DAPT

Dairy and Dairy Product Technology
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Course Breakdown
Unit- 1 Introduction
 Meaning, branches and scope
 Dairying situation in Nepal
 Demand and supply of milk and milk products in Nepal
 Importance and scope of milk and milk products
Unit-2 Mammary system, milk letdown and hormones

 Physiology and functions of mammary gland
 Hormones related to Mammary gland development, Lactation, Involution and regeneration
 Sources of milk constituents
 Factors affecting milk withdrawal
 Synthetic hormones related to milking process,
 Metabolic disorders affecting lactation in Bovine Sheep and goat
Unit-3 Clean milk production

 Methods of milking: Comparative study of hand and machine milking, Milking order
 Prerequisites of clean milk production
 Sources and remedies of contamination in market milk
Unit-4 Milk
 Definition, Composition of milk, Nutritive value of milk, Physico-chemical properties of milk
 Factors affecting the composition of milk
 Flavors and off-flavors in milk
Unit-5 Milk quality

 Concept of milk quality
 Characteristics of quality milk
 Factors affecting milk quality
Unit-6 Fluid milk

 Concept of Straining, Filtration, Chilling, Storage, Transporting, Classification, Toning, Standardizing
 Processing of milk (definition, objectives andmethods)
 Pasteurization,Homogenization, Emulsification,Sterilization
 Cleaning
 Milk utensil on farm
 Milk plant line in place (CIP)
 Sanitizing utensil and equipment
Unit-7 Buying and collection of milk

 Buying and collection from vendors and producers
 Selection of producers from milk collection
 Payment systems based on weight, volume, fat and SNF
 Tests for fluid milk quality, Butter fat and SNF, Reduction tests
 Microorganisms common to Raw milk, Pasteurized milk, Milk products
 Specific gravity of milk
 Adulteration of milk with water
 Cream separation method
 Effect of heat treatment on milk quality
Unit-8 Product processing

 Concept, Types of milk products, Nutritive values, Method of preparation Butter, Chhenna and paneer ,
Cheddar and Cottage Cheese, Condensed milk, Curd, Ice-cream, Milk powder, Khuwa
 Costing of different dairy products
 Legal standardization of different dairy products in Nepal
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Unit- 1
Introduction to dairying in Nepal
Dairy: It is a room or building for the processing and distribution of milk and milk products.
Meaning
Milk is the lacteal secretion obtained from class mammalians, e.g. buffalo, goat, cattle, etc. and dairy
is the place of handling milk and milk products. Thus, dairying refers to the production and marketing
of milks and its products. It focuses on the biological, chemical, physical, and microbiological aspects
of milk and on the technological (Processing) aspects of the transformation of milk into its various
consumer products, viz. beverages, fermented products, concentrated and dried products, butter and
ice cream.
Branches
1. Dairy technology
Pasteurization is an important aspect of dairy technology
2. Dairy processing
It involves the conversion of raw milk into processed milk and products.
3. Dairy industry
Plant established for producing the dairy product.
4. Dairy microbiology
It deals with the microorganisms that are important in making the milk product.
Scope of dairy in Nepal:
 It should provide nutrious food.
 It should increase employment.
 It reduces poverty.
 Manufactures of different dairy products.
 The growth of tourism is likely to provide increasing demand of modern dairy products.
There are more attracted towards the dairy products that are being serves in different places of
Bhaktpur.
Importance of dairy in Nepal:
 Milk is highly nutrious (milk consists of 80-90% water and supplies the diet with
essential vitamins minerals, fat, protein and sugars.)
 It is important to economic and social development.
 It also generates beef from culled animals and veal from young animals not used as
replacement stock.
 It also provides manure, used as replacement stock.
 It also provides manure, used as fertilizer for crop and pasture development.
 The dairy also provides employment and a source of cash for many rural farm families.
 Foreign exchanges and by reducing our import bill, we have a more favourable balance of
trade.
 It reduces risk of diabetes.
Dairying situation in Nepal

 Livestock sector significantly contributes to national AGDP by nearly one third and the dairy
sub-sector shares more than half of the livestock sector contribution.
 The annual production of milk is 1.35 million metric ton per year. Buffaloes contributes more
than two third of the total .production and rest by cows.
 About 13 percent of the total population of cattle (0.9 million) and 26 percent of buffaloes
(1.19 million) are in milking conditions. Crossbreeding with Jersey and Holstein Friesian
cattle and Murrah buffaloes is the major breed improvement activity.
 There is predominance of small holder production system. Nearly 125 thousand farm families
are engaged in milk production and are organized in about 1500 primary cooperatives.
 Production system is crop-livestock-forest integrated especially in hills. In the high mountains
regions, yak and chauries are reared in transhumance system. There is seasonal fluctuation in
milk production and collection which affects supply of pasteurized milk in the market (flush
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season; August-September to January-February, 90% calving in Augest to November; lean

season; rest of the months). The ratio of lean to flush season production is about 1:3 in most
of the country and 1:1.5 in areas where the feed supply is better. Seasonal breeding pattern of
buffaloes and avilability of green forages in monsoon season are the main reasons.
 Dairy development efforts started in early fifties with assistance from FAO. Initiatives were
focused in Himalayan region with establishment of yak cheese factories. Besides FAO,
bilateral assistance from the governments of Switzerland, New Zealand and Denmark has
made remarkable contribution.
 Dairy Development Corporation (DDC) was established under corporation Act in 1964. DDC
started functioning from 1969. DDC is the pioneer in dairy development in Nepal a fully
government state owned corporation DDC was initiated for the economic advancement of the
poor small milk producing farming communities. It is still one of the major players in the
milk market and handles about half of the total milk marketed in the formal sector (about 13
percent of the total milk produced in the country is believed to be marketed through formal
marketing channel.
 Private sector investment in dairy has increased over the years and in past two decades their
share has increased to nearly half of the total milk marketed in formal sector. Main operation
area is in and around Kathmandu which is the major market for milk and milk products.
 The National Dairy Development Board (NDDB) was established as apex body to oversee
that dairy sector in the country 1992. The DANNIDA Support Project funded by the Royal
Danish Government supported to prepare and implement Ten Year Dairy Development Plan
(1990-2000) and strengthened NDDB.
Demand and supply of milk and milk products in Nepal

The country is facing a deficit of around 100,000 litres of milk every day due to inadequate milk
production. Dairy farmers, on average, supply around 700,000 litres of milk per day to dairy
companies. But the country’s daily demand for milk hovers around 800,000 litres. The country is
currently facing shortage of milk because of lean milk production season. Lean milk production
season stretches from April to August in the country. Milk production drops to around 490,000 litres
per day during the lean season, however, it rises to around 875,000 litres per day during peak season
which continues from September to March.
Milk supplied by dairy farmers during the lean season is not sufficient to cater to the market demand,
as milk consumption is going up. Currently, annual milk production is going up by around 4 percent,
whereas annual milk demand is jumping by 8 percent, according to the data of the Department of
Livestock. To fulfill this deficit, we have to rely on powder milk to produce milk.Domestic dairy
companies generate powder milk using surplus milk stored during the flush season. But powder milk
produced in the country during flush season is not sufficient to cater to the milk demand during lean
milk production season. As a result, around 20 percent of the powder milk demand during the lean
milk production season is met through imports from India.
In 2015, the Ministry of Livestock had said it would make the country self-sufficient in milk
production in the next three years. But the country is unlikely to meet this target, as many farmers are
currently expressing reluctance to engage in cattle farming due to loss suffered during the devastating
earthquakes of 2015. Around 15,000 cattle were killed by the quakes.
The country has been facing shortage of milk ever since the earthquakes killed cows and buffaloes.
Currently, dairy farmers produce around 4.8 million litres of milk per day. Of this, 15 percent is
supplied to dairy companies, 35 percent is supplied to restaurants and other entities, and remaining 50
percent is consumed by farmers themselves. Dairy business in Nepal accounts for around 9 percent of
the gross domestic product (GDP). Around 450,000 people are involved in cattle farming in the
country and more than 20,000 farmers are producing dairy milk.
(Source: http://kathmandupost.ekantipur.com/news/2017-07-18/country-faces-deficit-of-100k-litres-
of-milk-daily.html)
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Importance of milk and milk products

Dairy sector has very important role in poverty reduction, food security and Socio-cultural and
political dynamics.
1. Role of dairy sector in poverty reduction

Dairy sector provide income every day. Employment is immediate (10 cow give 1 person
employment). Land holding is not necessarily a constraint. Weather has less negative impact
compared to crops. Supply nutritional requirement (both meat and milk). Dairy farmers groups
and cooperative are important tool of empowerment.
2. Role of dairy sector towards food security
In Nepal, majority of the population resides in the rural areas where deficit in food nutrition is
more problem. Dairy sector is directly contributing food security, employment and off farm
income.
3. Socio-Cultural and Political Dynamics

Nepal is a multi-ethnical nation with diverse languages, religious and cultural traditions.
Traditional thinking of untouchable castes concept is still prevailing in the society.Women are
involved in most of the difficult but non cashable farm activities like forage collection. Women
have less chance for trainings, seminars and observation tours.Elections of the dairy cooperatives
are mostly contested on the political basis. Let us just say “milk is not only the commercial
commodity but has also become the political commodity”.
4. Milk as a protective and balanced food. Milk and its products are the only source of animal
protein in vegetarian diet. Hence Nutrition Advisory Committee of ICMR recommended 283gms
of milk/day/per capita to balance the diet for supply of essential amino acids.
5. Sources of draft power for various agricultural operations. Some of the excellent draft breeds
supply good quality bullocks-the source of draft power which brings savings in energy resources
like petroleum products and coal.
6. Opportunity of making use of barren/unfertile land for housing of animals
7. Offers opportunity of proper utilization of by-products and industrial wastes as cheaper source of
feeds for animals.
8. Utilization of agriculture waste by-products like wheat straw, paddy straw, rice polish, wheat
bran, cakes, chunis etc.
9. Utilization of milk by-products like whey, butter milk for feeding to calves and other growing
stock.
10. Utilization of animal by-products like bone meal, fish meal, meat meal, blood meal etc.
11. Utilization of industrial by-products like molasses, grain, go down sweepings etc.
Scope of milk and milk products

 Livestock are widely distributed in whole country.
 Increased market opportunities due urbanization
 Private sector in dairy business has greatly increased.
 Growth of tourism: Demanding new dairy products
 Dairy cooperatives have strongly developed
 Donors’ support has created a positive environment in dairy sectors
 Milk acts as a row material for different dairy industry e.g. cheese factory and it also full fill
the requirement of different industries e.g. Dairy by product use in wine factory.
 Increasing marketing demand can full fill by the development of dairy industry which helps in
the development of marketing organization e.g. Demand pf milk in different sectors.
Different branches of the dairy:
i. DDC: Dairy Development Co-operation.
ii. CLDP: Community Livestock Development Project
iii. Amul dairy branches
iv. NDA: Nepal Dairy Association.
v. MPPS: Milk Products, Production and Supply scheme.
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vi. MDCS: Milk Products Co-operative supply.

vii. MPA: Milk Products Association.
viii.NDDB: National Dairy Development Board.
1) DDC: It was created in July 1969 under the co-operation act on 1964.
Objectives:
 Provides a guaranteed market for milk to the rural farmers with fair price.
 Supply pasteurized milk and milk products to urban consumers.
 Develop organized milk collection system to meet increasing demands for pasteurized milk
and milk products.
 Develop an organized marketing system for milk and milk products in urban areas.
Branches of dairy sciences:
Dairy farming Dairy technology Dairy microbiology

Dairy farming:
It is the branch of dairy science which deals with the rearing of dairy animals for the
production of raw milk.
Dairy technology:
It is the branch of dairy science which deals with study of different types of micro-
organisms found in milk and their significant in dairy industry.
Dairy microbiology:
It is the branch of dairy of micro-organisms found in milk and their significant in
dairy industry.
Main problem of dairy sectors in Nepal:
 Scientific milk pricing policy is lacking.
 Poor milk quality a persistent problem in the dairy industry. This is associated with a lack of
farmer awareness in clean milk production. Unhygienic milk production starts with the
farmers and causes loss of income along the milk chain.
 Predominance of small holder producers high cost in production as well as in collection.
 Lack of human resources and technology support in private sector.
 Access to animal health and breeding service is limited.
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UNIT-2
MAMMARY SYSTEM, MILK LETDOWN AND HORMONES
Terminology
Mammogenesis: Development of the mammary gland
Lactogenesis: Initiation of milk secretion
Milk secretion: Synthesised milk drain out by epithelial cell to lumen of alveoli.
Milk removal: Ejection of milk from alveoli and ducts and passive removal from cisterns
Lactation: Combined process of milk secretion and removal from gland
Galactopoiesis: Enhancement of established lactation
Mammary gland
The mammary glands are modified sudorifarous glands (Sweat gland) and are located outside the
abdominal cavity. The mammary glands or udder of the cow is covered with fine hair except teat
which is totally hairless. Udder should be capacious, possess a relatively level floor, a strongly
attached, extending well forward with a rear attachment high and wide. The texture of the udder
should be soft, pliable and elastic; well collapsed after milking. The teats should be uniform, of
convenient length and size, cylindrical in shape, well-spaced and free from obstructions.
Function of mammary glands

 To nourish the neonate/new born calf
 To produce immunoglobulin for protection
Physiology of mammary gland

Physiology deals with the normal functions of living organisms and their parts. Thus, the
physiological study of mammary gland includes:
 Mammary gland structure
 Anatomy or growth of mammary gland
 Blood circulation
 Galactopoiesis
 Lactation cycle
 Neuro-hormonal reflex or milk ejection or milk letdown or milk withdrawal
 Dry Period
A. Mammary Gland Structure
Mammary gland structure consists of support system (connective tissue) and glandular (secreting
tissue).
1. Support system (Connective tissue)
a. Skin
 Minor role in support
b. Median suspensory ligament
 Separates right and left halves of udder
 Connects udder to abdominal wall
 Elastic tissue which responds to weight of milk in udder
c. Lateral suspensory ligament
 Inflexible
 Surround the outer wall of udder
 Attached to prepubic and subpubic tendons
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Figure: Support system of udder
2. Glandular system (Secreting tissue)

a. Alveoli
Alveoli are the milk producing units.They aregrape like cluster consisting of following
components:
 lumen - collect milk components & water
 Capillary system - supply milk precursors and deliver hormones
 Secretary epithelial cells - milk synthesis & secretion
 Myoepithelial cells - milk ejection
 Basement membrane - selective transfer
 Terminal duct - milk transport out of alveoli
Figure: Structure of alveolus

b. Lobules
150-200 alveoli combine to form a lobules and a group of lobules is called lobe.
c. Duct system
It consists of primary duct, secondary duct and so on. It drains secretory tissue and has no
secretory function.
d. Gland cistern
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It is a milk storage organ. Duct systems drains into gland cistron. It is used to detect end of
milking
e. Teat cistern
Duct in teat is called teat cistern. It is separated from streak canal by folds of tissue called
Furstenberg’s rosettes.
f. Streak canal
Its function is to keep milk in udder and bacteria out of udder.
Figure: Glandular system of Mammary gland
B. Anatomy or growth of mammary gland

The development of the mammary gland starts early in the fetal life. Already in the second month of
gestation teat formation starts and the development continues up to the sixth month of gestation.
Whenthe calf fetus is six months, the udder is almost fully developed with four separate glands and a
medial ligament, teat and gland cisterns. The development of milk ducts and the milk secreting tissue
take place between puberty and parturition. The udder continues to increase in cell size and cell
numbers throughout the first five lactations of the cow, and the milk production capacity increases
correspondingly.
Udder varies depending on maturity and functional status. In dairy cows, it weights up to 60 kg. It is
divided into 4 quarters corresponding to the four glands - each bearing a principle teat. Fore and rear
quarters comprises the 40% and 60% of total udder size respectively. Thus the two front quarters
normally produce about 40% of the total milk yield and the two hind quarters about 60%. The
division between fore and rear quarters is less distinct but the right and left sides of the quarter are
separated by a median inter-mammary groove. There is no interaction between the quarters.
C. Blood circulation
The blood supply to the mammary gland is extremely important for mammary function. All of the
milk precursors come from blood. To produce 1 liter of milk 500 liters of blood have to pass through
the udder. When a cow produces 60 liters of milk per day 30,000 liters of blood are circulation
through the mammary gland. There is a 2-6 fold increase in blood flow in the mammary gland starting
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2-3 days prepartum. The decrease in production with advancing lactation is not due to decreased
blood flow, rather it is due to the loss of secretory epithelial cells through a process programmed
cell death, this process is called apoptosis.
1. Arterial system
Blood leaves the heart and flows towards the rear of the cow by the abdominal aorta. Two major
arteries carry the blood to the udder, on for each half of the udder. These arteries are external
pudic artery and perineal artery.
2. Venous system
Veins leave the mammary gland anti-parallel to the arteries. There are three veins on each side
that carry blood away from the gland. These veins are external pudic vein, perineal vein and
subcutaneous abdominals vein.
3. Lymphatic system
It helps to regulate proper fluid balance within udder and combat infection. It contains
lymphocytes (WBC’s) which play a role in immune defense. Also contains few RBC’s. Lymph
travels from udder to the thoracic duct and empties into blood system.
Figure: Blood flow to and from the mammary gland
D. Galactopoiesis
Maintenance of lactation once lactation has been established is called galactopoiesis. Prolactin
hormone maintains galactopoiesis. The changes in mammary cell numbers (by growth or by cell
death) and in milk yield per cell are regulated by galactopoietic hormones and local mammary factors
(Frequecncy of milking). Prostaglandin (PGF2a) inhibits milk secretion. Growth hormone, BST
increase and estrogen and progesterone decrease milk production.
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E. Lactation cycle
A lactation period of 305 days is recommended to take advantage of 60 days of dry period and yearly
calving interval. There are 4 phases of mammary gland in lactation cycle:
 Dry period: Development
 Around calving (-4 to +4 days): Differentiation
 Lactation
All cell activity directed towards milk synthesis and no further mammary growth.
 Involution of the mammary gland
Involution is the process by which the mammary gland returns to its non-lactating state. This
is the gradual but irreversible regression of the gland (i.e. a reduction in the numbers of active
alveoli). This starts after the peak of lactation, but is more pronounced during late lactation,
F. Neuro-hormonal reflex or milk ejection or milk letdown or milk withdrawal

Milk ejection is important during milking or suckling to obtain the alveolar milk fraction, which can
represent more than 80% of the milk stored in the udder of dairy cows. The suckling stimulus or
massaging of the udder stimulates somatic nerves in the teat, which send a signal to the posterior
pituitary gland and causes the release of the hormone oxytocin. Oxytocin causes the myoepithelial
(muscle) cells around the alveoli to contract. For efficient milking, there are several important factors
to remember.
 Stimulate 1 min before milk let-down
 The maximal effect of oxytocin occurs during first 2 to 3 minutes of milk let-down.
 Stress during cow preparation or during milking will inhibit oxytocin release.
Other mechanisms of milk ejection:
 Myoepithelial cells will also contract in response to vasopressin (ADH or antidiuretic
hormone). Vasopressin has about 20% the oxytocic activity of oxytocin
 Visual or auditory stimuli can cause milk ejection. Milk ejection is a condition response
 Stimulation of the genital tract such as vaginal distention causes release of large amounts of
oxytocin.
Lactation: Lactation is the production milk from mammary glands and the period of time that a
mother lactates to feed young is called lactation period.
Species Lactation period

Cattle 305-310 days
Buffalo 305-310 days
Sheep 148-152 days
Goat 150-152 days
Swine 7-12 weeks
Dog 35-45 days
Cat 35-48 days
Sources of milk:
Water: 85-87%
Milk fat: 2.4-5.5%
Protein: 2.3-4.4%
Casein protein: 2.8% (1.7-3.5%)
Carbohydrates (lactose): 4.6%
Minerals: Ca, P, Mg, k, Cl etc.
Organic acids: Lactic acid, citric acid, oxalic acid, formic acid etc.
Enzymes: Lactose, lipase, phosphatase.
Vitamin: A, C, D, riboflavin (B2), Thiamine (B6), B12 etc.
Factors affecting milk withdrawal

