.

Essentially you will be taking control of your learning environment. As a

We recommend that you take time now—before starting your self-

Help Universidade Pedagógica - Centro de Educação Aberta e à Distância

Faculty of Languages: English Department

Rua: Comandante Augusto Cardoso no. 135 Maputo

Telephone: 21 420860-2 or 21 306720

Monday to Friday: 8:00 to 12:00

In each province there is a resource centre available and a local Provincial

For any assistance related to academic issues the Provincial English

We recommend that you go through all exercises indicated without

Throughout each lesson in every unit you will have to do exercises or

Getting around this MODULE

A complete icon set is shown below. We suggest that you familiarize

Activity Assessment Assignment Case study

Discussion Group activity Help Note it!

Outcomes Reading Reflection Study skills

Summary Terminology Time Tip

This Unit focuses on Basic Concepts in the field of Sociolinguistics. The

Upon completion of this unit you will be able to:

 Define the concept of Sociolinguistics

 Explain the importance of Sociolinguistics for a language teacher

 Explain the relationship between Language and Society

 Describe and explain the relationships between Sociolinguistics and

Discuss and explain the importance of Sociolinguistic in your

Distinguish Language from Dialect

Define key concepts such as Linguistic Codes, Vernacular,

Discuss the Origin, Nature, and Characteristics of Pidgin and

Comment on the major factors leading to Bilingualism and

Talk about Diglossic Societies, and main features

Discuss the causes of Male and Female Linguistic Differences,

Explain causes and importance of Language Change and Planning.

Discuss and evaluate effects of Language change and Planning.

Define the concept of Sociolinguistics

Explain the importance of Sociolinguistics for a language teacher

Explain the relationship between Language and Society

Describe and explain the relationships between Sociolinguistics and

Describe and explain the major principles for Sociolinguistics

Distinguish Language and Dialect

Explain Regional and Social Variation of a language

Distinguish and explain differences in speech associated with various

Distinguish and explain different Styles of speaking.