Various stressful stimuli that inhibit milk ejection are associated with increased activity of the
sympathetic nervous system. Oxytocin action can be blocked by the hormones catecholamines, which
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are made by the adrenal glands localized above the kidneys. The main catecholamines are dopamine,
norepinephrine and epinephrine (which used to be called adrenalin). These hormones are released in
response to stressful situations and increase the tone of the smooth muscles of the mammary ducts and
blood vessels. This results in the reduction of oxytocin reaching the myoepithelial cells and partial
occlusion of the mammary ducts.
i. Species: Milk yield varies from species to species. Buffalo yield more than the average pure is
indigenous dairy cattle. Sheep and goat are low in comparison to buffalo or pure dairy cattle.
ii. Breeds: Among major factors, breed is one of the most important constituent usually exotic
breeds of animals. Example: Jersey and Holstein Friesian produce more milk than indigenous
breeds of cattle like, Terai, pahadi, siri, khalia, lulu etc.
iii. Individuality of animals: The strains individuality of cow within breeds also are different in
producing total yields larger cow normally secrete more milk. A cow can secrete milk yield daily
upto 8% of their body weight.
iv. Dry periods: The mammary gland of the dairy cow requires a non-lactating (dry) period
prior to an impending parturition to optimize milk production in the subsequent lactation. This
period allows regenerating secretory tissue of mammary gland. A dry period of 60 days is
required.
v. Age and body weight: The amount of milk production increased with the increasing lactation
age. The younger animals usually produces more milk and the amount of milk production in the
animals gradually decrease with their age. This is due to an increase in the body weight which
results larger mammary glands for the milk secretion. Another reason for increased milk
production with age is due to the effect of recurring pregencies and lactation.
vi. Pregnancy: Pregnancy has an inhibitory effect milk yield occurs after the fifth month of
pregnancy. It is believed that increases in estrogen and progesterone level as pregnancy progress
inhibits milk secretion.
vii. Temperature and humidity: there is no effect on milk production in comfort zone. The effect of
ambient temperature on milk is dependent upon breeds. Holstein and other larger breeds
particularly the jersey are much more tolerant to high temperature. The optimum temperature for
Holstein cow is 10oc. The temperature decline when the temperature exceed 27 oc.
viii.Feeding: The speed of synthesis and diffusion of milk constituent is dependents the concentration
of milk.
ix. Stress: More attention has been focused on the role of stress in the secretion of milk. As animals
are selected to secrete higher level of milk, any types of stress will play an increasing important
role of lactation. Example: Heat stress, cold stress and any physical effects.
x. Effects of milker: The amount of milk withdrawn milkers, due to changes of milkers, the slight
variation in milking process, upsets the cow and there by effects milk yield.
xi. Disease: Any of the diseases may reduce the amount of milk secreted. Diseases may affect the
heart rate, and there by the rate of blood circulation through the mammary gland which influences
milk secretion is affected. Example: Mastitis, Ketosis, etc.
xii. Milking frequency: Cattle are usually milked twice daily. Milking a twice daily yields at least
40% milk more than one a day. Increasing milking frequency to 3X (times) a day increases milk.
Yield upto 20% (ranges 5-20%). The increases is usually highest for lactation. But the cow
declines the milk production as it get older.
Involution and regeneration:
The return of an organ to its normal size and condition after enlargement as of the uterus after or of
the mammary gland tissues from advanced lactation and completes during drying off process.
Following the complete cessation of lactation, there is a rapid shrinkage the mammary glands due to
disappearance of alveoli (desquamation). This process is called “involution”. In women regeneration
or involution of mammary glands occurs rapidally after menopause. It is interesting that women have
nearly full maintenance of the lobule alveolar system during non-lactating states, whereas the cow has
intermediate maintenance and in the case of rat, minimal maintenance of the lobule alveolar system
during the dry period.
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Hormones related to Mammary gland development, Lactation, Involution and regeneration

1. Ovary
a. Estrogen
 Maturation of reproductive tract, show female sex behavior, mammary duct growth
b. Progesterone
 Pregnancy maintenance, mammary lobule-alveolar growth.
2. Placenta
a. Estrogen
 Maturation of reproductive tract, female sex behavior show, mammary duct growth
b. Placental lactogen
 Mammary growth
3. Anterior Pituitary
a. Prolactin
 Mammary growth, initiation and maintain of lactation
b. Growth Hormone
 Body growth and milk production
c. Thyroid Stimulating Hormone (TSH)
 Stimulate Thyroid Gland, milk synthesis and metabolic function, maintaince of
lactation
d. Adrenocorticotropic hormone(ACTH)
 Stimulate adrenal gland, maintenance of lactation
4. Posterior Pituitary
a. Oxytocin
 Milk letdown
b. Antidiuretic hormone
 Water balance
5. Hypothalamus
a. Prolactin inhibiting factor
 Inhibit prolactin release
6. Thyroid
a. Thyroxine
 Oxygen consumption, protein synthesis, milk yield
b. Thyrocalcitonin
 Calcium and phosphorous metabolism
7. Adrenal cortex
a. Glucocorticoids
 Glucose, fat and protein metabolism
b. Mineralocorticoids
 Mineral metabolism
8. Adrenal medulla
a. Epinephrine
 Cause Stress and stop milk letdown
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Figure: Hormones related to Mammary gland development, Lactation, Involution and regeneration
Hormonal control of mammary development

It is generally, the hormones that stimulate udder growth and the same hormones that regulate
reproduction. This emphasized by the fact that most of the mammary growth occurs only during
certain significant events of the reproduction. i.e. during puberty, pregnancy and for a short time
following calving.
Ovary:
The hormones of the ovary stimulate udder development during puberty and pregnancy. The specific
ovarian hormones involved in the udder growth response are estrogen and progesterone. Estrogen
stimulates mammary duct growth where as a combination of estrogen and progesterone is needed to
achieve lobule development.
Anterior pituitary:
Hormones from anterior pituitary also needed for the mammary growth and development. Estrogen
mammary growth hormone and prolactin are required. Under normal condition, the major hormones
involved in the development of the mammary glands are: Prolactin, Estrogen and Progesterone.
Adrenal and thyroid:
Hormones from adrenal and thyroid glands affect mammary development but only indirectly. (It is
related to metabolic function and not of primary importance including mammary growth)
Placenta:
Contributes several hormones including estrogen and progesterone and play a significant role in
mammary development.
Hormonal control of lactation:

Initiation of lactation
Series of cellular changes whereby mammary epithelial cells are converted from a non-secretary state
to a secretary state. During pregnancy progesterone block the secretion of alfa-lactalbumin a milk
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protein or enzyme needed for the synthesis of lactose. This block is sufficient to inhibit milk synthesis
during the entire gestation period of the heifer. At parturition, progesterone and estrogen levels fall,
and prolactin and ACTH (adrenocorticotropic hormone) levels increased resulting in initiation of
lactation.
Maintenance of lactation
After parturition, there is a rapid increase in milk yield in cows which reaches a maximum in 2 to 6
weeks. Then it gradually many factors influence the level at which lactation is maintained. The
milking/suckling stimulus and intra mammary pressure are two important factors among them.
Milking stimulus causes release of hormones required for lactation. The removal of accumulated milk
from the udder is also critical, since sustained periods of high intra mammary press can cause
inhibition of milk secretion and involution of mammary gland. If milking is stopped milk synthesis
stops, and the secretory cells of the udder are rapidly lost. Milking causes the release of prolactin from
the anterior pituitary into the blood which is required for maintenance of lactation. In addition to
prolactin, milking causes a discharge of TSH from anterior pituitary and oxytocin from the posterior
pituitary all of which helps to maintain the lactation.
Sources of milk constituents/Biosynthesis of Milk

All the components of milk are derived from the blood either in same or different chemical
compositionas blood precursors. In general, the major components i.e. protein, fat, lactose are formed
within the epithelial cells through the blood precursors & the minor components such as vitamins,
salts, immunoglobulins are synthesized by the selective absorption or by passing of materials without
changing any of their chemical form across the epithelial cells in to the lumen along with water.
During active secretion, the mammary gland utilizes some energy source i.e. glucose acetate for tissue
metabolism.
14
Milk constituents and their blood precursors
Milk Constituents Blood precursors

1.Water 1.Water
2. Minerals 2. Minerals
3. Vitamins 3. Vitamins
4. Fat 4. Fat
a. Long chain fatty acid a. Long chain fatty acid
b. Short chain fatty acid b. Acetate and beta hydroxy butyrate (BHBA)
5. γ Globulin 5. γ Globulin
γ Casein γ Casein
6.Immune globulin 6.Immune globulin
7.Carbohydrate 7. Glucose
8.Protein 8.
α casein Free amino acid
β casein Free amino acid
κ casein Free amino acid
α lactalbumin Free amino acid
β lacto globulin
Milk serum albumin Milk serum albumin
Biosynthesis of carbohydrate
The principle carbohydrate in milk is lactose. Lactose is the disaccharide, which is combination of one
molecule of glactose and one molecule of glucose. It is primarily synthesized from blood glucose.
Glucose is the only precursor of lactose. Two molecules of glucose must enter the secretary cell for
each molecule of lactose formed. One of the glucose units converted to form glactose. An enzyme,
lactose synthetage, catalyses the condednsation of the second glucose molecule with glactose. This
enzyme is composed of two sub units one of these sub units is α lactalbumin, a major protein
component of milk.
Biosynthesis of protein
The milk proteins contain more essential amino acids than any natural food. The primary proteins in
milk are casein (β, κ, α), α-lactoalbumin and β-lactoglobulin. Milk proteins are synthesized from free
amino acids most of which are derived through the blood supply. A second group of milk proteins,
which includes the immune globulins, blood serum albumin, and the γ casein complex, appears to be
composed of blood proteins that enter the mammary cell and appear unchanged in milk. Synthesis of
these proteins from amino acids within the mammary cell is not required.
Biosynthesis of fat
Biosynthesis of fat requires fatty acids and glycerol. There are two sources of fatty acids:
1. Blood lipids (Dietary lipids & adipose tissue, Body fat utilization)
It is derived through the blood supply for the synthesis of long chain fatty acids. It covers 50% of
milk fatty acids.
2. De novo synthesis (within the MG)
Most of the short and medium chain fatty acids are synthesized by de novo synthesis it comprise
the 50% of milk fat not derived directly from the fatty acids of the ration are synthesized in
cytoplasm of mammary secretary cell from β-hydroxybutyrate and acetate.
Biosynthesis of Vitamins
The alveolar cells do not possesse the ability to synthesize vitamins. Therefore the vitamins present in
milk are transferred from blood generally in proportion to their presence in the blood. Thus,
increasing the vitamin content in the rations can increase the vitamin content of milk.Increasing the
carotene or vitamin A content of the diet, as occurs during grazing can cause a 10fold increase in
vitamin A content of milk. Similarly, exposing cows to sunlight can increase the vitamin d content of
15
milk. Since rumen microflora synthesize all the B-vitamins, their concentration in the diet does not
change that in milk. The only exception to this is riboflavin. By changing from a straw and
concentrate diet to predominantly green, forage feeding regime the riboflavin content of milk
increases.
Water and minerals in milk

The mammary secretary cell cannot synthesize minerals and water. Therefore, all the minerals in milk
are supplied from the blood. The principal mineral contents of milk are calcium, phosphorus,
potassium, chloride, sodium, and magnesium.
Synthetic hormones related to milking process

Once animal reach puberty release, a single egg each month. This is called ovulation.
Hypothalamus (single): pituitary gland (L.H and F.S.H)
Release gonadotropic
Egg migration down to fallopian tube
Progesterone is released by CL (corpus leutem)
Progesterone promotes pregnancy
CL break (if pregnancy)
High level of estrogen/progesterone
Prevents further egg maturation
Hormones response udder for lactation.
Figure: Level of hormone during lactation
16
1) Oxytocin:
 Concentration peak at birth because oxytocin stimulates uterine contraction.
 Oxytocin promotes milk ejection in response to receptors stimulates by suckling.
2) Prolactin:
 Stimulates production of milk available during suckling.
3) Estrogen:
 It stimulates the hypothalamus to provide signal to pituitary gland that finally signal the
mammary gland for milk production.
4) Progesterone:
 It stimulates the alveolar lobule growth and cell in the mammary gland.
i. Estrogen and progesterone:
It prepares the udder to make milk. The hormones are released by the placenta during
pregnancy. They have to major roles. They increase the size and number of milk ducts in the
udder. They make also keep the body making larger and well developed udder until the birth
of calves. Once the calves is delivered and the placenta is delivered these hormones decrease.
This signals the body that it is time for milk secretion.
ii. Prolactin:
It helps to make milk in the mammary glands, after birth, prolactin level increases. Every time
milk suckling is done prolactin is released with each release, body makes and store more milk
in the alveoli of the lobules. If the levels of this hormones get too low, milk supply will
decrease. This is why it is important to milk after delivery and regular time’s frames.
iii. Oxytocin:
It releases milk from the udder when the calves begin to suckle and draw from teats. This
hormones is released this release causes milk to be squeezed out of the alveoli into the ducts
and out of teats/udder into month. This process is called “milk let down and milk ejection”.
Oxytocin Prolactin
Produce in secreted by: Hypothalamus Anterior pituitary gland
Secreted by: Posterior pituitary gland Anterior pituitary gland
Target tissue: Mammary gland Mammary gland
Stimulated by: Suckling Suckling
Effected Concentration of gland cells to Promotes milk production cell in
release milk into teats. mammary gland.
Inhibit by: ---------------- Estrogen and progesterone
(during pregnancy).
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Sources of milk constituents:

1. Water: water forms about 85-87% by the weight of milk. It is filtered from blood, milk and
blood is isotonic. This means that there is no osmotic pressure developed or either side of the
semi-permeable membranes of the milk secreting cells.
2. Protein: (2.8%) (1.7-3.5%): Milk protein is made up of a number of specific protein with
casein being the most important constituent. Casein, lacto-albumin and lacto-globulin are not
present in the blood, they are synthesized from blood precursors (amino acids). These three
component form about 90-95% of the total protein.
3. Milk fat (2.4-5.5%): Milk fat comprise 2.5-5.5% of the total fat in cow milk. Milk fats are
synthesized from acetate, beta-hydroxy-butrate, glucose and free fatty acids. Most of the
lipids in milk are in the form of tri-acyglyceride. There are two types of fatty acids. Saturated
fatty acids: Butyric acid, capronic acid, caprylic, lumric etc. and unsaturated fatty acids:
oleic acid, linoleic acid etc.
4. Carbohydrates (lactose): The carbohydrates present in the milk form of “lactose” which
consists of one one molecules of sugar and one, one molecules of glucose. It consistituent
4.6% of the total milk content.
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Glucose + ATP Hexokinase glucose 6-p + ADP
Glucose- 6- p Phosphoglucokinue glucose- 1- p
Gluose – 1- p UDP (Uridine diphosphate) UDP – glucose – pyrophosphate

Glucose pyrophosphorylone
UDP – Glucose Galactose u – epimerase UDP Galactose
UDP galacotose +glucose lactose synthesase Lactose + UDP
5. Minerals: Minerals of milk are derived from the blood and reach the milk through simple
filtration. It constituents 0.65% of milk with ca, mg, p, cl. Carbonate etc.
6. Vitamins: All sorts of vitamins enters through alveolar cell membranes through filtration.
Milk consists of vitamins like A, D, E, Thiamine, Riboflavin, cynocobalmine etc.
7. Organic acids: Milk consists of organic acids like lactic acid, formic acid, oxalic acid etc.
8. Enzymes and gases: enzymes like peroxide, catalase, lipase, amylase phosphatase are
present in the milk. Milk also consists of gases like carbon dioxide, nitrogen, and oxygen etc.
Metabolic disorders affecting lactation in Bovine, Sheep and goat

Nutritional imbalance, deficiencies or erratic management of feeding programs for dairy
cows/ruminants can create large of health problem. That is known as metabolic disorders.
1. Milk fever/hypocalcaemia.
2. Pregnancy toxemia
3. Ketosis/Acetonemia
4. Hypokalemia
5. Hypomagnesaemia tetany
6. Fatty cow syndrome
7. Downer’s cow syndrome.
1) Milk fever/hypocalcaemia (sitangae jaro):
It is a metabolic disease caused by a low blood calcium level. It occurs within one day of
calving because milk and colostrum production drains calcium from the blood. Higher milk
producers are usually susceptible than local breed. It occurs at any stage from a few weeks
before lambing also the multiple offspring producing are suspected since the fatal
mineralization takes place in the last few weeks of pregnancy.
Etio-pathogenosis:
i. Excessive loss of calcium in the colostrum.
ii. Deficiency of vitamin D: It is converted 1 to 25 (dinydroxy cholecalifera) which is activated
from of vit-D3 which helps in the Ca++ reabsorption in the intestine.
iii. Excessive calcitonin level and para thyroid hormone deficiency causes failure to metabolize
calcium.
Clinical signs:
There are three stages involved:
 Stage-I: Restlessness, tremor, ear twitching, and head bobbling and mild ataxia.
 Stage-II: Sternal recumbency, tacnycardia, weakned heart concentration, cows appear dull,
dry muzzle, cold extremities and lower body temperature. Smooth muscle paralysis can cause
bloat and inability to urinate and defecate.
 Stage-III: Lateral recumbency, uresponsiveness to stimuli, loss of conscious progressing to
coma. If not treated will continue to death.
Treatment:
 Inj. Of calcium: Boroglucomate. E.g. Thiacal 450 ml IV.
 Avail inj. 10-15 ml (IM) per 100 kg body weight.
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2) Ketosis (Acetonemia):
It is an increase of “ketone bodies” like acetone, acetocatate and 3-hydroxy butarate in the blood until
they begin to spill over urine and milk. In dairy animals, ketosis is a metabolic disorder with the milk
production. Glucose level is decrease in blood.
Etio-pathogenosis:
Low in nutrition + formation of lactose in milk.
Decrease glucose level in blood.
Lack of CHO in hepatic cells.
Leads to oxidation of fats and mobilization of non-esterification fatty acids from fatty tissue.
Production of ketone bodies.
Causes in ketosis
Clinical signs in two forms:
1) Digestive forms or wasting forms of ketosis:
 Decrease in appetite.
 Milk production falls.
 Dull and depressed
 Odor of ketone bodies in breathe and in milk.
 Temperature remains normal.
2) Nervous forms of ketosis:
 Circuling movements.
 Blindness and unusual wondering
 Profuse salivation
 Hyperaesthesia.
Diagnosis:
i. Blood glucose level: Reduced to below 30 mg/dl (Normal 40-55 mg/dl.)
ii. Ketone bodies in milk: 40 mg/dl (normalllucose level: Reduced to below 30 mg/dl (Normal
40-55 mg/dl.)
iii. Ketone bodies in milk: 40 mg/dl (normally ketone bodies are not present in milk.)
iv. Ketone bodies in urine: 500-1000mg/dl (normally very little or no excretion of ketone bodies
in urine.
Treatment:
i. Glucose and Dextrose: 500-800ml of 40-50% solution IV.
ii. Glycerol @ 100 mg daily for 3 days. Glycerol helps in glucogenosis.
iii. For normal therapy: Betamethasone and Dexamethasone 30 mg IM.
iv. Prednisole 10 ml injection IM.
v. Insulin: 200 ml IV (facilities glucose transport).
3) Fatty cow syndrome:
Fatty cow syndrome is a combination of metabolic digestive, infectious and reproduce conditions
which affects obes (moto) peri-parturient cow. The condition develops primarily due to faulty feed
management which permits excessive consumption of unbalanced diet.
Etio-pathogenosis:
 This disease is occur due to faulty feed management.
 Any decrease in the energy intake caused by shortage of feed may result in increased rate of
mobilization of free fatty acids from the deposits to the liver.
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 There will be increased hepatic lipogenosis with accumulation of lipids in enlarged

hepatocytes.
 The fat that accumulates of lipids in the intra-hepatic space is mainly made of triglycerides.
 Triglycerides mobilizes when there is demand for energy.
 The adipose triglycerides is converted to NEFA and glycerol while there is demand for
energy, the NEFA thus products goes to circulation and bound to albumin.
 The fatty acids undergoes oxidation or re-esterification in the liver and transformed into
hepatic triglycerides the fatty liver condition may develop within 48 hours.
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UNIT-3
CLEAN MILK PRODUCTION
Clean milk production: Clean milk production is generally defined as milk dawn from the udder of
healthy animals, which is collected in clean dry milking pails and free from extraneous water, and
drug residues and contains relatively small numbers of bacteria none of which are pathogenic to
human consumption.
Methods of milking
Milking is an art, requires skill, and experience. The process of milking should be conducted quietly,
quickly, gently, cleanly and completely without any pain, annoyance or inconvenience to the animal.
Characteristic of good milking
1. Milking at regular interval
2. Milking fast within stipulated period.
3. Milking completely.
4. Use of sanitary measures.
Advantages of good milking
1. High milk yield
2. Quality milk production.
3. Less occurrence of mastitis.
4. More profit per cow.
Methods of milking
1. Hand milking
a. Full hand milking
b. Stripping
c. Knuckling (fisting)
d. Full hand milking followed by stripping
2. Machine milking
1. Hand milking: Hand milking can be done using clean, dry hands, hand milking is performed by
massaging and pulling down on the teats of the cow’s udder, squirting the milk into a bucket.
a) Full hand milking
Full hand milking simulates natural sucking of a calf. Cows with large twats and buffaloes are milked
full hand method. It is done by grasping the teat with all the five fingers and pressing it against the
palm does full hand milking.Full hand milking removes milk quicker than stripping because of no loss
of time in changing the position of the hand.
Figure: Full hand milking
b) Stripping
Generally stripping method is adopted in small cows with smaller teats. It is done by firmly holding
the teat between the thumb and fore finger and drawing it down the length of the teat and at the same
time pressing it to cause the milk to flow down in a stream. The last drown milk at the close of
milking called stripping is richer in fat than fore milk.
Disadvantages
 Application of unequal pressure more than necessary on teats.
 More frictional effect on teats by sliding the finger and thumb up and down.
 Loss of richest part of milk due to inefficient milking
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Figure: Stripping method of milking

c) Fisting/Knuckling
 Bend their thumb against the teat
 Knuckling should always be avoided to prevent injuries of the teat tissues.
Figure: Fisting or Knuckling method of milking
d) Full hand milking followed by stripping

1. The recommended method of milking is "full hand milking followed by stripping".
Machine milking:
Approximately 55 % of total labour time in dairy herd operation is involved in milking.
Machinemilking reduced it to an appreciable degree. Nearly 160 cows are milked per hour with
machine and that for hand milking is10 to 12 cows per hour. The milk machine performs two basic
functions.
1. It opens the streak canal through the use of a partial vacuum and allow the milk to flow out of the
teat cistern through a line to a receiving container.
2. It massages the teat, which prevents congestion of blood and lymph in the teat.
Figure: Machine Milking
Advantages of Machine milking

 Milking cows quickly and efficiently
 Without injuring the udder
 No pain
 It is easy to operate
 Saves time
 Very hygienic and energy-conserving
 Milk from the udder can be removed completely.
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Disadvantages of machine milking

 Severe over milking, in combination with high milking vacuum and high compression lines,
can pull out too much keratin from the teat canal and prolong the time required for teats to
reseal after milking. This may contribute to increased mastitis infection in cases where cow
housing hygiene is poor.
 Severe under-milking can reduce lactation and total milk yield in high producing cows.
Machine milking Vs. Hand milking
S.N. Machine milking Machine milking

1 It is a modern technique of milking high milk Conventional art of milking operation in practice.
yielder.
2 It is economical, easy, labour and time saving More labour, skill and efficiency required
3 Milk production is more hygienic with optimum Lack practical hygienic operation.
standard of cleanliness.
4 Milking is more regular. Irregular.
5 It ensures quick efficient and complete milking Comparatively much less.
of cows.
6 Cows are milked with same pressure and same Occurrence of individual variations.
milker.
7 It eliminates likelihood of spread of infection More infections spread on account of manual
from one cow to another to an appreciable milking.
degree.
8 It works with same efficiency both for hard or Practically equal efficient not operative.
slow and soft milkers.
9 It offers production of more and quality milk by Yield and quality milk both affected.
protecting udder from damage and disease.
10 It is the need of modern management for large Not a necessity to natural process of calf sucking.
and organized dairies of high yielding cows.
11 It stimulates natural process of calf suckling its Not so closes to natural process of calf sucking.
mother's milk by combined action of pressure of
its tongue against teats and suckling action of
mouth.
Milking order
The order in which groups of cattle in a milking herd passes through the milking parlor twice each
day for reasons of mastitis control. The order should be heifers first followed by uninfected senior
cows, followed by known infected but clinically normal individuals and then cows with clinical
mastitis last.
Principles of clean milk production

Milk is known to be one of the best foods but it may also become a harmful food if it is not produced
and handled under sanitary conditions. Milk which enters into market must be clean so that it will
have good flavor and be free from harmful bacteria and other disease organisms. Milk produced under
sanitary conditions will have longer keeping quality. It is more important to produce good quality
milk for fluid use than when milk is converted into dairy products.
Purpose
 To produce milk free from dirt.
 To secure milk of low bacterial count.
 To keep milk free of disease organisms.
24
 To prevent bad odor.

 To prevent spread of milk borne diseases.
 To increase shelf-life of milk.
 To make good quality dairy products
Prerequisites of clean milk production
 Milking should be conducted gently, quietly, quickly, cleanly and completely
 Maintenance of clean condition in the milking barn
 The act of milking should be finished within 5 to 7 minutes, so that the udder can be emptied
completely so long as the effect of oxytocin is available
 No dusty feed should be fed during milking
 Just before milking (after suckling by calf, if weaning is not practiced) the udder should be
wiped with a cloth dipped and squeezed in some weak antiseptic solution. In winter the cloth
may be dipped in warm antiseptic solution.
 A part from cleanliness of cows and their udders, the milkers as well as the milking pails
should be clean.
 The first few strips of milk from each teat should be removed
 Most of the milkers moisten their figures with milk, water or even saliva, while milking.The
hands should be perfectly dry while milking.
 When cracks and sores are noticed on teats, some antiseptic ointment or cream should be
smeared over them after milking.
Various method have to be applied for the clean milk production in the dairy farm:
Some of the Prerequisites of clean milk production are as follows:
1. Health herd: The herd should be free from pathogens that might be spread to human being
through the milk like tuberculosis. The animals should periodically be checked in every year
particularly for all type of contagious disease.
2. Clean animals: The milker should clean the flanks and udders of cows just prior to milking
to prevent dirt from getting into the milk.
3. Clean surrounding: The place at which the animal is tied at milking time, if found to be
dusty, sprinkle water.
4. Control flies: Fly control measures are important to dairy men since, they can carry typhoid,
dysentery and other contagious diseases.
5. The milker cleanliness: They themselves should be free from communicable diseases and
must be of clean habits as will be noted from their clean clothes, trimmed nails, do not spit
around or tank while milking.
6. Clean utensils: All types of milking utensils should be as clean and free pathogens as
possible. Best way to achieve this is to rinse the utensils immediately after use. Following
washing with ordinary water the utensils should be washed with warm water containing a
suitable detergent. Soap not be used as it leaves a greasy film.
7. The type of milk plan: Sanitary milking pails with dome-shaped top should be used instead
of open bucket or vessels during milking.
8. Straining: Straining is done to remove sediment and other foreign materials. It should not be
used as a cover for unclean milk. If cloth is used, it should be washed and dried daily
otherwise dirty cloth with spoil the quality of milk further rather than to improve it.
9. Feeding: Feeding of animals should be made an hour before milking. At the time of milking
for the purpose of making cows busy, provide only concentrates which will be less dusty.
10. Cool store milk properly: After milking, milk should preferably be cooled by keeping
milking pails in cold water in winter. In summer, ice cubes may be added to water if cost
permits.
The sources of contamination of milk
1. Internal factors
a. Mastitis udder
b. Fore milk
2. External factors
25
a. Cow (Udder, cows skin and flanks region)

b. Milker
c. Utensils
d. Barn
e. Method of milking
f. Feed and water
1. Internal factors
a. Mastitis udder
 Test fore milk on strip cup.
 Test by Hotis or Colifornian mastitis test if positive discard.

b. Fore milk
 Remove to streams from each teat to reduce bacterial count.
2. External factors
a. Cow body
 Healthy, clean, well groomed an hour before milking, hind quarter washed, tail tied
with legs at milking time.
b. Udder
 Washed, wiped with clean towel soaked in antiseptic solution, kept dry at milking
time.
c. Milker
 Healthy, nails cut, clean hands, head covered with cap, clean habits, hand washed
with chlorine solution of 200 ppm
d. Utensils
Clean and sterilized, stainless steel metal, seamless small open top (dome shape), washed and
sterilized by chlorine solution.
e. Barn
White washed, free from webs, bad odor, floor clean and disinfected, well lighted and
ventilated.
f. Methods of milking
Full hand and dry hand milking.
g. Feed and water
Free from weeds and objectionable smell. No dusty roughage at milking time clean and safe
water.
h. Miscellaneous
Milk produced must be strained through muslin cloth and then it should be stored at low 50 0C
temperature.
Remedies of contamination in market milk:
 The milk tankers should be washed and sanitized before and after transferring the
milk to the milk stock holder.
 The pipes lines and utensils that hold the milk in the market should be well cleaned
and disinfected with useful detergent and chemical like chlorine, dioxide, iodophores,
etc.
 Relevant to all players at every levels of food chain.
 Clean and sanitize every equipment before use.
 Human cleanliness and hygienic surroundings should be maintained.
 Milk quality control system should be use various biochemical tests to investigate the
milk adulteration in the market. For example: organ oleptic test, clot on boiling
(COB) test, Alcohol test, and PH test.
 Government agencies or institutions should provide good system to ensure the every
pays or receives a fair price.
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Measures for clean milk Production at market milk

Clean milk production will be possible at market milk if we follow the clean milk production measure
at farm level, plant level and during storage and transportation.
Measures for clean milk Production at farm level
1. Animal hygiene
 Animal infected should be separated / isolated and milk of such animals should not be mixed
with bulk supply.
 Cleanliness of body and udder before and after milking
2. Milkers’ hygiene
 Milkers should be free from infectious diseases
 Hands should be washed with soap and water before milking
 Nails & hair not allowed to over grow.
3. Hygiene during milking process
 Milk pails and utensils cleaned with detergents and sanitizers & properly rinsed with water
 Complete milking. No milk should be left inside udder.
 Elimination of fore milk is desirable since it avoids possible contamination already present in
teat canal.
 Milking by full hand method & not by knuckling/ fisting.
4. Environmental hygiene
 Place of milking and animal houses should be clean.
 Proper ventilation with the provision of full sunlight (Avoid direct air current)
 Dry and tick free bedding
 Control of insects with judicial use of chemical sprays.
 Cleaning of walls, standings & gutters.
 Straining and cooling of milk.
Measures for CMP at plant level

1. Location
Free form dirt, dust, smoke with an ample water and power supply
2. Building
Easily cleanable, well ventilated, well lighted with self-closing-double action doors
3. Services and utilities
a. Water - adequate supply of hot and cold water, soft and free from bacteria and chemical
effluents and other contaminants
b. Steam - adequate supply for cleaning, disinfection, processing and other operations.
c. Refrigeration - Sufficient cooling capacity, for processing and strorage.
d. Cleaning and disinfection facilities Requiredfor equipments, utensils, hand washing with soap
and detergent provision.
e. Equipment for heat processing be provided with accurate instrumentations, controls and
alarms.
f. Facilities for cooling milk on receipt and after heat treatment to 4 0C and for maintaining at
that temp.
4. Material handling
a. Milk obtained from healthy animals of good bacteriological quality free from antibiotics and
chemical residues, extraneous matter, objectionable taints.
b. Inedible material stored separately.
c. Pesticides and insecticides kept under lock &Key
5. Cleaning and disinfection of Plant and equipments
a. All milk contact surface should be sufficiently cleaned daily
b. Any equipment not used within 6 hrs of disinfection should be re-disinfected before use
6. Quality control
a. Constant chemical and microbiological examination of raw materials, intermediate and final
products should be conducted.
27
7. Packaging
a. Packaging material should be non-toxic & non-reactive and should preserve the quality of the
product effectively
b. Packaging is carried out under aseptic conditions.
8. Personal hygiene at plant
a. Persons engaged in plant should be healthy free from infections, cuts and sores.
b. Employees should be trained in maintaining high degree of personal cleanliness.
c. Smoking, eating and spitting in the processing area should be prohibited.
d. Conduct a health checkup at periodical intervals
e. Clean protective clothing (head cover, hand gloves and foot wear) should be used.
f. Visitors should not be taken to milk processing area but allowed to view the operations
through windows and balconies.
g. Cats, dogs and other pet animals should be excluded from the premesis.
Measures for CMP during storage and transportation

a. Product should be stored at appropriate temp. And in a clean environment.
b. Transport in clean vehicles designed for dairy products. Internal surface of vehicle should be
smooth and easy to clean
c. Short life products should be transported in refrigerated or insulated vehicles.
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Unit-4 Milk
Definition
Milk is defined as the whole, fresh, clean, lacteal secretion obtained by the complete milking healthy
milch animals, excluding that obtained within 15 days before or 5 days after calving or such periods is
necessary to render the milk practically colostrums-free, and containing the minimum prescribed
percentage of milk fat and milk solid not fat.
Chemically, milk is defined as an emulsion of fat, sugar and mineral salts in watery solution, and
proteins in a colloidal state.
Or, Milk is an white opaque fluid (some case ting yellowish in some breed) secreted from the
mammary gland of mammals obtained by the process of milking during the period of 72 hours
after calving or until milk is free from colostrum.
Colostrums
The milk produced by an animal immediately after parturition from 3 to 10 milking following is
known as colostrums. It is characterized by lower water, sugar and fat percent and higher casein,
albumin, globulin and ash contents. It differs from normal milk in appearance, composition,
properties and special properties to coagulate on heating. It clots on heating due to higher percentage
of acidity. Its taste is salty because of higher percentage of chloride and lower percentage of sugar.
Composition of Milk
Figure: Diagrammatic representation of milk constituent
29
COMPOSITION OF MILK IN DETAIL

1. Water
Water constitutes the medium in which other milk constituents are either dissolved or suspended
e.g.lactose, soluble proteins, minerals, vitamins etc. in solution form, non-soluble protein in
colloidal form and fat in emulsion form
2. Fat or lipid
If milk is left to stand, a layer of cream forms on the surface. The fat is present as an oil-in-water
emulsion: this emulsion can be broken by mechanical action such as shaking or centrifugation.
Milk fat contain 98-99% triglycerides. Other containsPhospholipids (Lecethin, cephalin,
sphingomyolin) and sterol. It is the major source of energy in milk.
3. Protein
Milk contains casein and whey protein. Caseins constitute about 80% of total protein. It is easily
separated from milk, either by acid precipitation or by adding rennin. Whey protein comprises
about 20% of total protein. It is separated into globulin and albumin fractions i.e. 50% ß-
lactoglobulin (Carrier of Vit. A), 20% α-lactalbumin (Synthesis of lactose), blood serum albumin,
immunoglobulins, lactoferrin, transferrin (Fe absorption). Denaturation of β-lactoglobulin causes
the cooked flavour of heated milk. When milk is heated to more than 75°C, protein denaturation
gives cooked flavour.
4. Lactose
It exists only in milk in true solution form in milk serum. The average lactose content of milk
varies between 4.7 to 4.9%. Lactose is a source of energy for the young calf, and provides 4
calories/g of lactose metabolised. Lactose intolerance is the inability of adults and children to
digest lactose, a sugar found in milk. Diarrhea, vomiting, Allergies, stomach pain, abdominal
bloating etc. are the common symptoms of lactose intolerance.
5. Milk enzyme:
Milk enzymes come from several sources; the native milk, oil borne bacterial
contamination, bacteria that are added intentionally for fermentation, or in somatic
cells present in milk. There are large number of enzymes in milk and the functions of
many not well-defined.
Lipase: Lipase are enzymes that degrade fats. The major lipase in milk in lipoprotein lipase.
Protease: Protease are enzymes that degrade protein. The major protease in milk in plasmin.
Lacto-peroxidase: lacto-peroxidase is one of the most heat stable enzymes found in milk. Lacto-
peroxidase, when combined with hydrogen peroxide and thiocyanate, has antibacterial properties. It is
suggested that the presence of lacto peroxidase in raw milk inhibits the disease causing
microorganisms present in milk.
30
6. Pigments
Cow’s milk is yellowish white & that of buffalo, sheep, goat and other species is white. Yellow
color of the milk is due to a pigment known as carotene which is synthesized from the green feed
fed to the cow. Conversion of carotenes into Vit. A chiefly occurs in liver. In case of buffalo this
change is complete and thus buffalo milk is white. In case of cows this conversion of carotene
into Vit-A is partial so cow’s milk is yellow in color.
7. Gases
Some dissolved gases present in fresh milk CO2, N2, and O2. N2 and O2 come from atmosphere and
C02 from udder. Some bacteria also produce gases in milk.
8. Non protein nitrogenous compounds
It includes Urea, Uric acids, amine, Creatin, Xanthane, adenine etc.
9. Vitamins
Milk contains fat soluble vitamins (Vitamins A, D, and E) and water soluble vitamins (Vitamins
C, B1, B2, B6, B12, pantothenic acid, niacin, biotin, and folic acid)
10. Mineral
Milk contains mineral like Chloride, Calcium, Magnesium, phosphorous, Potassium etc.
Nutritive value of milk

Milk is the most unique and ideal food for human being. It meets the nutritional needs requirements of
the body betters than any other single food. From nutritional point of view milk is defined as “the
most nearly perfect food” because milk is not a completely perfect food due to some limitations.
 Deficient in Fe and Cu.
 Limited number of people exhibit allergy symptoms from ingesting milk to indicate that it is
not beneficial in all respects for everyone.
 Inadequate in the amount of vitamin C and nicotinic.
 Milk secreted by cow is poor source of vitamin D
 Lactose intolerance e.g. Inability of individual to digested large amount of lactose.
Milk contains the following nutrients:

 Proteins
 Minerals
 Carbohydrate
 Vitamins
 Fat
31
PROTEINS
 The primary purpose of proteins is the formation of new tissue and repairs of broken down
tissues.
 Milk proteins have high nutritive value due to favorable balanced of essential amino acids.
Essential amino acids are arginine, valine, hististidine, isoleuein, leucine, lysine, threonine,
tryptophane, methionoine, phenyl alanine.
 Milk proteins are only deficient in sulphur (S) containing amine acids e.g. Cystine,
methionine etc.
CARBOHYDRATES
 It provides heat and energy
 It imparts important organoleptic characteristics (e.g. Colour, flavour and texture) to many
foods.
 Lactose which is the source of galactose needed for the repair of brain, mucous membrane of
delicate tissue of glucose which is the main sugar of blood necessary for brain functioning
and tissue metabolism.
 It is an excellent food for babies functioning much better than the other kind of sugar.
FAT
 It provides heat (9.3cal\gm. of fat) and energy to the body.
 It serves as a carrier of fat soluble vit. e. g. A, D, E and K.
 It contributes to the flavor, smoothness and palatability of the dairy products which is more
essential for the consumer acceptance.
 Milk fat is highly digestible so it is rank as an excellent food.
 Unsaturated essential F.A. e. g. linoleic and linolenic have been found to be essential for
proper nutrition which cannot be synthesized in our body and must be provided in the diet.
Milk fat contains about 2%of these essential F.A.
MINERALS
 Milk is a good source of calcium and phosphorus which are so important for the formation of
bone and teeth. The ratio of calcium and phosphorus is 1:3 which is ideal for proper
utilization in the body.
 Milk is a pour source of Fe and Cu which is necessary for formation of hemoglobin.
 It is a good source of Mg which is important for muscle activity and Na and Cl acts as
regulator to neutralize the osmotic pressure and K which adds in muscular action.
 A small amount of Zn present in milk (e.g. colostrum) is necessary for normal growth of
bones, hairs and muscles.
 Milk has small amount of iodine(I) which is necessary for production of hydroxin which
regulates the rate of metabolism in the body (Fe, Cu)
VITAMINS
 Milk contains the following vitamins e. g. A, B 1, B2, C, D, E, Niacin, Pantothenic acid,
pyridoxin and biotin.
Physico-chemical properties of milk

Physico-chemical properties of milk in brief:
 Color: White or yellow, Sometimes yellowish green
 Flavor: Depends up on quality of milk, species, feed and fodder
 Acidity: Fresh milk is in between 0.1-0.17%
 pH: Ranges from 6.6-6.8 at 250C
 Specific gravity: The Sp. gravity of milk ranges from 1.025 to 1.032 at 600F or 15.50C.
 Boiling point: Average milk boils at 212.30F (100.170C).
 Freezing point: Milk freezes at -0.550C to -0.560C (31.0 to 30.960F)
 Specific heat: Specific heat of milk is 0.938
 Viscosity: Milk has a surface tension of 1.5-2 Centipoises
 Refractive Index: It ranges from 1.3440-1.3485
 Surface tension: Surface tension of milk is of the order of 50 dynes cm-1 at 200C
 Electrical conductivity: Electrical conductivity of milk ranges from 0.0040-0.0055 Ohms
32
Physico-chemical properties of milk in detail:

1. Color
Cow’s milk is yellowish white & that of buffalo, sheep, goat and other species is white. Yellow
color of the milk is due to a pigment known as carotene which is synthesized from the green feed
fed to the cow. Conversion of carotenes into Vit. A chiefly occurs in liver. In case of buffalo this
change is complete and thus buffalo milk is white. In case of cows this conversion of carotene
into Vit-A is partial so cow’s milk is yellow in color.
2. Taste
Milk is slightly sweet in taste. This is due to the presence of lactose (Milk Sugar) in it. Salty taste
is due to chloride content. The Sweet taste of lactose is balanced against the salty taste of chloride
in Milk.
3. Smell
Milk has got a characteristic odor of its own, when it is drawn from the udder. Milk has got the
capacity to acquire odor from the surrounding and also from the feed etc. but these odours are
abnormal.
4. Physical state
Water is in continuous phase in which others constituents are either dissolved or suspended e.g.
Lactose in soluble form, protein in colloidal form, fat in emulsion form.
5. Acid base equilibrium

Milk contains a large number of substances which act either as weak acids or as weak bases. As a
result the pH of milk is very stable. It takes quite a large dose of acid or a base to produce any
appreciable change in the ph. A solution with this characteristic is called buffer solution. This
buffering effect is a result of the electrical properties of substances such as proteins, phosphates,
CO2, HCO3 and citrates.
6. Acidity
Average pH of fresh milk is 6.6-6.8 at 250C. On titrating it with an alkali, it is found to contain 0.1
to 0.17% acidity. This acidity is not due to lactic acid (Developed) but due to phosphates of milk
proteins Citrates and carbon dioxide present in milk (Apparent or Natural).
7. pH
The pH of milk @ 25 0C is 6.6(6.5-6.7). The pH of milk exhibits great temp. Dependence,
therefore, pH measurements should be made under controlled temp. Conditions. PH decreases by
about 0.01 units / 0C in milk between 10 & 30 0C. The pH is lower (6.0) in colostrums & higher
(7.5) in mastitis milk.
8. Specific gravity of milk
The Sp. gravity of milk ranges from 1.025 to1.032 at 600F or 15.50C.
 Cow milk- 1.028-1.030
 Buffalo milk- 1.030-1.032
 Skimmed milk - 1.036
The rise in sp. gr. is regular, more rapid at low temperature than at higher ones and amounts on an
average to 0.001. This is called “Recknagels phenomenon”.Water reaches its maximum sp.
gravity at 390F or 3.90C, while milk does not attain its maximum Sp. gravity until a temperature of
31.010F or –0.550C, the freezing point of milk, is reached. As the milk fat is the lightest
constituent of milk, the more that is present the lower the sp. gravity and the greater the
percentage of SNF the heavier the milk will be.
9. Boiling point
Water boils at 2120F (1000C) at sea level, while average milk boils at 212.3 0F (100.170C). Milk
boils at a temperature slightly higher than water. Milk is slightly heavier than water because of its
solute content. It is determined by thermometer.
10. Freezing point
Milk freezes at -0.550C to -0.560C (31.0 to 30.960F). Skim, whole milk or cream have same FP.
Milk freezes slightly lower than water due to soluble constituents, lactose, salts etc. Addition of
1% water increase freezing point by 0.00560C. It is measure by Cryscope.
33
11. Specific heat

Specific heat of milk and milk product is of greater value in various processing require either cold
or heat. It varies at different temperature and different fat percent. Specific heat fat 0.5, lactose
0.3, protein 0.5, Ash 0.7, water 1.0, skim milk 0.94, whey 0.98, butter 0.53 and cream 1.05 at
15.50C. Specific heat of milk is 0.938. It is highest at 15.50C and decreased with increase in fat
content in milk.
12. Viscosity
It is defined as its resistance to flow of liquid due to the internal frictional force between
molecules. Milk has 1.5-2 Centipose. Low temperature increase viscosity and vice versa.
Representative values of viscosity at 200C.
 Whole milk – 2.0 c.p
 Skim milk – 1.5 c.p
 Whey – 1.2 c. p
13. Surface tension

Surface tension of milk is of the order of 50 dynes cm -1 at 200C compared to water 72.75 dynes
cm-1 at 200C. The principal surface active components of milk are Proteins, Milk fat,
Phospholipids, FFA etc.
14. Refracting index
It is the ratio of the speed of light in a vacuum to its speed in that substance. It is used as a means
of determining total solids or added H2O in milk.
 Cow milk = 1.3440-1.3485
 Buffalo = 1.3440-1.3485
 Goat, ewe, human= higher than above
15. Electrical conductivity

EC of milk has been considered as a possible index of mastitis infection, added water, added
neutralizers and as a means of controlling solids concentration and composition in dairy
processing. Milk is good conductor of electricity due to the presence of salt in ionic form
electrical conductivity of milk ranging from 0.0040-0.0055 Ohms.
Factors affecting the composition of milk

Factors affecting milk composition are:
a) Genetic factors:
1. Breed
 Jersey produces larger size fat globules than Holstein Friesian
 Jersey breed milk has more volatile fatty acids than others.
2. Variability among cows within a breeds:
Production traits are partially determined by genetic factors. Therefore, these vary from cow to
cow due to differences in genetic makeup of different cows. Selection can be practiced to
improved yield traits by selecting can be practiced to improve yield traits by selecting superior
bulls and cows for breeding.
b) Non-genetic factors:
1. Milk composition in different species
 Buffalo milk contains higher % of protein, fat, lactose and ash.
2. Genetic differences
 Heritability's of fat, protein, and lactose content 0.58, 0.49, and 0.5, respectively, while
that of milk yield average 0.27
3. Individuality
 Among the Jersey Cow, the milk composition may vary due to environmental and
physiological factor.
4. Pregnancy
 Pregnancy has an inhibitory effect on milk yield.
34
 Reduction in milk yield occurs after the fifth month of pregnancy. By the 8th month of
pregnancy, milk yield sharply decline.
 Increase in estrogen and Progesterone level as pregnancy progresses, inhibits milk
secretion. Progesterone inhibits the activity of α-lactalbumin
5. Age
 30% in milk production increase from the first to the fifth lactation. After 6th lactation
milk production decline
6. Milking interval
 Normal milking interval is 12 hours
 Single milking of 24 hours loss milk production potential.
 Each hour milking interval exceeds from normal milking hour, fat% reduced 0.1-0.15%.
 Each hour milking interval below the normal milking hour fat% increase by 0.2-0.25%
7. Milking frequency
 Milking twice a day yields at least 40% more milk than once a day.
 Increasing milking frequency to 3 x day increases milk yield by up to 20% (range 5-
20%).
 Milking thrice a day for entire lactation than twice a day increase milk fat% 10-20%
 Shorter the milking interval higher fat content
8. Changes in milk composition during milking
 First drawn milk may contain only 1-2% fat,
 At the stripping or end of milking, fat % may be 5-10%.
 It is due to the tendency of the fat globules to cluster and be trapped in the alveoli
9. Dry period
 Milk yield is usually reduced when the dry period is less than 40-60 days (25-40% less
milk).
 Dry period longer than 60 days in length does not result in a significant increase in milk
production
10. Seasonal variation
 Milk fat and protein percentages are lower by 0.2-0.4% in summer than winter because of
availability of good quality pasture and no heat stress in winter
11. Ambient temperature
 Milk fat and SNF increase with decreased temperature
 Holstein tolerate low temperature and Small breed tolerate hot temperature
12. Effect of nutrition on milk composition
 Increase in feed intake and frequency causes increase in fat and protein %.
 Underfeeding decreases fat and protein
13. Effects of hormone
 Growth hormone causes redistribution of nutrient within the cow’s body to favor nutrient
utilization towards milk production.
 Prolactin causes maintance of lactation
 Tyroxin is an Iodin containg hormone, increase milk fat, TS and Milk yield.
 Oxytocin causes milk letdown and increase milk yield
14. Diseases
Under infection of udder (Mastitis), concentrations of fat, solids-not-fat, lactose, casein, b-lacto-
golbulin and a-lactalbumin are lowered and concentrations of blood serum albumin, Immuno
globulins, sodium, and chloride are increased.
15. Feed and water supply
 Insufficient supply of water for few hours will result in a rapid drop in milk yield.
 Incorporation of fat or oil in dairy cow ration can substantially alter profile of milk fatty
acids.
35
Flavors and off-flavors in milk

Flavor is of primary importance in food. A food may be wholesome, nutritious, attractively packaged,
and reasonably priced, but if its flavor is poor the consumer will reject it. Thus, the effort on the farm
and in the milk processing plant is to produce products with good flavor. Flavor of the milk and milk
products may be divided into two groups:
1. Natural flavors that is desirable
2. Off flavors or those that are not typical of the products and that usually but not always are
undesirable flavors.
Flavor of milk
Milk should be normal with pleasant flavor. Milk has got a characteristic odour of its own, when it is
drawn from the udder. Milk has got the capacity to acquire odour from the surrounding and also from
the feed etc. but these odours are abnormal. Flavor defects may arise due to faulty methods of
production, processing and storage. The common flavor defects in milk, their causes and prevention
are as follows.
Flavor defects Causes Prevention

Bitter taste or Bitter 1. Intake of bitter weeds by milch animals 1. It is desirable to prevent cows from
flavor 2. Using late lactation. eating bitter weeds for a period of
three to five hours before milking.
2. Use normal lactation.
Cooked flavor Over-heating of milk. Avoid over heating of milk.

Absorbed/foreign Addition or absorption of foreign smelling Avoid contact of milk with foreign
flavors substances in milk. smelling substances.
High-acid /sour Excessive lactic acid development (Due to Store milk at 50C (400F) or below (to
considerable growth of lactic acid producing check bacterial growth and acid
micro-organism) development).
Malty Growth of streptococcus lactic var malt genes Store milk at 50C below to check
microorganisms in milk. bacterial growth.
Rancid flavor Fat hydrolysis due to lipase action. Inactive lipase by proper
(Hydrolytic pasteurization of milk
rancidity)
Oxidized, oily, Milk fat oxidation catalyzed by copper or certain 1. Tin milk-holding vessels properly;
Metallic, tallow other metals contacting milk (e.g., copper pipe, or use aluminum alloy/stainless steel
white metal, metallic water supply) as milk-contact surfaces.
2. De-aerate/ vacuumizes pasteurized
milk.
Salty Milk of animals suffering from mastitis or far 1. Avoid mastitis or late lactation
advanced in lactation. milk.
Weedy Intake of milk-tainting weeds 1. Eradicate milk-tainting weeds.
2. Vacuum pasteurization of milk.
Flat 1. No odor, lacks mouth feel, Watery Avoid adding of water

2. Adulteration with water or low milk solids
content. Older milk may be “flat.”
Unit-5
36
MILK QUALITY
Concept of milk quality
The milk secreted into an uninfected cow's udder is sterile. Milk is an excellent medium for bacteria,
yeasts and moulds that are the common contaminants. Contamination occurs during and after milking,
cooling and storage. “Cleanliness” implies freedom from extraneous matter (e.g. manure, dirt & dust
etc.). “Safety” means freedom from pathogenic microorganisms. For human consumption, milk that
is both clean and safe is highly desirable
Quality milk is defined as the milk that has low bacterial counts or load, low content of foreign
materials (dust, debris, and hairs, straw) and desirable flavors with pleasant odor or smell.
Characteristics of quality milk

High quality milk possesses the following characteristics:
 Longer keeping quality
 Higher nutritive value
 Normal taste, color, odor
 Excellent from health stand point of view
 Free from extraneous matter in it.
Factors affecting milk quality

 Cow health
 Somatic cell counts
 Diet
 Milk handling
1. Cow health
A cow’s health has the biggest impact on the quality of the milk it produces. Just like humans,
cows can catch illnesses such as a cold or flu. They’re also susceptible to irritation or
inflammation of their udders if stall conditions are poor. Exposure to mud, manure and runoff can
expose the herd to more pathogens, increasing incidents of infection.
2. Somatic cell counts
These are the best markers of cow health. High somatic cell counts in milk indicate an increased
presence of white blood cells—a signal that the cow is fighting an illness. Other types of somatic
cells can degrade the fat and protein content in milk. This hurts the quality of the milk and can
lead to deduction in pay.
3. Diet
Just as a cow’s diet impacts the quantity of the milk it produces, it also affects the quality
composition. In times of food scarcity, both will suffer. When feed is plentiful, farmers have more
room to adjust feed to enhance the components of milk. Better composition means a better
paycheck.
4. Milk handling:
Another factor affecting milk quality is how it’s treated once it leaves the cow. Because milk
is a naturally good place for bacteria to thrive, bacteria counts taken during processing can
show whether milk was taken with clean equipment and cooled quickly. The cleaner the
equipment and the faster the milk is cooled, the lower the bacteria count will be.
5. Use of RBST (Ruminant bovine somatotropin):

A toughy subjects in the dairy food industries is the use of synthetic hormones boost milk
production. Specially the use of RBST how been controversial. This man-made hormones,
naturally occurring in cows allow them to produce more milk but it is believed to be linked to an
increased incident of bacterial infection in cows that results in the increased presence of antibiotic
or antibiotic resistant in milk. The milk is tested before it enters the food supply. Milk that tests
positive for antibiotics is always discarded.
UNIT-6
37
FLUID MILK
Concept of fluid milk: Staining, filtration, clarification, toning, standardizing, bactofungation.

Foreign materials such as dust, dirt, feed, feeding, manure, downdraft, hairs, flies and many other
substances may be found in milk because of careless handling of milked the dairy farm. This occur
mainly at the time of milking, staining, filtration, clarification, toning, standardizing, bactofungation
is essential to solve the milk from these materials.
Concepts of different process carried out in dairying
Different processes carried out in dairying are as follows:
 Straining
 Filtration
 Chilling
 Storage
 Transporting
 Classification
 Toning
 Standardizing
Straining
Straining refers to the practice of removing the large particles of foreign material from the milk such
as straw, hair, insects, grass, dirt, flies, etc., so that the visible sediment in milk might be reduced. The
straining in the ordinary sense is accomplished on the dairy farm by means of pieces of cloth, cotton,
wire gauge or specially prepared strainers/strainer pads.
Filtration
Filtration of milk is carried out to remove visible sediment (foreign matter) from the milk to improve
the aesthetic quality of milk. This may be removed either by filtration or centrifugal clarification.
While filtration removes suspended foreign particles by straining process, clarification removes the
same by centrifugal force. There are two types of filters or clarifiers viz., those that operate with cold
milk and those that operate with warm milk. The advantages of filtration are that preheating is not
essential and there is less likelihood of soluble dirt going into the solution. However, the major
disadvantage is the flow of milk is slow.
There are two types of filtration:

1) Cold milk filtration: In this method, filtration is done at the lower temperature. Solubility of
sediments is lowers at low temperature so that most of the sediments can be removed and pre-heating
is not required. But at low temperature milk is more viscous so rate of filtration is slow.
2) Hot milk filtration: In this method, filtration is done at higher temperature of milk. At high
temperature of milk is less viscous so filtration rate is fast. The heat reduces much of the dirt into
solution, passes through the filter. At high temperature solubility is more so few smaller particles get
entranced into the milk after filtration. Therefore, it large quantity milk is handled, then hot milk
filtration is practiced over the cold milk filtration.
Clarification:
Clarifications consists of using or means or removing sediments solid, cells etc. from
fluid milk. In general appearance and construction, clarifiers are quite similar to centrifugal cream
separators. However, the main differences are:
 In clarifier, there is only one outlet, while in separators, there are two.
 The disc in the clarifiers bowl are smaller in diameter than separators.
 The milk distribution holes are at the outer edge of the discs in clarifiers but near the center
in separators.
Clarifiers is the most effectives practical device which is available for improving the quality of milk
by removing foreign materials most of the dirt filth and cell debris present in milk is of higher specific
gravity than the milk it is to be expected that a major proportion of this foreign materials will be
38
thrown out by the clarified and be collected on the walls of the bowls. The efficiency in removing
insoluble dirt is very high.
Bactofugation: The centrifuge that is also removes bacteria with centrifugal force is called
bactofugation. Machine is called bactofuge and having speed more than (4-5 times) than normal
clarifiers i.e. 20000 R.P.M. At this speed the bacterial colonies are also get separated along with
sediments. So if milk is subjected through bactofuge about 99% of bacterial count is reduced. It is a
process of removing 99% of the bacteria in milk by centrifugal force. It is mostly used for lab and
research purpose for quality assurance.
Toning of milk:
Toned milk refers to the milk obtained by the addition of water and skim milk to the whole milk.
Toning is a method (developed in India) of treating buffalo milk by adding skim milk, powdered skim
milk and water to buffalo milk. This process decreases the fat content, increases the quantity of
available milk, and 'tones up' the non-fat solids level to the original amount. Toned milk should
contain a minimum of 3.0 percent fat and 8.5 percent solids-not-fat throughout the country. Whereas,
double toned milk should contain a minimum of 1.5 percent fat and 9.0 percent solids-not-fat.
Advantages of toned milk
 Increases the supply of milk. The buffalo milk initially used is increased by 100-150 percent
 Reduces the price of milk, so as to reach lower-income groups of the population.
Standardizing
Standardizing refers to the process in which fat and/ or solids-not-fat content of milk have been
adjusted to a certain predetermine level. The milk after standardizing is called the standardized milk.
The standardization can be done by partially skimming the fat in the milk with a cream separator, or
by admixture with fresh or reconstituted skim milk in proper proportion. Standardized milk for liquid
consumption should contain a minimum of 4.5 percent fat and 8.5 per cent solid-not-fat.
Advantages of standardized milk
 Ensures a milk of practically uniform and constant composition and nutritive value to the
consumers
 The surplus fat can be converted into butter and ghee
 Possible to supply cheaper milk
 More easily digestible (because of reduced fat content).
Chilling of milk:
Chilling of milk refers to the rapid cooling of raw milk to sufficiently low temperature so that the
growth of micro-organisms present in milk is checked. In chilling process, the temperature of milk
should be reduced to less than 10 0C preferably 3-40C. Milk inside the udder is almost sterile and as
soon as it leaves the udder, it is exposed to atmosphere. The microorganisms gain entry into the milk,
the moment it comes to atmosphere.
Chilling is necessary after receiving milk at collection/chilling center. Chilled milk can easily and
safely be transported without having appreciable deteriorative changes due to microbial growth. Thus,
raw milk is chilled to limit the growth of bacteria, to minimize micro-induced changes, and to
maximize its shelf life. However, chilling of milk involves additional expense which increases the
cost of processing. Importantly, chilling process does not kill microorganisms nor it renders milk safe
for human consumption. It is only a means of checking the growth of microorganisms for a certain
period.
The effect of storage temperature on microbial growth in raw milk is showed below:
Raw milk storage temperature (0c) for a period of 18 hours Bacterial growth factor
0 1
5 1.05
10 1.80
15 10
20 200
25 120000
39
Bacterial growth factor by multiplying with initial count of bacteria gives the final count.
Methods of chilling/cooling:
Cooling is the pre-dominant method of maintaining milk quality during collection. Whatever the
method of cooling, the faster temperature is reduced from 37 oc at milking, the better will be the
resultant milk quality. Various methods of cooling of milk are described below:
1. Can Immersion:
In this method, tank is made with concrete floor or stainless steel material which is
filled with chilled water low temperature or tap water and ice-block mixture. Milk
with can is immersed into tank for chilling purpose. After short duration milk is taken
out for transportation to collection center or further processing.
Advantages:
 It is simple and conventional method of cooling in rural areas.
 As much smaller mechanical refrigeration unit or ice-block from ice factory is required.
Disadvantage:
 It cools the milk is passing through coil-pipe lines for chilling purpose and collected in a
container placed at lower level of tank. It is just like an autoclave having a chamber with
coils or pipelines.
2. Tubular Cooler: In this method, milk is passing through coil pipeline for chilling purpose and
collected in a container placed at lower level of tank. It is just like an autoclave having a chamber
with coils or pipelines. The coils or pipelines are distributed inside the tank having chilled water
at lower temperature. The milk passes through the pipe lines and get chilled which is collected in
lower surface container.
Advantage:
 Cooling is quite efficient.
 Not exposed to air-borne contamination.
Disadvantage:
 Cooling efficiency is lower than plate cooler.
 Large floor space is needed.
3. Surface Cooler method:
In this method, milk is distributed over outer surface of the cooling tubes from the top by means of
distributor pipes or through and flows down in a continuous thin stream. Plates are tubular or
spherical in shaped and placed vertically. The cooling medium mostly chilled water is circulated in
the opposite direction through the space between the plates which is coming from the ice tank
operated with the help of suitable compressor. Then the chilled milk is received below in a receiving
trough from where it is discharged by a pump.
Advantage:
 Transfer milk rapidly and efficiency.
 Also improve the flavor, since it aerates the milk.
Disadvantages:
 It is relatively expensive.
 Required constant attention for rate of flow.
 Cleaning and sanitation not very efficient.
 Greater chances of air-borne contamination.
 Slight evaporation loses.
4. Bulk tank Cooler method:
Properly designed bulk tank coolers with compressor and condenser which is run
by a mechanical refrigeration system. Tank is made up of stainless steel with proper sized and shape
depending upon the quality of milk which cool the milk rapidly to a low temperature (5 oc or below)
and automatically maintain this temperature during the storage of milk and milk products.
Advantages:
 Permits collection of procedures milk on alternate days.
Disadvantages:
 Relatively expensive in initial equipments.
5. Plate heat exchanger:
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6. Rotor freeze
Transportation of milk:
In Nepal, milk has to be regularly collected and transported twice a day (morning and evening). A
made of transportation depends upon the carrying load, the distance of collected and lead conditions
means of transportation in our country are head load, bicycle, rikshaw, bullock-cart, pack animals,
milk van etc. Milk being perishable commodity, it becomes necessary to transport the fresh raw milk
to the consumer or the chilling/processing plant within 4 hours of its production. Thus, transportation
becomes an integral part of milk collection system. An efficient and suitable facility is selected on the
basis of the raw milk collection as well as regional requirements. Roadways, railways, waterways and
air ways are the possible types of transport. Sometimes combination of two or more can also be used
for transporting milk. In selecting suitability of a type of transport, volume of milk, geographical
location of the area, availability of facilities and ultimately the cost of transportation are taken into
account.
Classification
There are three types of milk:
1. Fresh Milk
“Fresh milk” denotes the reasonably recent extraction from the milch animals.Fresh milk is
direct from the animal and It is raw.
2. Pasteurized Milk
The milk is treated at a definite temperature for a definite time period so as to get it free from
the microorganisms without losing any constituent. This treatment is called milk-
pasteurization which results in the destruction of most of the diseases and spoilage causing
microorganisms in milk with heat. Actually, the term ‘milk-pasteurization’ refers to the
process of heating every particle of milk to at least. 145°F and holding it continuously at or
above this temperature for at least 30 minutes, or to at least 161°F or above this temperature
for at least 15 seconds.
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3. Fermented Milk
Fermentation is used to a very large extent with dairy area. Here the purpose is souring and
developing flavour substances. Fermentation is done commonly of the pasteurized milk. The
“souring of sweet milk” was practiced long before the microorganisms had been
discovered.This was done to preserve milk and to provide a new beverage with a distinctive
and desirable flavour. Consumption of fermented milk is widespread due to its therapeutic
value.The most important organisms used in the preparation of fermented milk are species of
Streptococcus, Leuconostoc, and Lactobacillus. The starter culture consists of either pure
strain of a species or combination of species best suited for the production of desired product.
PROCESSING OF MILK:
It can be defined as the proper handling of milk to maintain milk and milk products quality,
prevention of the any source of contamination and supply the clean milk and milk products to the
consumers. Milk is a valuable nutritious food that has a short shelf-life and requires careful handling.
Milk is highly perishable because it is an excellent medium for the growth of microorganisms–
particularly bacterial pathogens–that can cause spoilage and diseases in consumers. Milk processing
allows the preservation of milk for days, weeks or months and helps to reduce food-borne illness.
Objectives of processing
 To provides regular income
 To improves nutrition
 To obtain more profit from selling processed milk products than selling fresh milk
 To generates employment
 To improves quality and safety
Steps of processing of milking:
I) Raw milk collection:
In all the developed and developing countries milk production is confined to rural areas where as
demand is in the urban areas. Hence, milk has to be collected from production points of milk shed
areas to processing and distribution of milk in cities areas. Milk is collectively by 3-method i.e. co-
operative, contractors, and individual basis.
II) Receiving of milk:
After collection of the milk, it is transported to the milk processing industries/plants with the help of
tankers. The tankers outlet must be connected to sanitary piping. The milk may be removed by a milk-
pump situated at a lower level than tanker. In the reception of milk, the milk is graded on the basis of
their color, smell, flavor and tastes. The milk with proper quality is passed through the reception for
further processing like pasteurization, homogenization, emulsification, etc. the milk in the reception is
tested via through COB test (clot on boiling), MBR (methyl blue redact), fat test, PH etc.
III) Cooling of milk:
Milk processed then cooled to a temperature 5oc or below and also held at that temperature to check
the growth of the microorganism present and maintain the keeping quality of the milk. After cooling
the milk is stored and packaged for the distribution to their particular stock-holder or milk broths.
Cooling of the milk can be done by can immersion method, tubular cooler method, surface cooler
method and bulk-tank cooler method. The milk is cooled rapidly to a low temperature 5oc or below
and maintain this temperature during the storage period of milk and milk products. In dairy industries
milk is stored processed, packaged and distribution to the consumers without exposures to the
contamination.
IV) Transportation of milk:
In Nepal, milk has to be regularly collected and transported twice a day (morning and evening). A
made of transportation depends upon the carrying load, the distance of collected and lead conditions
means of transportation in our country are head load, bicycle, rikshaw, bullock-cart, pack animals,
milk van etc. Milk being perishable commodity, it becomes necessary to transport the fresh raw milk
to the consumer or the chilling/processing plant within 4 hours of its production. Thus, transportation
becomes an integral part of milk collection system. An efficient and suitable facility is selected on the
basis of the raw milk collection as well as regional requirements. Roadways, railways, waterways and
air ways are the possible types of transport.
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Methods of milk processing

1. Pasteurization
2. Homogenization
3. Emulsification
4. Sterilization
Pasteurization
Pasteurization can be defined as a process applied to a product with the object of minimizing possible
health hazards arising from pathogenic microorganisms associated with milk by heat treatment, which
is consistent with minimal chemical, physical and sensory changes in the product. In general terms it
is heating milk or its products to such temperature, which destroys nearly all the microorganisms,
present in it without affecting the composition or properties of the product.
Basis of pasteurization:
I) Destruction of pathogen:
It kills mycobacterium tuberculosis which also the most resistant bacteria among
pathogenic bacteria.
II) Cream line reduction:
There is a minimum damage to the cream line because of reduction of cream on the
progressively increase of temperature during pasteurization.
III) Destruction of phosphatase enzyme:
Accuracy of post-pasteurization is checked by negative phosphatase test. This
enzyme is completely destroyed by proper pasteurization.
Importance of Pasteurization
 To render milk safe for human consumption by destroying all the pathogenic microorganisms.
 To improve the keeping quality of milk by killing almost all spoilage organisms (88-99%).
 To improve keeping quality of milk and milk products.
Advantages:
 This process destroys common disease producing bacteria such as tuberculosis, typhoid,
scarlet, fever, diphtheria, brucellosis etc.
 Keeping quality of milk should be improved.
 Inactivates the undesirable enzymes that produce off flavor like phosphate enzyme.
Disadvantages/ Drawbacks of Pasteurization
 It reduce the cream-line or cream volume.

 Pasteurized milk does not clot with rennet enzymes.
 It may be used to make low quality milk.
 Careless pasteurization give false sense of security.
 It may fail to destroy bacterial toxins
Methods of Pasteurization
1. Low-temperature long-time (LTLT)/Batch pasteurization
The milk is heated to a minimum of 62.7°C and held at this temperature for minimum 30 min. in
this method, heating is done indirectly i.e. heat moves through a metal wall into the product
contact surface made up of stainless steel to bottom. It consists of double-jacket vessel around the
side’s bottom. It is then cooled as rapidly as possible to 4°C.
2. High-Temperature Short-Time (HTST) Pasteurization
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It is the modern method of pasteurizing milk and is invariably used where large volumes of milk
are handled. The HTST pasteurizer gives a continuous flow of milk which is heated to 72°C for
15s and then promptly cooled to 5°C or below.
3. Ultra High temperature Milk treatment:
It refers to the milk treatment in which milk is exposed to a brief, intense heat (vapor/ultra-
rays) normally to the temperature ranges from 135-140 oc for a short period of time i.e. two seconds or
less. This treatment kills all the microorganisms that would spoil the products.
Homogenization
Homogenization refers to the process of forcing the milk through homogenizers with the objects of
sub-dividing the fat globules. Homogenized milk is milk which has been treated in such a manner as
to insure breakup of the fat globules to such an extent that after 48 hours quiescent storage no visible
cream separation occurs on the milk; and the fat percentage of the milk in the top 100ml of milk in a
quart bottle, or of proportionate volumes in containers of other sizes, does not differ by more than 10
percent of itself from the fat percentage of the remaining milk as determine after through mixing.
Advantages
 No formation of cream layer/plug.
 Fat in milk does not churn due do rough handling or excessive agitation.
 Better adapted for bulk dispensing; mixing not necessary.
 More palatable due perhaps to brighter appearance, heavier body and richer flavor.
 Produce soft curd and is better digested; hence recommended for infant feeding.
 less susceptible to oxidized flavor development
Disadvantages
 Homogenization offers possibility of incorporation of foreign fat into milk
 Homogenized milk is prone to development of ‘sunlight’ or ‘activated’ flavour defect
 Homogenized milk if returned unsold from the market is difficult to salvage as centrifugal
separation of fat is not possible
Types of homogenization:
I) High pressure type Homogenization:
It consists of a single acting triplex pump with each cylindrical having a suction and discharge valve.
This valve is constricted in such a way that operation of machine may vary the pressure required of
force a fluid through it. As the machine is equipped with two valves “homogenization which makes it
possible to operate the machine at two difference pressure. These machines functions by forcing the
milk fat under pressure through a very small orifice with the result that the fat globules are broken a
part remain dispered in a stable emulsion in the milk serum. High pressure homogenizer are operated
at pressure ranging from 500-5000 PSI (pound per square inch).
II) Low pressure rotatory type homogenizer:
The construction is so designed that they subject milk fat to a grinding and shearing action under low
pressure. The action on each fat globules are as small as those obtained by high pressure machine.
Low pressure homogenizer is operated at below 500 PSI.
III) Sonic Vibrator type homogenizer:
A recent development in the process of homogenization involves the subjection of the milk to high.
Frequency vibration in a device called a sonic vibrator. The machine is not widely used in the dairy
industries at present, but it’s used may increase.
Action of homogenizer:
The size of fat globules in unprocessed milk varies with breed and stage of lactation of the producing
animals and other factors ranging between 0.1 to 10 microns (average 4-6 microns). When
milk is passed through the homogenizer there is reduction in size of the fat globules to 2
microns or less such division greatly increases the number of globules and total globule
surface area; it reduces the average volume of fat per globule. There is increase in the
viscosity of milk or cream that’s why smaller fat globules cannot move upward due to greater
resistance.
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Effects of homogenization:
 It resists the churning effect i.e. butter granules not formed on cream churning.
 It reduces the sizes of fat globules and resurfacing the broken globules.
 Increase the acidity present by hydrolysis of fat with lipase (lipolysis) and produce fatty acids.
 Improve flavor and taste with broken fat globules.
 Increases the viscosity due to large number of fat globules.
 Show negligible change in specific gravity and fat%.
 Emulsion:
It is a mixture of two or more liquids that are normally immiscible (unmixable or unbendable). In
emulsion, one liquid (the disposed phase) is disappeared in the other (the continuous phase). Example:
casein acts as an emulsifier in milk, butter is said to be an emulsion of water in fat, oil (dispersed
phase) and water (continuous phase or dispersion medium) is called -in-water emulsion.
 Emulsification
Emulsification acts as on the fat globule but do not reduce its size, as do the homogenizer. In general
there are two types of machines used for the emulsification of milk and cream. Emulsifier has the
outer appearance of a cream separator in which milk or cream is subjected to the centrifugal force and
releasing it through tight fitting steel discs or through small opening a less reduction in size of that fat
globules results. The machines are used primarily in small fat milk plants where it is desired to
produce “coffee cream” on which fat will not readily rise. It is similar to homogenizer and the
machine used for this purpose is emulsifier/emulser that acts on fat globule but do not reduces its size
as done by homogenizer. Fat globules are equally distributed in container. Protein and viscosity are
not affected as much as done b that acts on fat globule but do not reduces its size as done by
homogenizer. Fat globules are equally distributed in container. Protein and viscosity are not affected
as much as done by homogenizer.
Sterilization:
According to Food Safety and Standards Rules (2011), the term ‘sterilization’ refers to the heating of
milk in sealed container continuously to a temperature of either 115°C for 15 min or at least 130°C for
a period of one second or more in a continuous flow and then packed under aseptic condition in
hermetically sealed containers to ensure preservation at room temperature for a period not less than 15
days from the date of manufacture. Sterilized milk may be define as (homogenized) milk which has
been heated to a temperature of 100 0C or above for such lengths of time that it remains fit for human
consumption for at least 7 days at room temperatures. Usually the milk is sterilized at 108-110 oc. For
25-35 minutes.
Advantages
 Remarkable keeping qualities; does not need refrigerated storage.
 No cream layer /plug.
 Forms a soft digestible curd, and hence useful for feeding of infants and invalids.
 Distinctive ‘rich’ flavor (due to homogenization)
 Economical to use.
 Less liable to develop oxidizes taints.
Disadvantages
 Loss of nutritive value of milk, 50% of the vit-C and 33% of vit-B complex are destroyed.
 Increased cost of production.
 More loss in nutritive value than pasteurization.
 Gerber test by normal procedure not so accurate.
Packaging and distribution of milk:
Packaging:
packaging means placing a commodity into a protective wrapper or container for transport or storage.
Packaging is the technique of using the most appropriate containers and components to protect. It
contributes a vital link between the manufactures and eventual consumers for the storage, transport,
distribution and marketing.
The importance of packaging as a means of promoting exports has been well recognized in recent
times. A package must perform the three fold functions of container protecting and merchandising:
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I) To contain the product: The package/container should be adequately large to hold the products. It
should have proper constitutional features so as not to allow leakage and spoilage. It should have
enough with stand handling, transportation and storage hazards. Finally, it should also be a compatible
as possible with the product.
II) To product the product: The package should safe guard the products againsts contamination or
less damage or degradation due to microbial action, exposure to heat, light, moisture and accidental
spoilage, evaporation, pilferage, etc.
III) To help in selling the products: The shape of package should be favorable to dispensation and
enclosure and to its disposal or re-use.
Packaging materials:
This includes paper and paper based products (coated or lined), glass, tin-plate, aluminum fail, plastic
etc. It is of two types, they are bulk and small packaging.
I) Bulk packaging: It is done in can or any contamination free tank. It is done for distribution free
tank for distribution of milk in hostel, hotel, hospital, etc.
II) Small packaging: It is done in small bottle and ply pack pouches. It is done for the distribution of
milk for home consumption. It is of two types, i.e. multi and single service container.
A) Multi service container: Different types of different sized of bottle are used for multi service
packaging. In this case some bottles can be used for several times for packaging.
B) Single service container: Generally poly pack is used for single service container bag milk is
filled and sealed for distribution.
Distribution of milk:
It is the last step of milk processing or final stage of milk industry. Other are the preparatory to
placing the milk products in the hands of the consumers.
Distribution facilities consists of:
a) The physical equipment and personal required for transporting the products the from the storage
room to the consumers/retailers.
b) Advertising.
 A successful distribution program required:
 A product of high quality
 An attractive package.
 Neat and clean route of sales.
 Delivery equipment of pleasing appearance.
 Efficient use of man and equipment.
 Efficient advertising.
Method of distribution:
a) Door to door delivery: It is applicable foe small production unit because salesman has to have to
visit door to door of consumers. It is time consuming and labor consuming methods. It is done with
faith to get payment monthly.
b) Booth system: It is more suitable for densely populated area like market and cities. In this system
is fixed to different localities from where milk is distributed regularly. It is also applicable in
developing countries if economic condition is sound and affordable.
c) Bulk supply unit: It is applicable for large scale production unit. In this system large quantity of
chilled, contamination free and sealed container milk is distributed to the hostel, hotel, and hospital
and army barracks.
d) Bulk dispersing unit: In this system, a separate big refrigerated room is prepared where chilling
facilities are provided properly. Large quantities of milk (100-1000 liters) is kept under refrigeration
system from where it is distributed consumers through pipelines or consumers have to purchase the
required quantity of milk from supply unit.
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STORAGE OF MILK AND MILK PRODUCTS:

Modern dairy plants hold both raw and pasteurized milk in storage tanks & silos with the
following objectives:
 To maintain milk at a low temperature so as to prevent any deterioration in quality prior to
processing /product manufacture.
 To facilitate bulking of raw milk supply to ensure uniform composition.
 To allow for uninterrupted operation during processing.
 To facilitate standardization of milk.
Storage tanks enable milk to be stored for longer period of holding. They must be designed for easy
cleaning and sanitization, preferably through CIP process. Storage tanks consist of a stainless steel
inner shell, a layer of insulation, an outer jacket and necessary fittings for inspection control and
cleaning. The tanks should be insulated or refrigerated so that they can maintain the required
temperature throughout the holding period.
The various types of storage tanks are:
1. Insulated storage tanks:
These tanks merely stores the milk at a temperature at which it is filled. In most cases, depending
upon the quality of insulating material, there is tendency of rise in the temperature of milk with
long storage. These tanks are made up of a stainless steel inner shell, a layer of insulation
(thermocol and glass wool) and an outer jacket of stainless steel or mild steel.
2. Refrigerated tanks:
It has built-in refrigerating facilities so that stored milk is chilled as and when required. This
additional feature of maintaining the desired temperature is an added advantage in these tanks. In
refrigerated tanks, the hollow space between the inner and outer shells is used for circulating the
cooling medium (chilled water or brine solution).
3. Horizontal or vertical tanks:
Horizontal tanks require more floor space than vertical ones, but need less headspace. For
handling small volumes, horizontal tanks (5,000 to 15,000 litre capacity) may be used. Now-a-
days, milk is stored in vertical storage tanks of one lakh litre capacity or more, commonly known
as silos. These are vertical cylindrical tanks, installed outside the building. In these silos, milk
feeding is from same discharge valve installed near the bottom.
CLEANING:
Cleaning refers to the removal of soil from the surface of the equipment, while sanitization implies
destruction of all pathogenic and almost all non-pathogenic organisms. Cleaning and sanitization are
complimentary processes. Either of these operations alone does not help to achieve the desired result
to make the equipment/other surface free from soil and viable organisms.
The equipment and containers are desired to be physically clean, dry, smooth surface and free from
dirt and unsafe bacterial load to prevent occurrence of any sort of food and health hazard in milk and
its products during handling and processing. Detergents assist the processes of washing and cleaning.
It should have the ability to soften water used for washing, good wetting power to assist the water to
penetrate the greasy surface besides deflocculating and rinsing properties. It must also be non-
corrosive and non-toxic. Modern detergents are usually mixtures of more than one cleaning
compounds. Detergents for use in the dairy industry can be divided into the following four general
classes:
1. Alkaline detergents:
Alkalis form the bulk of most dairy detergent compounds. The alkalis commonly used are soda,
ash, caustic, soda, sodium bicarbonate, sodium metasilicate and trisodium phosphate. Soda ash,
trisodium phosphate and sodium metasilicate in the ratio 12:5:3 make a very useful mixture for
general cleaning in the dairy.
2. Water softeners:
Hard water is not suitable for cleaning operations as some ingredients of the cleaning material
precipitate the hard salts that adhere to equipment surfaces or settle at the bottom on standing.
Replacing 5-10 parts of soda ash in the detergent mixture with an equivalent proportion of calgon
(sodium hexameta phosphate) takes care of the hardness in water.
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3. Synthetic detergents:
They have good surface-active and emulsifying properties and improve wetting or penetrating
power by lowering the surface tension of water.
4. Acid cleaners:
Acid cleaning agents are used in combination with alkaline agents to remove milk stone deposited
on metal surface exposed to heat. Phosphoric acid, diluted with water (140 g in 45.3 kg) is very
commonly used.
Milk stone: Milk stone is an accumulation of dried milk solids and salts from hard water and
washing solutions. It consists largely of calcium phosphate, milk protein, precipitated, coagulated, and
baked on by heat insoluble calcium-salt from water and washing solutions.
Importance of sanitization/cleaning:
All dairy equipment should be properly cleaned and sanitized as milk provides an excellent medium
for the growth of micro-organisms. All the same time detergents and sanitizers should also be so
selected as no to effect the materials of the equipment. Cleaning and sanitization are complementary
process, either of them along will not achieve the desired results which is to leave the surface as for as
possible from milk residue and viable organism.
Cleaning stages:
In careless, cleaning of utensils if milk solid are left joints or surfaces of the utensils it becomes the
sources of bacterial multiplication and contamination. Cleaning of dairy equipment is arrived out in
three stages.
i) Rinsing: To remove the loosely held milk residues and dirt.
ii) Scrubbing: To remove the adherent matters.
iii) Detergent used: Final process to remove all the traces or residues of milk or detergents.
Sanitizing utensil and equipment
Sanitization involves destruction of pathogens and minimizing microflora. It is aimed at reducing
microorganisms to a level acceptable by public health authorities. Sanitizers are classified as thermal,
radiation or chemical.
1. Thermal Sanitizers
Thermal sanitizers are very effective, their efficacy depending on the extent of microbial
contamination, humidity, pH, temperature and time.
 Steam: Although steam is effective as a sanitizer, its application is limited because of its
high cost.
 Hot water: Hot water as a sanitizer is relatively inexpensive, easy to apply and readily
available.
2. Radiation
Radiation in the form of ultra violet, high-energy cathode or gamma rays destroys
microorganisms rapidly.
3. Chemical Sanitizers
Chemical sanitizers are also called low-temperature sanitizers. The most commonly used
chemical sanitizers in dairy industry are chlorine, iodine and quaternary ammonium compounds
(QACs).
Milk utensils in farm:
1) Cans: It is usually of stainless steel. It can also be plastics. They are used for milk keeping during
the transportation.
2) Milking machines: They are used for milking the animals in farms. Since, there are used for
milking it should be kept cleaned and sanitized before and after use.
3) Milk buckets: These can also be of steel and plastic. It is used while milking the animals. It should
be cleaned for preventing the contamination.
4) Weighing machine: Digital weighing balances are used for measuring the milk production in the
farm. It should be done to keep the daily production records of farm to estimates the economics
conditions.
5) Vehicles: The various included the milk tanks or small auto- mobiles for carrying the milk from
farms to milk plants or chilling center. It should be cleaned or sanitized daily. It should be cleaned
with detergents or sanitized.
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Sanitizing utensils and equipment:

Sanitization implies the destruction of all pathogenic and almost all non-pathogenic micro-organisms
from the surface of the equipment. Sanitizer are the substances capable of destroying all the
pathogenic and almost all non-pathogenic micro-organisms.
Sanitizers should have the following properties:
 Non-toxic.
 Quick-acting
 Non-corrosiveness (doesn’t react with metals)
 Inexpensive
 Easy and quickly applicable.
i. Steaming: It is the best used at large dairy. It can be made more effective by applying steam
under moderate pressure with the precausative to avoid air pockets on the equipment surface. In
this method 15 lbs/sq inch pressure for 5 minutes or 0.01 lbs/sq. inch for 15 minutes.
ii. Hot water: Use of hot water is very common or practice dairy plants. Temperature of water
should be near boiling. Temperature i.e. 90-95% utensils/equipments are submerged in hot water
for 10 minutes. Pipelines and pasteurizers in dairy industry are sanitized by this method.
iii. Chemicals: Depending on the strength, media, contact duration, speed of action etc. The quantity
of chemicals is fixed for this purpose we can use sodium hydroxide, chloramines-T, Iodophores
etc.
Cleaning and sanitization of some dairy equipment/utensils:
1) Utensils:
I) Cans: There are two types of provision for can cleaning; rotatory type and straight through
movements of cans.
The following steps are given for both movements:
 Pre-rinse with tap water/warm water and drain it completely.
 Hot detergent wash at 70 oc with a mixture at sodium carbonates or bi-carbonate and sodium
silicate having 0.5% alkalinity.
 Sterilize with steam and hot water at 88oc to 93oc and drain it.
 Sanitize with steam for 2-3 minutes.
 Finally dry with hot air for 1-2 minutes.
II) Bottle: There are three types of bottle washing machine-soaker type. There are the following steps
of cleaning bottles:
 Pre-rinse with warm water at 32-38oc.
 Hot detergents washes with 1-3% caustic soda solution and other alkali detergents at 60-75oc.
 Drain with clean water (warm at 25-45oc.)
 Drain with chlorine water (30-40 PPM).
 Dry with hot air.
Steps of sanitization:
1) Cold water rinse: Equipment are brushed and rinsed with cold water before milk solids get dried
on the surface.
2) Hot detergents wash: It is done of 115oF with a mixture of tap water and detergents solution.
Amount of detergent should be used according to manufactures instructions.
3) Final clean rinse: it is done with clean warm water to remove final traces of detergents.
4) Sterilization: Equipment are sanitized by steam, hot water and chemicals.
Clean in Place (CIP)

Milk processing and handling equipment/containers are desired to be clean, dry and sanitized to
prevent cross contamination of milk/milk product during handling & processing operations. Small and
simple construction equipment could be manually cleaned with hand brushes and detergents.
Sometimes these equipment/containers are dismantled and their parts are cleaned/sanitized
individually. Some of this type of containers could also be cleaned through specially designed
washing machines like can/crate washers. However there are number of other equipment, containers
and processing circuits, which have very compact design and not possible to clean manually or they
are so larger in size that unsuitable for cleaning in washing machines. This type of equipment and
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containers are preferably cleaned by special cleaning procedure termed as “Cleaning-In-Place or

CIP”.
In the CIP process numbers of cleaning operations are performed on the

equipment/container/processing circuits one by one in certain sequence according to the plant hygiene
program. In this way instead of taking equipment/containers to the detergent solution or washing
machine for cleaning/sanitizing, the flushing/cleaning/sanitizing solutions are taken to them through
specially designed cleaning system.
The experiments and industry experiences have shown highly effective result from the CIP system
along with several other benefits in terms of saving of manpower, time and chemicals. The
effectiveness of CIP system is largely dependent on factors like time, temperature, detergency and
physical action involved. The equipment susceptible to this technique of cleaning are said to be of CIP
design. Most significant CIP design dairy process equipment include: milk chiller, milk pasteurizer,
milk tanks/silo, evaporator/dryer, milk process line, milk tankers, etc.
Advantages:
i. Better, efficient and constant cleaning.
ii. Elimination of failure due to unskilled manpower.
iii. Less chance of recontamination.
iv. Reduction of labor cost, detergent and hot media.
v. Efficient and economical.
Disadvantages:
i. Expensive to install.
ii. Needs a professionals personal to operate.
iii. Experienced operators are very expensive.
Type of CIP:
There are two types of CIP.
1) Regeneration method (Plate pasteurize):
Plate pasteurizer are cleaned and sanitized in following steps:
i. Pre-rinse with cold water or tap water till the discharged water become clear.
ii. Acid-rinse with acid solution 0.5-0.6% and 1% solution of nitric acid circulate at 65-70 oc for
20-30 minutes.
iii. Drawn out the acid solutions.
iv. Hot water at 65-7oc for 5-7 minutes.
v. Alkali rinse with alkali detergent (E.g. Caustic soda, Sodium carbonate, Tri sodium phosphate
or sodium silicate mixture) at 63-71oc. For 20-30 minutes.
vi. Drain out the alkali solutions.
vii. Finally hot water rinse at 71-82oc or 1000 PPM chlorine water circulated for 5-10 minutes.
viii.Drain out the hot water and loosen the plates for complete draining and drying.
2) Throw-away method (Tank, pipe line):
Milk storage tank pipes are cleaned and sanitized in the following steps:
i. Pre-rinse with tap water and drain for 3-5 minutes.
ii. Hot detergents wash with 0.35-0.5% alkalinity at 71oc for 15-30 minutes.
iii. Drain out the detergents solution completely.
iv. Post-rinse with hot water at 65-70oc and drain it.
v. Sanitized with hot water at 90 oc for 2-3 minutes or chlorine water (150-250 rpm) for 1-2
minutes.
vi. Dry by passing hot air for 1-2 minutes.
50
UNIT-7
BUYING AND COLLECTION OF MILK
Milk collection methods

1) Collection of milk:
In almost all developed and developing countries milk production is confined to rural areas whereas
demand is urban oriented nature. Hence, the milk has to be collected from production. Plants of milk
shed areas to processing and distribution of milk is given as:
a) Co-operative society:
In the milk shed areas, a co-operative society is formed by the individuals farmers in group or milk
collectors. It is operating on the basis of co-operation and faith of the milk producers. This society has
to follow and obey the rules and regulation of the government to continue the supply of milk. It is
most suitable for producers where middle-man is not involved as profit share. Producer will receive
fair price and encouraged by other for producing quality milk.
b) Contractors:
In this method, a contract or agreement is made between contractors and government
organization/dairy owners with certain prefixed standard for quality and quantity of milk and
contractor has to supply required regularly on the basis of the prefixed agreement. In this system the
milk producers are getting less return as compare to the contractor. Contractor is working as middle
man between milk producers and government organization or provide dairy and getting fringe benefit
from the both sector. This method is considered as the barrier in the dairy development in the country.
In encourage the adulteration practices of that leads to deteriorate the quality of milk and milk
products.
c) Individual:
In this method dairy owners or government organization make direct relation with individual
procedures with prefixed standard for quality of milk. It is possible where individual procedures
produces much more quantity of milk in milk shed area. (Milk shed area is the geographical area from
which city dairies received maximum fluid milk supply).According to the agreement individual
procedures has to supply the milk regularly. It is most practical for those procedures who are residing
very neat to the dairy industry. In this case, procedures will be benefitted directly due to absence of
middle man activities where most of the share/profit goes to middle man.
2) Buying of milk:
Various methods for buying of milk have been developed to determine the price of market milk. The
following are the basis of payment for price fixation policy.
a) Flate rate/payment according to weight or volume:
Milk is a solid in the market on volume i.e. liter or Kg. it has been a common practice in rural areas to
buy the milk on the volume basis without taking any care of the milk quality. Liters/gallons/kg will be
taken as a basis for measurement of milk. It is very simple method which enables to calculate easy
way to time saving but it encourage adulteration and unhygienic milk production in the farm.
Advantages
 Simple to calculate the milk price
 No expensive testing equipment is needed
Disadvantages
 It has no incentive to improve quality of milk.
b) Payment on the basis of fat content:

This method is much more suitable and practical in comparison to weight or volume basis. Payment is
given on the fat content, percent or per unit fat basis. It is very practical and appropriate to the dairy
plant and discourages the adulteration but in this method SNF basis has not been taken as a basis of
payment.
Advantages
 Fairly simple to calculate the milk price
 No benefits for milk producers adding water to the milk
Disadvantages
 you will need to buy fat testing equipment
51
c) Payment, according to the use of milk:

This method is applicable mainly for the milk products but not suitable for pricing of milk. It is not
necessary to supply the milk continuously as in the case of market milk. Milk price will be given
according to the products obtained from that milk. E.g. pannier, channa. It is impractical for the
distribution to the left the producers when production exceed. Winter than the normally production.
Therefore surplus milk will be accepted according to the case of products of milk will be diverted to
the other dairy products.
d) Payment on the basis of fat and SNF content (Two axis method):
This method is adopted by the DDC in our country. In this method, fat% and SNF% will determine
and both will be severed on the basis of milk pricing for thee producer. This method has an
advantages because SNF in this method can be determined easily and quickly for price fixation.
Sometimes 60% emphasis will be given to fat content and 40% on the SNF content. This method is
practice in many Asian countries like India, Pakistan, including Nepal.
The price of the milk can be calculated according to the formula:
Whe
re,
SNF = TS – fat %
TotalSolids (TS) can be estimated from the corrected lactometerreading (L)
Advantages
 Provides an incentive to increase fat and SNF
Disadvantages
 Complicated to calculate the milk price
 you will need to buy fat testing equipment and a density meter
e) Payment according to “cost of milk production”:

In this system the price fixation will be done according to the cost of production of milk. Cost of milk
production varies gently from producer depending upon the investment on building, equipment,
machines, etc. Herd management, feeding efficiency and other farm activities will be taken into
consideration during price fixation.
f) Payment of premium:
This system is very standard system which implies to enhance the quality improvement programs
effectively. It is based on the quality of milk for quality determination, sediment flavor score test,
bacterial count, dairy farm score are emphasized and price will be fixed. The place where diseased
free milk or herd will be premium production in rural areas.
Test for fluid milk quality:

Quality test for milk need a concentrated effort to ensure that the whole dairy value chain is involved.
This is because dairy products are very susceptible to bacterial contamination.
To evaluate the quality of the raw materials and maintain the quality
throughout the materials and maintain the quality throughout the value chain, the following tests will
be involved:
52
1) Organoleptic test for quality milk:

This involves all the preliminary quality tests conducted at the farm level, at the processing plants
reception platforms or at the collection center.
It is a simple, quick and cost effective
method of checking quality of milk allows for segregation of good poor quality milk. The grader must
have good senses of sight smell and touch because the results of the tests is obtained instantly. While
testing, start by shaking the milk can a little bit then open the lid and check any aroma flavor that
emanates from the can by smelling.
The check for visual appearance on the milk such as color, any other foreign objects on the surface of
the milk and other foreign objects on the surface of the milk and the sanitary condition of the milk
can. Sanitation of the can indicates how the milk has been handled. Feel the milk can be check the
milk temperature. The temperature of the milk can give more information about when the milking was
done.
2. Taste, smell, visual observation and temperature
This should always be the first screening of the milk, since it is cheap, quick and does not
require any equipment. These tests are also called ’organoleptic tests‘. It is also reliable if the
person carrying out the tests is experienced. The tester smells the milk. observes the appearance,
tastes if necessary, checks the can forcleanliness, looks for sediment, and filters the milk
to check itscleanliness. If doubts arise after the examination about the qualityof the milk, other
tests can be done to determine the quality.
3. Specific gravity (Density meter or lactometer test):

Lactometer is a hydrometer use to measure specific gravity of milk and scale is limited to specific
gravity of milk. With a lactometer the specific density of milk is measured. At 15degrees
Celsius, the normal density of the milk ranges from 1.028to 1.033 g/ml, whereas water has a
density of 1.0 g/ml. So when you read the lactometer, you can determine whether water
has been added to the milk. It is necessary to take the milk temperature for obtaining the corrected
lactometer reading.
Lactometer works on the principle of fluid displacement. The displaced fluid has the equal weight
as the floating body.
4. Clot-on-boiling
The clot-on-boiling test is simple, quick and cheap. If the milk is sour or if the milk is abnormal
(colostrum or mastitis milk) the milk will not pass this test. Place test-tubes with 5 ml of milk for
up to 4 minutes in boiling water or in a flame. Examine the tubes and reject the milk if you
can see the milk-clotting.
5. Alcohol test
If the milk is sour or if the milk is abnormal (colostrum or mastitis milk) the milk will not pass the
alcohol test. You carry out the test by mixing equal amounts (2 ml) of milk and a 68%
ethanol solution (mix 68 ml of 96% alcohol with 28 ml distilled water). Milk that contains
more than 0.21% acid will coagulate when alcohol is added.
6. Acidity test
This test measures the lactic acid in the milk. If the acidity is higher than 0.19%, then the milk
quality is poor and cannot be processed. If the acidity is lower than normal (e.g. 0.10% lactic
acid) then the milk is of poor bacterial quality or sodium hydroxide/bicarbonate might have been
added. For this test you will need a white porcelain dish, a10 ml pipette, a 1 ml pipette, a
burette (0.1 ml graduations), a glass rod for stir-ring, a phenolphthalein indicator solution(0.5%
in 50% alcohol) and a 0.1 N Sodium Hydroxide solution. Measure 9 ml of the milk into the
dish, add 1 ml of phenolphthalein and from the burette, slowly add the 0.1 N sodium hydroxide
solutions while mixing continuously, until a faint pink colour appears. The more Sodium
Hydroxide you have to add before it turns pink, the more acid the milk.
53
7. Gerber test for fat

This test is used to determine the fat content of the milk. 10.94 ml. of milk at 20degrees Celsius is
added to a butyrometer together with sulphuric acid and amyl alcohol. After centrifugation, the
sample is put in a 65 degrees Celsius water bath and read after 3 minutes. The fat content from
this reading should not beless than 3%.
8. Reduction test (e.g. methyl blue reduction test)
This test is used as an indicator for hygienic quality/ bacterial content. the activity of reducing
bacteria determines the time it takes to decolorize Methylene Blue from blue to white. The
procedure for this test is as follows:
 Fill test tube with 10 ml of sampled raw milk.
 Add 1 ml of the Methylene Blue solution from a pipette taking care that the pipette does
not come into contact with any of the milk in the tube or with the wetted side of the
interior of the tube.
 Close the tube with a sterile rubber stopper. On no account, allow the fingers to be
exposed to the mouth of the test-tube or with the part of the stopper, which is exposed to
the test tube.
 Slowly invert each tube twice for mixing so that the whole column of contained air rises
above the level of the milk.
 Within 5 minutes place tube in water bath and note the time.
 Prepare the following control tubes:(A) 10 ml of mixed milk +1 ml of tap water, and(B)
10 ml of mixed milk +1 ml of Methylene Blue solution.
 Use mixed milk from several producers for the milk controls to ob-tain an average fat
content and colour. Fit both control tubes with stoppers and immerse for 3 minutes in
boiling water to destroy the natural reducing system present in the milk; place in the bath.
 Examine samples after 30 minutes and remove completely decolour-ized samples or
decolourized samples up to 5 mm of the surface. Comparison of the experimental
tubes with control tube (B) will show when decolourization begins and comparison
with control tube (A) will show when it is complete.
 Record the time at which decolourization is observed.
 Repeat this at half-hourly intervals.
 Interpretation of MBR test results using the table below:
9. Butter fat quality test for milk:

The most important common and accurate method used for butter fat testing is the gerber method.
This method is used for determining the fat content in the milk and milk products. Butter fat
determination is important because it can be used to determine how to standardize the milk.
The chemicals required are:
Amyl alcohol
Sulphuric acid (Conc.)
Milk.
Sulphuric acid dissolves all the non- fat content of the milk. The fat content remains in a liquid
form due to high heat produced by the acid-protein reaction. Amyl alcohol produces distinct
layers between the two phases, which are separated due to their density differences.
54
1. Milk collection from farm level to milk collection center

 Milking a buffalo/cow
 Milk collection in a container
 Transfer of milk from farmer to milk centers
 Milk testing
 Measuring and buying of milk at small collection centre
 Pouring of milk in milk silo
2. Collection of milk from different centres to main centre via milk storage vehicles
3. Transfer of milk from milk storage vehicle to milk silo through pump
4. Measuring of milk at main collection centre in milk silo
5. Transfer of milk from milk silo to large vehicle through pump
6. Cooling of milk in large vehicle by ice or plate heat exchanger
7. Departure of milk collecting vehicle from main center to plant
Cream separation method:

Cream is a fatty product of milk, and creams of different fat contents can be prepared by the
separation of milk fat from non-fat solids portion of milk. In dairy industry, the process of separating
milk into cream and skim milk is known as separation. Milk fat can be removed in the form of cream
and the remaining portion is serum referred to as skim milk. The skim milk contains predominantly
SNF and is having very little fat. The milk fat in cream may vary from 18-85%; the SNF (9.5%)
constituent occur in lower proportion than in milk fat.
Broadly classified as:
a) Market cream: Used for direct consumption.
b) Manufacturing cream: Used for manufactures of dairy products.
There are various types of cream are:
i. Table cream (containing 20-25% milk fat)
ii. Light cream (containing 20-25% milk fat)
iii. Coffee cream (containing 20-25% milk fat)
iv. Whipping cream (containing 30-40% milk fat)
v. Heavy cream (containing 30-40% milk fat)
vi. Plastic cream (containing 65-85% milk fat)
Food and nutritive value of cream:

Cream is rich energy giving fat and fat soluble vitamins A, D, E & K is the contents which depends
on the fat level of cream.
Principles of cream separation:

Separation of cream from milk is possible because of different in specific gravity between the fat and
liquid protein and serum. Whether separation is done by gravity or centrifugal methods, the result is
depend upon this difference. Centrifugal method is based on the method of fat is lighter than the skim
milk portion. At 16oc (60oF) the average skim milk portion. The average density of milk fat is
0.93g/cm3 and skim milk 1,036gm/cm3. Hence which they may be considered to be a mixture of fat
(as cream) and skim milk is subjected to either gravity or centrifugal force, the two component, viz,
cream and skim milk by virtue of their differing densities, stratify or separate from one another.
Methods of Separation
Two methods of separation of cream from milk are commonly used: gravity separation and
centrifugal separation. Both of these methods rely on the basic principle of separation of two
immiscible liquids having different densities (density of fat and skim milk is 0.93 and 1.036
respectively), under the influence of gravitational or centrifugal force.
55
1. Gravity Separation
When milk is allowed to stand undisturbed for some time, there is a tendency of fat to rise. The
velocity or rate at which the fat globules rise is given by the following equation, which is known
as Stoke’s Law:
V = (2/9) * G. r2 * (ds - df) / N
Where,
V = rate of rise of fat globule in centimeter per seconds
r = radius of fat globule
G = Force of gravity (981 dynes)
ƞ= Viscosity of skim milk
ds = density of skim milk
df = density of fat globule
From, Stoke’s Law it is observed that theoretically velocity increases with:
 Increasing radius of fat globule,
 Increasing difference in densities of skim milk and fat
 Decreasing viscosity of skim milk
There are five various methods for separating the cream using gravity method:
 Shallow Pan Method
Milk is allowed to stand in a pan of 10 cm depth and 45-60 cm diameter at 7°C for 24 h.
During this time, cream rises to the surface.
 Deep Pan Method

Milk is allowed to stand in pan of 20” depth and 8 to 12” diameter at 10°C for 24 h.
These tall cans have glass on one side of can and a faucet placed near the bottom. Skim
milk is drawn through the faucet.
 Water Dilution Method
Milk is diluted with water and allows standing for 12 h at 37.7°C temperature. Water
would make the milk less viscous, thus facilitating the rising of the fat globules.
 Scalding Method: Heating and cooling of milk slowly causes the formation of cream
layer at surface of milk
 Jersey Creamery Method
Milk is heated to 40°C using hot water in the jacketed vat and then cool to 10°C using
chilled water in place of hot water in the jacket of Vat. The cream will be separated
rapidly on cooling, immediately after heating the milk, by increasing the difference in
densities of milk fat and serum.
Gravity method being very slow, it is no longer used commercially for cream separation.
Factors affecting the rates of rises of cream in gravity method are:

a) Size of fat globule: As the size of fat globule increases rate of rise also increase.
b) Temperature: It increases and velocity decreases hence velocity increases.
c) Clumping: Clump/faster of fat globules increases radius which increase velocity.
d) Addition of adhesive: Increasing rate rise up.
2. Centrifugal separation
In principle, this method of cream separation is similar to gravity separation but gravity as the
driving force is replaced by the centrifugal force for which a rotational machine is used.When
milk is made to revolve in a circular path around its axis, a kind of force is generated, which is
called centrifugal force. This force throws the heavier portion (Skim milk) away from the centre.
Simultaneously, there is another force called centripetal force, which acts on the lighter portion
(Fat) and attracts it towards the centre.Thus, there are two outlets in a cream separator, one for
skim milk and the other for cream, the cream outlet being nearer to the centre.The cream outlet is
at higher level than skim milk outlet. The rate or movement of a fat globule in machine is
estimated by following Stoke’s equation:
V = r2 *((ds - df) / n) * N2 * R * K
56
Where,
V = rate of movement of a single fat globule
r = radius of fat globule
df = density of fat
N = Revolution per minute of bowl
R = Distance of fat globule from axis of rotation.
K = Constant
n = Viscosity of skim milk
Characteristics of gravity and centrifugal methods
Microorganisms common to Raw milk, Pasteurized milk and Milk products

Milk and milk products are very good culture media for the growth and development of a number of
microorganisms some are desirable and others are harmful and pathogenic. In the process of handling
and distribution milk is easily contaminated. Nearly all of the changes, which take place in the test,
odor, and appearance of the milk after it is drawn from the cow, are the result of the activities of
microorganisms. The microorganisms, which are most important to the dairy industry, belong to the
plant kingdom. These are the bacteria, yeasts, moulds, and those viruses, which are called
bacteriophages, other viruses and protozoa, are seldom encountered in milk products, except as
occasional contaminants.
57
1. Bacteria
Bacteria are the most common and probably the most numerous of the microorganisms with
which the dairy-processing industry is concerned. Bacteria are microscopic unicellular fungi
which occur in the form of spherical, cylindrical, or spiral cells, and which reproduce by
transverse fission. In dairy products the spherical and cylindrical forms are predominant. Some
bacteria cause trouble in the dairy industry because of their resistance to pasteurization and
sanitization procedures. Some of the bacteria, which may appear commonly, are: Streptococcus,
Micrococcus, Sarcina, Bacillus, Bacterium, pseudomonas, Lactobacillus, Escherichia, Aerobacter,
and Spirillum etc.
2. Yeast
Yeast are also microscopic, unicellular, non-chlorophyll-bearing plants but are somewhat larger in
size than bacteria. The yeasts most frequently encountered in milk and milk products act upon the
lactose to produce acid and carbon dioxide. Genera of yeasts and related forms may be
encountered such as Saccharomyces, Torula, Mycoderma, etc.
3. Mold
Whereas bacteria and yeasts are basically unicellular, molds are multicellular organisms. The
individual cells of which are not visible to the naked eye, at maturity they may be observed
readily as mycelium. Molds are black, blue, green, gray or white. Apart from discoloring milk
products, mold often produce undesirable, at times repulsive, flavors, and odors. They are
essential in certain kinds of cheese making. More common genera of mold are penicillium,
oospora, Aspergillus, mucor, Monilia, Alternaria, Fusarium etc.
4. Viruses
Viruses include all ultra-microscopic forms of life. In dairy industry, only those viruses that are
parasitic on lactic acid bacteria and known as starter Bacteriophage are of special importance. The
lactic phages are usually not destroyed by normal pasteurization of milk employed for cheese and
cultured buttermilk, but they can be destroyed by higher heat-treatment.
Use of microorganisms in dairy industry

Desirable microorganisms for dairy industry are as follows: -
1) Dahi 2) Cheese making 3) Cream
Streptococcus lactis Streptococcus lactis Streptococcus lactis
Streptococcus diacetilactis Streptococcus cremoris Streptococcus cremoris
Streptococcus cremoris Streptococcus thermophillus Lactobacillus citrovorum
Streptococcus thermophillus Lactobacillus bulgaricus
Lactobacillus bulgaricus Lactobacillus helveticus
Lactobacillus casei
Propionibacteriumshermanii
Penicillium roqeforti
Specific gravity of milk
The sp. gravity of milk is measured by the lactometer and its value ranges from 1.025 to 1.032 at 60 0F
or 15.50C.
 Cow milk- 1.028-1.030
 Buffalo milk- 1.030-1.032
 Skimmed milk - 1.036
The rise in sp. gr. is regular, more rapid at low temperature than at higher ones and amounts on an
average to 0.001. This is called “Recknagels phenomenon” and is attributed to:
 Change in the sp.gr. of fat due to partial cooling and solidification.
 Hydration of the proteins.
 Loss of carbon dioxide.
 Presence of air bubbles
58
The sp. gravity of a fluid varies with its temperature. Water reaches its maximum sp. gravity at 39 0F
or 3.90C, while milk does not attain its maximum sp. gravity until a temperature of 31.01 0F or –
0.550C, the freezing point of milk, is reached. As the milk fat is the lightest constituent of milk, the
more that is present the lower the sp. gravity and the greater the percentage of SNF the heavier the
milk will be. Specific gravity of different milk constituents are as follows:
Adulteration of milk with water

Food Adulteration is an act of intentionally debasing the quality of food offered for sale either by the
admixture or substitution of inferior substances or by the removal of some valuable ingredient.
Adulterated food is dangerous because it may be toxic and can affect health and it could deprive
nutrients essential for proper growth and development. Milk is adulterated with water, sugar, urea,
detergent and synthetic milk. The presence of water can be detected by putting a drop of milk on a
polished slanting surface. The drop of pure milk flows slowly leaving a white trail behind it, whereas
milk adulterated with water will flow immediately without leaving a mark.
59
Effect of heat treatment on milk quality

The fat, fat-soluble vitamins, carbohydrates and mineral' of milk are essentially unaffected by heal
treatment. Proteins and water-soluble vitamins are the components which are mainly affected by the
heat treatment.
i. Effects on lactose
It seems to be little affected by traditional heat processing procedures or during drying. Severe
heating or prolonged storage may, however, lead to Maillard's reaction with milk proteins in
which free 6-amino group of lysine combines with the aldehyde group of lactose affecting the
biological availability of lysine.
ii. Effects on fat soluble vitamin
Pasteurization alone appears to cause no change in the vitamin A and carotene content of milk,
but when this process is followed by evaporation as in the manufacture of condensed milk, there
are losses of 20 % of the vitamin A, although carotene is not affected. Vitamin E content of milk
is not influenced by pasteurization or evaporation but a loss of 9 % may occur after drying and
reconstitution. Vitamin D also appears to suffer no loss during heat processing of milk.
iii. Effects on water soluble vitamins
There is no loss of vitamins of the B-complex group riboflavin, nicotinic acid, pyridoxine,
pantothenic acid and biotin by heat treatment. But the losses of B I (thiamin), B12 and C increase
from 10-20% in pasteurization and UHT treatment, to 90 %loss of B I2 in in bottle sterilization and
evaporation.
iv. Effects on proteins

It is well established that the whey proteins, particularly beta lactoglobulin, are denatured to some
degree during heat treatment of milk. The extent of denaturation is about 10% during
pasteurization, 70 % during UHT exposure and 75% during in-bottle sterilization. This
denaturation does not affect the biological value of the whey proteins. Denaturation of proteins
has been reported to result in the release of volatile sulphur compounds or free SH groups which
may affect the flavour of the milk. Severe heat treatment may seriously lower the availability of
lysine and the sulphur containing amino acids.
60
UNIT-8
PRODUCT PROCESSING
Dairy product processing refers to the transformation of raw milk from the farm into finished
consumer products. It includes fluid milks and creams, yogurt and fermented milk products, butter,
ice cream and cheese, and a range of food ingredients available for further processing, mostly in the
form of concentrated or dried milk ingredients.
Types of milk products

 Butter
 Chhenna and paneer
 Curd
 Khuwa
 Cheddar and Cottage Cheese
 Condensed milk
 Ice-cream
 Milk powder
Nutritive value and preparation method of dairy product

1. Butter:
Butter may be defined as a fat concentrate, which is obtained by churning, cream (35-40% fat),
gathering the fat into a compact mass and working it. Butter is made exclusively from milk or
cream with or without common salt and colouring matter and contains not less than 80% fat.
Nutritive value of butter

It contain very high amount of fat-soluble vit. e.g. A.D.K. and K and is very good source of
energy.
Composition of Butter
Constituent Average %
Butter fat 80.2%
Moisture 16.2%
Salt 2.5%
Curd 1%
Total 100%
Technology of butter making:
Method of preparation
1. End to end butter churn:
It is cylindrical vessel prepared from oak wood plants. The vessel may be balanced on
central axis or diagonal axis, around which it revolves. Because of the end to end revolution
the cream inside the vessel (not called as churn) receives agitation during butter
preparation. The butter churn is resolved by a handle. It has a glass window to observe the
stage of butter formation inside the vessel. It is provided with a value on one side and
through which gasses formed during churning process could be expelled out of the vessel.
The other types of churn are a) swinging churn b) Rotating churn and butter worker c)
Metallic churn.
2. Preparing the churn:
The wooden churn should be filled with cold water for soaking for 24 hours. Soaking leads
to close up the slits and it becomes leak proof. The water is then drained out to give
thorough washing to churn, so that any odours present in the wooden material are removed.
After adequate soaking the churn should be thoroughly scrubbed with hot water. Persistent
odour in the churn is removed by the use of chlorine solution. Washed, repeatedly with hot
water. The churn should be scrubbed with common salt using a brush. The salt acts as a
wood preservative.
61
3. Preparing cream for churning:

Weight the required quantity of ripened cream. Note its temperature the temperature of
cream is adjusted between 9 to 110C (48-540F) depending upon the season. This is called as
churning temperature. The churning temperature in summer is at the lower range and little
higher in winter in the above range. If the temperature is low, the fat globules become
harder and coal eases each other with difficulty resulting in the delayed churning. If higher
temperature is used the butter produced will be soft, greasy, but the churning will be quick.
The temperature is adjusted by adding clean chilled water or ice water (45 0 F) to the cream
depending upon the demand of season. While adding chilled water the cream is slowly
agitated with cream ladle to break clots and to make the consistency like honey. If needed,
the scotch hand pair is used to break the cream clots.
4. Churning of Cream
Transfer the prepared cream to the churn. The churn filled up to half of its volume
otherwise the churning process will be prolonged. The churn is ventilated frequently by
opening the value, this helps to escape the gasses from the churn. Fast churning leads to
form small grains of butter. Hence uniform churning is required. The glass observing
window becomes yellowish or whitish when it comes in contact with cream. The clearance
of glass indicates the formation of granules. At this stage small butter granules are formed.
Add some quantity of chilled water having temperature about 45 0 F. This is called as break
water. It brings down the temperature of cream, which has increased due to the friction and
outside temperature. Continue the churning till fat globules attain the size of pea which is
observed through the glass window.
5. Washing, salting and working of butter:
As soon as the churning is completed, the butter milk is drained off from the bottom of the
churn with the help of butter scoop. Add equal quantity of wash water whose temperature is
the same as that of butter milk and give few revolutings. Take out the water. Two washings
are usually sufficient to remove curd content and extra acidity of the mass. The butter is
spread over the butter worker, salt is sprinkled over the butter to prolong its keeping quality
and improve its flavor. Easily soluble, fine grained worker has wooden corrugated roller.
The object of working is to a) remove extra water b) to render the butter compact and c) to
distribute the salt evenly.
6. Packing of butter:
When butter is ready is molded in various shapes. Butter is filled in special butter prints
with butter knife. Food grade quality butter paper is used for packing. Packing should be
attractive. Butter should then be kept in refrigerator for hardening.
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Flow chart of butter making process:
Flow diagram:
Receiving milk Grading, weighing, and sampling test receiving cream
Preheating (35-40 oc.)
Cream seperation cream Neutralization
Standardization (35-40%)
Pasteurization/vacreation (82-88 oc.)
Cooling (5-10 oc.)
Churning
Washing
Salting and working
Packaging and storage
Fig: Flow chart of butter making process:
Calculate the amount of neutralizer to be added in the preparation of butter. It is desired to reduce
acidity of 2000 kg of cream with an acidity of 0.5% to 0.2% acidity.
Solution:
Quantity of cream= 2000 kg.
Available acidity= 0.5%
Desired acidity= 0.2%
Amount of neutralizer= ?
Differences in acidity = 0.5 -0.2 = 0.3. it means the acidity of cream is decreased by adding 0.3%
neutralizer.
In 100 amount of cream = 0.3 acid
In 1 amount of cream = 0.3/100
In 2000 amount of cream = 0.3 x 2000/100 = 6kg.
Therefore, amount of acid content = kg
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Lactic acid + Lime (neutralizer) calcium lactate + water

2C3H6O3 = Ca(OH)2 ca(C3H5O3)2 + H2O2
2 x 90 = 74 = 180 + 74
i.e. 180 kg of acid is neutralized by 74 kg neutralizer.
1 kg of acid is neutralized by 74/180 kg = 0.411 kg
Again we have to add 20% more neutralizer because the amount of will attach with cream casein.
0.411 x 20% = 0.411 x 0.2 = 0.0822
Total neutralizer = 0.411 + 0.0822 = 0.4932 kg.
Now, 1 kg of acid is neutralized by 0.4932 kg of neutralizer.
6 kg of acid is neutralized by 0.4932 x 6 = 2.9592 kg.
Hence, actual amount of neutralizer required is 2.9592 kg
Again water quality

20 kg of neutralizer is dissolved in 100 kg of water.
1 kg of neutralizer is dissolved in 100/20 kg of water.
2.9592 kg of neutralizer is dissolved in 100 x 2.9592/20 kg = 14.796 kg.
Therefore amount of water required = 14.796 kg.
2. Chhenna
Chhenna refers to the milk solids obtained by acid hot milk and subsequent drainage of whey.
The acids commonly used are lactic or citric in both natural and chemical form. Chhenna is
largely used as a base for the preparation of variety of sweets such as Rasogolla.
Nutritive value of chhenna

It is a rich source of fat and proteins and some minerals. It is recommended for diabetic patient.
1. Bring all the milk to boil by heating directly in the steel karahi over open fire.All the
while stir with Khunti and keep at simmering hot (80-82 0 C).
2. Ladle out 0.5 to 1.0 kg of milk into a separate coagulation vessel.
3. Place the coagulant in the coagulation vessel and add the required quantity of milk.
4. Allow the mixture to coagulate completely.
5. Pour the contents in a of clean muslin cloth stretched over another vessel (for
receiving the whey).
6. Remove the cloth containing coagulated solids.
7. Tie the solids gently hanging the contents so that there is complete drainage of whey
hang up the solids to drain out the whey completely and also to cool the chhanna vat.
3. Paneer
Paneer refers to the indigenous variety of acid coagulated milk solids. Panner is extensively
used as an ingredient with vegetables.Analogous to Paneer is cottage cheese prepared by acid
coagulation in Western Countries.
Nutritive value of paneer

Paneer (cottage cheese) is a type of cheese. It is a high protein food. It is often substituted for
meat by many vegetarian. 100 gms of paneer made from cow milk provides 18.3 gms of
protein, 20.8 gms of fat, 2.6 gms of minerals, 1.2 gms of carbohydrates, 265 kcal of energy, 208
mg of calcium, 138 mg of phosphorous. It contains reasonably good amounts of fat and
cholesterol.
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 Take fresh buffalo milk and standardize to 6 per cent fat.

 Heat the milk to 82 0 C for 5 minutes.
 Promptly cool it to 70 0 C.
 Add coagulant (1 per cent citric acid solution) slowly, while it is continuously stirred
till clear whey separates cut.
 Allow the coagulant to settle down for 5 minutes.
 Drain the whey through muslin cloth.
 Do not allow to go down the temperature of the whey below 65 0 C during Straining.
 Collect coagulum and fill in hoop lined with strong and clean muslin cloth.
 Fit up wooden planks on both openings of hoop.
 Apply pressure of about 2 kg/sq. cm or 45 kg on the top of the hoop for 15 to 20
minutes.
 Remove pressed Paneer from hoop cut into 6 to 8 pieces.
 Immerse the pieces of Paneer in chilled brine water for 2 to 3 hours for hardening
 Remove chilled Paneer and palace on a wooden plank for to 10-15 minutes, and allow
to drain loose water. After words wipe the Paneer pieces and wrap in to parchment and
store in refrigerator.
Fig: Flowchart of preparation of paneer

4. Curd/Dahi
Dahi is a fermented dairy product, produced by fermentation process by deliberately
addinglive, harmless, lactic acid producing bacteria in the form of bacterial culture to
milk.Dahi is a well know fermented milk product consumed throughout Nepal. The
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conversion of milk into Dahi is an intermediate step in the manufacture of Shrikhand,

Makhan and Ghee. Dahi has higher nutritive value as compared to milk. It is palatable,
digestive, and assimilable than milk. The product has got nutritive and therapeutic
value.
Nutritive value of curd

Yogurt is also a good source of essential carbohydrates and a punch of protein. Yogurt
has rich content of calcium, phosphorus, vitamin B2, magnesium and beneficial fatty
acids. Studies have shown that yogurt is also a good source of vitamin B12, vitamin B5,
zinc, potassium, protein and molybdenum. Yogurt (curd/dahi) contains a specific type
of Vitamin K, as well as pro-biotic benefits that provide protection against diabetes,
change the micro-flora (micro-organisms present inside living beings) of the gut and
improves the immune system of your body.
 Take one or two liters of milk in the pan.
 Boil the milk for 5 to 10 minutes.
 Cool the milk to body/room temperature (350C).
 Inoculate the milk with mixed culture or previous day’s mild acidic curd at the
rate of 0.5 to 1 percent.
 Mix the milk thoroughly.
 Fill the milk in plastic cups.
 Incubate the cups or container at a temperature of 30-350C for 14 to 16 hrs.
(Acidity to reach about 0.7 to 1 percent).
 After incubation the cups or the containers are removed from the incubator and
stored at low temperature to check further fermentation reactions.
Fig: Flowchart of preparation of dahi
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5. Khuwa
Khoa is an ancient indigenous milk product which constitutes an important base for the
preparation of various sweet meats. The surplus milk produced during flush season is converted
into khoa by the producers as a method of utilizing surplus milk.
Nutritive value of Khuwa

100 gms of Khoa made from whole cow milk provides 20 gms of protein, 26 gms of fat, 4 gms
of minerals, 25 gms of carbohydrates, 413 kcal of energy, 956 mg of calcium, 613 mg of
phosphorous.
1. Take 2 to 3 liters of milk in Iron karahi.
2. Keep the karahi on non-smoky fire
3. Bring the milk to boiling temperature.
4. Start the stirring of milk continuously. Scrap all the parts of the pan covering the milk. Boil
the milk vigorously.
5. At this point stir the milk at about 100 rpm. which would help for constant evaporation of
moisture and progressive thickening of milk.
6. The thickened mass shows abrupt change in colour and consistency at this stage also
vigorous stirring and desiccation are continued till the vicous product reaches a pasty
consistency and leaves the sides of pan.
7. At this stage give close attention and reduce the fire so as to lower down the temperature to
80-880C.
8. The final product is ready when it shows signs of sticking together.
9. Remove the pan from the fire; work the contents up and down and spreading to the cooler
part of karahi. After some time remove the khoa on parchment paper and make circular pat.
Weigh the quantity of khoa.
 CHEESE: Cheeses has been defined as a product made from the curd obtained from milk by
coagulating the casein with the help of rennet/similar enzymes in the presence of lactic acid
produce by added M.O from which a part of the moisture has been removed by cutting, cooking,
and pressing which has been shaped in mould and ripened/by holding it for sometime at suitable
temperature and humidity.
Nutritive value of cheese:
 It is an excellent sources of milk protein.
 It is a rich source of Ca and P.
 An excellent source of fat-soluble vit- A, D, E, K.
 Having concentrated form of energy.
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 Having both palatable and digestible characteristics.

Composition:
Name: Moisture% Fat % Protein % Ash and Salt %
Cheddar 36.8% 33.7% 23.7% 5.6%
Cream 42.7% 39.9% 14.5% 1.9%
Cottage 69.8% 1% 23.3% 1.9%
Swiss 33.9% 30.5% 30.4% 4.2%
Brick 42.5% 30.7% 21.1% 3%
Yak 33.9% 30.6% 33.8% 2.6%
Classification of cheese:
Very hard cheese: Romano, Parmesan (moisture 25-30%)
Hard cheese: cheddar, Edam, swiss (moisture 30-36%)
Semi soft cheese: Brick, Muenster, blue, (Moisture 36-40%)
Soft cheese: camembert, Cottage, (Moisture 40% above.)
Whey cheese: Mysost, Ricotta, etc.
Fig: Flow chart of cheese making process:
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i. Receiving of milk
The quality of finished product depends upon the initial quality of milk from which it is made.
Successful cheese factory follow the system of daily efficient grading for milk receiving which
consists of following
 Good smell and flavored milk only accepted.
 Milk should be free from M. O. & foreign matters.
 Sediment test carried out at regular interval of time.
 Developed acidity should be less and free from antibiotics and inhibitor substance.
ii. Filtration
The chief objective of this step is to remove visible dirts in milk so as to improve the quality of
finished cheese. Before filtration milk is preheated to 35-400C for effective filtration.
iii. Pasteurization
The usual temperature time combination given to the pasteurization of cheese milk is 63 0C/30 min.
or 71.50C/15 sec to achieve following objectives.
 To destroy the pathogenic M.O.
 To destroy fault producing M.O.
 To increase the yield of cheese.
iv. Standardization
Adjust the casein fat ratio in cheese making milk to 0.68-0.70 to regulate the fat in cheese.
v. Adding starter, Color and Rennet
Ripening/souring of milk refers to the development of acidity in milk from the time it is received
in the cheese vat until renneting. In cheese milk ripening is done by the addition of starter e.g.
Streptococcus lactis, Streptococcus cremoris. “Annatto” alkaline solution of coloring agent is
used in cheese to develop the proper color and flavor. Rennet is used for the purpose of
coagulation/setting. Rennet which is most powerful clotting enzyme available as a crude extract
from the abomasums of newly born calf and using @ 15-25 ml. per 1000 liter of milk
vi. Coagulating/setting
Addition of rennet to the milk in cheese making is commonly known as renneting/setting amount
of liquid rennet is 15-25 ml. per 1000 liter of milk.
vii. Cutting
It refers to the cutting of the firm coagulum into the cubes of specific size. If curd is cut too soon
then there will be the lower yield of cheese and if cut too late then cutting will be difficult and
moisture expulsion will delay. The cheese curd is cut by knife, which consists of stainless steel
wire of 6-9 mm apart one horizontal and other vertical in lengthwise.
viii. Cooking
It refers to the heating of curd cubes. It begins with 15 min. after cutting. It regulates the heating
of cheese. The rate of heating is such that the temperature rises to 32 0C in 15 min. Then after
maximum cooking temperature e.g. 37-390C at the rate of 100C every 4 min. Amount of heat
required depends upon the type of cheese. For cheddar cheese 37-390C is normal.
ix. Drainage of whey
It refers to the removal of whey from the curd when the curd cubes have been reduced to one half
of their size at cutting then whey drainage taking place.
x. Cheddaring
After removal of whey the curd is allow to meat together by combined operation of packing,
turning, piling and repilling which is known as chaddaring. It is very important not only for
moisture control but also for the improving of body and texture of the cheese. It will take 2 hrs.
and end of cheddaring is indicated by:
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 T.A. (0.30-0.35)
 pH about 5.4
xi. Milling
It is the mechanical operation of the cutting the block cheddared curd into small pieces with the
help of cheese mil to achieve the following objectives:
 To promote the further removal of whey
 Quick distribution of salt in the curd
 To prepare curd for the pressing into final forms.
xii. Salting
It refers to the addition of common salt 2% to the curd which affects the flavor, body texture and
keeping quality of cheese. It is done to achieve the following objectives:
 Further removal of whey
 Hardening and shrinking of curd
 Formation of lactic acid
 Check undesirable fermentation
 Producing desirable characteristics in cheese.
xiii. Hooping
Curd being placed in hoopes/ moulds in which cheese curd is pressed into its final shapes. Pressing
refers to the operation of forcing the particles of the milled and salted curd into the hoopes. It helps
to provide the final shape of cheese.
xiv. Paraffining
It refers to the operation of deeping the cheese for few seconds, in the malted paraffins, where by a
thin coating of paraffins is applied to the surface of the cheese, which help to protect from mould
growth and insects.
xv. Curing/Maturing/ Ripening
It Refers to the storage of cheese for at least 2 - 3 months at low temperature (i.e. 0 - 16 0C ) during
which its physical, chemical and bacteriological properties are changed which helps to develop the
characteristics flavor, taste and body texture of cheese.
xvi. Packaging
Cheese is placed in a protective wrapper or container for safety transportation/ storage. Material
used for packing are coated parchment paper, aluminium foil, plastic, etc.
xvii. Storage
Natural Cheese should be stored at 0 - 10C to insure the good quality for marketing.
Uses of cheese:
 Direct consumption as such as in sand-witches.
 In the preparation of special dishes.
 For preparation of sauces.
6. Cheddar cheese: It is hard cheese that originated from the village of the same name in the south
west of Britain and is now among the most important cheese made worldwide, particularly in
English speaking country. It is made from pasteurized, standardized cow milk. Mesophillic
starter cultures are used and enlarged cheese factory, defined-strain starter systems are common.
The milk is rennet at 30oc and the curd/whey mixture is cooked to 37-39oc. after whey drainage,
the curd are cheddar.
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Fig: Flowchart of preparation of cheddar cheese
7. Cottage Cheese
Cottage cheese is a fresh cheese curd product with a mild flavor. It is not aged. It is made not by
pressing the cheese but by draining it, which allows some of the whey to stay which keeps the curds
loose.
Cottage cheese is an excellent sources of calcium, minerals that plays a major roles in tooth and bone
health, and prevention of the osteoporosis. It also helps to regulate our blood pressure and might even
play a role in preventing certain cancer, such as prostate cancer.
8. Condensed milk
Condensed milk is cows’s milk from which water has been removed. It is most often found in
the form of “sweetened condensed milk”, with sugar added, and the term “condensed milk” and
“sweetened condensed milk” are often used interchangeably today. This is one of the earliest
products commercially introduced and is made from standardized whole milk with sugar acting
as a preservative. For each kilogram of milk, approximately0.4 kg of product is obtained with
removal of 0.8 kg of water. The product can bereadily reconstituted by the addition of water, 1
kg of product giving 2.5 kg of sweetened reconstituted milk.
Nutritive value of condensed milk

Condensed milk contains 62 calories for a mere tablespoon. It is high in calories for the reason that its
name implies: it is a dense mixture of milk solids and sugar. People who are dieting should either
avoid condensed milk or consume it very judiciously. A tablespoon of condensed milk contains2 g of
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fat, 10 g of carbohydrates, 1.5 g of protein, 54 mg of calcium, 36 mg of potassium and 5 mg of

magnesium.
Method of preparation of condensed milk

The processing steps involved in the production of sweetened condensed whole milk are as follows:
i. Reception of milk
Milk intended for use in preparation of condensed milk should be clean, sweet, free from off-
flavours and odours, and reasonably free from extraneous matter. No abnormal milk should be
accepted. Platform tests like Alcohol and C lot-on-boiling (COB) tests must be carried out to
check the heat stability of the milk which determines its acceptance for condensing.
ii. Cooling
After receiving at platform, the raw milk should be immediately cooled to 5°C or below to
retard the deteriorative changes due to bacterial growth.
iii. Clarification/filtration
Filtration is carried out to remove the coarse particles, visible dust or dirt from the raw milk.
Clarification is done to remove tiny feed particles, leucocytes and blood cells, etc. from milk.
Generally Clarification/filtration is carried out before orafter standardization.
iv. Standardization
Standardization milk to a required fat and SNF ratio (1:2.44) is generally done to conform to
legal standards in the finished product. The standardization of raw milk is usually done by the
addition of skimmed milk or cream.
v. Stabilization
Heat stability i.e. the extent of heat treatment that the milk can with stand without undergoing
coagulation is regarded as its heat stability. Milk salts, mainly the ratio of calcium and
magnesium to citrates and phosphates influences the heat stability of milk. Since, milk
undergoes extensive heat treatment during condensed and evaporated milk manufacture, it is
necessary to maintain the correct ratio of salt balance i.e. 0.7:1.0 in milk. Excess of calcium
and magnesium salts over the desired ratio leads to heat instability and improper fore-
warming of milk which leads to thickening and gelation in the product during storage. Hence,
the excess calcium and magnesium content in milk should be corrected by the addition of tri-
sodium citrate or disodium phosphate which is known as stabilization.
vi. Fore-warming
Fore-warming helps in controlling the age thickening and gelation of the product during
storage. It also helps in bacterial destruction and in feeding milk to the vacuum pan at a high
enough temperature so as not to depress the boiling. The exact temperature-time of heating is
so controlled as to provide optimum viscosity in the manufactured product without inducing
excessive thickening or thinning during storage. Fore-warming at 115 to 118°C by flash
heating is recommended for condensed milks manufacture.
vii. Addition of sugar
Sugar acts as a preservative in sweetened condensed milk. There are different methods of
sugar addition; however, addition of sugar as 65 to 70 percent syrup in water to the partly
concentrated milk in the vacuum pan when the total solids are about 30 to 31 per cent is
preferred. The syrup is heat treated to 85-90°C with a holding of 20-30 minutes to destroy
yeast, mould and bacteria, filtered and drawn into the vacuum pan. Sugar is added at an
amount that the sugar ratio (% sugar x 100/% sugar - % water)in the final product should be
60-64.5. After the addition of sugar, the concentration is further continued until the desired
total solids (74- 75 per cent) are reached as tested by specific gravity or refractometer and the
product is pumped to the cooling vat. It is necessary that all pipelines, pumps and vats should
be thoroughly sanitized since any bacterial contamination after fore-warming of the milk will
persist in the product.
viii.Concentration
The fore-warmed milk is concentrated under vacuum in a pre-sterilized vacuum pan, until the
required total solids are attained. The product should cover the heating tubes before steam
intake so as to prevent scorching. The product should be maintained at a uniform level by
72
controlling the rate of fresh product intake. Excessively rapid boiling is avoided as it is likely
to increase entrainment losses. In order to stop thee vaporator, the following steps should be
taken in the sequence given: turn off steam; turn off water to- the condenser; stop the vacuum
pump; and open the vacuum relief. The Baume Hydrometer test is most commonly used for
density tests of pan samples in order to know the right time for striking the batch. This term
indicates that the correct concentration as determined by the density tests has been reached.
ix. Homogenization
Homogenization process is optional for condensed milk preparation and is performed before
the product is cooled. Homogenization renders a uniform fat emulsion and reduces fat
separation to a minimum during storage. Homogenization is carried out at a total pressure of
2500 psi (2000 psi in the first stage and 500 psi in the second stage).
x. Cooling
Prompt cooling is desirable to delay the tendency of age-thickening, discoloration and to have
a finished product with a smooth texture and free from any objectionable sugar deposit.
xi. Crystallization
This is a very important step intended to induce micro mass crystallization of lactose which
will be in a supersaturated stage in the product when it is pumped to the cooling vat. This is
done by the addition of a slurry of finely ground (1-2 micron size),pre-sterilized lactose in
condensed milk from the same batch. This process is known as seeding and 200-300 gms of
lactose are used for 1000 kg of product. The temperature of seeding depends on lactose
concentration in the product and is usually between 29-31°C. After seeding, the product is
held at this temperature for one to three hours with slow agitation to complete the lactose
crystallization, followed by cooling to 14-16°C; and pumped to storage and filling. Improper
lactose crystallization gives the defects of mealiness(roughness) or sandiness in the final
product depending on the size of lactose crystals.
xii. Canning
The product is packaged for retail consumer market in pre-sterilized tin plate cans under
aseptic conditions in automatic filling and sealing machines. The tins roll off from the filling
room for labelling either on the machine or manually, followed by casing and storage.
xiii.Storage
The sweetened condensed milk does not require refrigerated storage, althoughfor long shelf-
life, particularly in tropical countries, storage at 10-15°C under controlled humidity condition
(to avoid rusting of the cans) is recommended.
9. Ice-cream
Ice-cream may be defined as a frozen dairy product made by suitable blending and processing
of cream and other milk products, together with sugar and flavor, with or without stabilizer or
color and with the incorporation of air during the freezing process.
Nutritive value of ice cream

 Ice cream contains 2-3 times as much fat and slightly more protein than milk.
 It is also a rich source of Ca, P, and other minerals of vital importance in building good bones and
teeth.
 It is the most valuable and palatable source of milk proteins to the vegetarians.
 It is an excellent source of food energy e.g. presence of high percent of fat T.S. & sugar.
 It is also the rich source of many essential vitamins e.g. A, B, G, E and Niacin.
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Composition
Types Fat SNF Sugar Stabilizer T.S.
% % % % %
Economy 10 10- 13-15 0.30-0.50 35-

ice cream 11 37
Good 12 11 15 0.30 37-
average 39
ice cream
Premium 18 9 16 0.20-0.30 43-
grade 44
Constituents of ice-cream
a. Milk fat
It enriches and allows the ice-cream to give its full rich creamy flavour e.g. cream
b. Milk solids not fat
It consist of milk proteins, milk sugar and mineral matter-improved of body and texture
c. Sugar
To increase the acceptability of ice-cream
d. Emulsifiers
It mainly provides the texture and provides a uniform whipping quality of the mixture. E.g.
Mono or diglycerides of fat forming fatty acid
e. Stabilizers
It is used to prevent the formation of large ice-crystals especially during storage. E.g. gelatin,
sodium alginate, guar, gum, carrageen and, pectin etc.
f. Flavour
It increases the acceptability of ice-cream and induces its aesthetic appeal.
The non-milk ingredients like colouring material, flavours, fruits, sugar, stabilizers etc. are not
subjected to heat treatment during preparation and hence may act as a source of disease infection,
food poisoning (typhoid fever, dysentery) and hence quality ingredients should be used.
Classification of ice-cream:
It is classified into 10 groups.
i. Plain: Ice-cream in which color and flavoring ingredients together amounted to less than 5% of
the volume of the unfrozen ice-cream, e.g. Vanilla.
ii. Chocolate: ice-cream flavored with coca or chocolate. E.g. chocolate iec-cream.
iii. Fruit: Ice-cream contains fruits, with or without addition of flavor and color. E.g. Apricot,
Pineapple, mango, Banana, etc.
iv. Nut: ice-cream contains nuts such as almonds, pistachio, walnut and castanet.
v. Milk ice: Frozen products obtained from milk and skim milk or milk products with or without the
addition of sugar eggs, fruits, fruit juice, and edible flavor with color.
vi. Ices: Made of fruit juice, sugar and stabilizer with or without additional fruit acids, color, and
flavoring/water and frozen to the consistency of ice-cream.
vii. Sherbet: Made of fruit juice, sugar, stabilizer and milk products. It is same as ice except that
condensed, or powdered or ice cream mixes are used in place of water.
viii.Fancy molded: Mold in fancy shapes and composed either of one color and flavor of ice-cream
or combination of color and flavor, which is specially decorated e.g. brick, Cake, or Cake rolled
ice-cream.
ix. Novelties: An especially shaped and usually a low priced package containing an individual
serving which main appeal consists in its shape, size and color to connivance for eating.
x. Soft ice-cream/milk shake: Sold as drawn from the freezer without hardening.
74
Flow diagram:
Selection of ingredients
Figuring the mix
Making the mix
Pasteurization the mix (68oc./30 min.)
Homoganization the mix
Cooling and ageing the mix (-4 oc.)
Freezing the mix (-4 to -5 oc.)
Packing of ice cream
Hardening and storage of ice-cream (-23 to -29 oc.)
Fig: Flow chart of ice-cream making process:
Explanation of manufactures:
1) Selection of ingredients:
The common ingredients used for selection are listed below:
a. Dairy products:
Sources of fat: Sweet cream, frozen cream, plastic cream, unsalted cream and butter oil.
Sources of SNF: Skim milk, skim milk powder, condensed skim milk etc.
Sources of fat and SNF: Whole milk, whole milk powder, condense whole milk, evaporated
skim milk.
b. Non-dairy prroducts:
Sweeting agents: Cane sugar, corn sugar, corn syrup, and saccharin.
Stabilizer: Gelatin, sodium alginate, guar, gum, carrageen and pectin etc.
Emulsifier: Mono-or di-glycerides of fat forming fatty acids.
Flavors: Vanilla, chocolate, straw berry, pineapple, lemon, banana, Mango, and orange.
Color: Yellow, green and pink.
Egg solids: Egg yolk (improve whipping ability)
Fruits and nuts: Apple, Banana, Mango, Pineapple, Grapes, Almond, Cashew nut, Walnut and
groundnut.
2) Figuring the mix:
The knowledge of calculation of ice cream mix is helpful in properly balancing a mix in establishing
and manufacturing uniform quality and producing ice-cream that conforms to legal standards. Ice-
creams mix may be divided into two groups, namely simple and complex. Simple mix requires the
least calculation and is made of ingredients each of which supplies one constituents. Complex mix
includes mixes, where at least one constituents is obtained from two or more products. Complex
mixes are more difficult to calculate.
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3) Making the mix: The milk products and other ingredients must first be selected and combined so
as to produce desire body texture and delicately blended flavor. The order in which ingredients are
added is as follows: All liquid ingredients are placed in the jacketed vat provided with stirrer and
agitation and heating started at once. The dry ingredients, including SMP, sugar and stabilizer are
added while the liquid material is agitated before of temperature 49oc. The time for adding the
stabilizer will depend upon the particular type used. Most stabilizers however are in corporated before
the mix gets too worm. Proper suspension may be obtained by either mixing the dry material
thoroughly with part of the sugar before slowly adding it to the liquid.
If sodium alginate is used, it should not be added until the temperature of
liquid material has reached at least 66 oc. The dry form of it is not allowed to soak but stirred up with
cold water and immediate by dump into the hot mix. When butter, plastic cream, frozen, or other
frozen products are used, they should be cut fairly into small process and added after time has been
given to allow for complete malting before pasteurizing temperature reached.
4) Pasteurizing milk: Proper pasteurization of all ice-cream mix helps to render the mix completely
free from pathogenic bacteria, to dissolves and blend the ingredients of the mix, to improve the flavor
and keeping quality and to produce better and uniform product. Temperature time combinations for
ice-cream mix are:
L.T.L.T.: 68.5oc for not less than 30 min.
H.T.S.T.: 80oc for not less than 25 sec.
5) Homogenization the mix: The main purpose of homogenization is to make a permanent and
uniform suspension of the fat by reducing the size of fat globules to a very smaller diameter. It helps
to prevent fat separation during ageing, to produce more uniform ice cream with a smoother texture,
to improves whipping ability shorten again period, to decrease the risk of churning and to improves
the products during freezing.
6) Cooling and ageing the mix: Cooling the mix immediately after homogenization to 0-5 oc is
essential after which it should be held in ageing tank until used. Ageing refers to the holding of mix at
low temperature for a definite time before freezing. The aging time of commercial purpose is 3-4 days
and is helps to improves body and texture of ice-cream, to improve whipping of mix, to increases
maximum over run and to increases melting resistance.
7) Freezing the mix: Freezing is most important operations, which help to improve the quality,
palatability and yield of the finished product, which is done just after ageing. It is divided into two
steps
The mix with the proper amount of color and flavoring material generally added at freezing, is quality
frozen while being agitated to incorporate air in such a way a to produce and control the formation of
ice crystals.
When the ice cream is partially frozen to a certain consistency, it is drawn from the freezr and packed
and quickly transferred to cold storage rooms, where freezing and hardening process is completed
without agitation.
The temperature of mix, which is put into, the freezer drops very rapidly while the sensible heat is
being removed before any ice crystal are formed. The process takes hardly 1 to 2 minutes. When the
freeing point is reached, the liquid water in a solid form, thus sugar and other solutes get concentrated
in the remaining liquid water. There are two process of freezing.
I) Batch freezer: A definite amount of mix is put in the freezer batch wise. The usual practice is to half
fill the barrel. This will allow to incorporation of air and expansion in volume of ice cream during
shipping. The temperature of entering mix into freezer is 40oF.
II) Continuous freezer: They have larger capacity and used in big dairy plant. Machines can be
operated continuously and package can be filled automatically directly from the freezer. Over run can
be easily controlled since it is motored into the enclosed continuous freezer system.
8) Packaging of ice-cream:
When ice cream is drawn from the freezer, it is usually collected in containers which give it the
desired shape and size for easy handling during the hardening and marketing. Process ice cream
package are two types.
I) Multi service: It is not used in modern dairy plant. A tinned steel cane is used they are cleaned,
sanitized and used repeatedly.
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II) Single service: Calculated amount filled may be for bulk. Most bulk ice cream is packaged in
fiberboard cartons coated with wax and plastic cylindrical container, polyetene bags for home
packaging.
9) Hardening and storage:
After freezing and packaging, the ice cream is placed in the hardening room which has semifluid
consistency not stiff enough to hold its final shape. Final freezing is accomplished in the hardening
room. This also serves as a storage place for the ice cream. Hardening room should maintained at
temperature below -10oF, ice cream can be hold for several months without changing the
coarse/grainy texture.
Specification of ice cream:
Characteristics: Requirements:
1) Weight (Minimum) 225gm/liter.
2) Total solids (Minimum) 36%
3) Fat (minimum) 10%
4) Acidity (maximum) 0.25%
5) Sucrose (Maximum) 15%
6) Stabilizer/Emulsifier (maximum) 0.5%
7) S.P count (Per gm) not more than 250000
8) Coliform count (per gm.) Not more than 90
9) Phosphate test Negative
10) Flavor defects Not at all
CALCULATION OF ICE CREAM MIX:

Introduction:
Calculation of ice cream mix ix helpful in properly balancing a mix in establishing and maintaining
uniform quality in producing ice cream that conform to the legal standard. Simple mix requires least
calculation and is made up of ingredients whereas complex mixes require the use of Pearson’s square
serum point and algebraic method.
Important points to be considered during calculation of mix:
 Necessary to decide upon the composition of the mix to be made.
 Necessary to decide on the amount of mix to be made in the batch at one time w/c is
calculated on the basis of 100 kg. mix.
 Be familiar with the composition of ingredients to be used.
 Since ice cream contains a higher fat content than fluid milk, some of the mix ingredients
must be higher fat content e.g. butter, butter oil.
 Milk is used as basis ingredients in preparation of ice cream mix.
 Ice cream also contains more SNF than milk, so use condensed milk, skim milk powder,
evaporated milk etc.
 Stabilizer is very effective in smoothness the texture and giving body texture for finishing
product.
 Pasteurization of ice cream mix is done to destroy harmful bacteria and to improve the
keeping quality of the mix.
 Homogenization of ice cream mix is essential to prevent churning of ice cream.
 After homogenization, mix is transferred to the ageing tank at lower temperature less than 5 oc
for 4 hours to improve the whipping ability of the mix and body texture of the finished
product.
 After ageing freezing is done to obtain good yield and qualitative ice cream in finished
product. It is done to fulfill the following objectives:
 Partial freezing of the product which is accomplished by the continuous agitation of
the mix during freezing and is measured in terms of over run because if over run is
too low, the ice cream will be heavy soggy in body texture. Desired overrun is 70-
80%.
 Incorporation of air W/C is done by freezing and too much air will produce a showy,
fluffy and unpalatable iice-cream.
Procedure:
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 Calculate the quality of each ingredients needed for 5 kg batch size by using suitable
algebraic method.
 Carefully weight milk ingredients and transfer completely into container.
 Weigh sweeting agent and keep it into processing vat.
 Weigh stabilizer and add directly to dry sweetener.
 Add the liquid ingredients to the processing vat.
 Place the vat into tank and fill the tank with hot water and start heating.
 Add sugar, stabilizer and dry ingredients to mix at 37.8oc with stirring by stirrer. When mix
reaches to 37.8oc, adjust tank temperature 71-73oc and hold for 30 min.
 Homogenize at pasteurization temperature.
 Cool the mix in tank and store it in refrigerator for ageing.
 Add flavoring agent before freezing ice cream.
 Freeze the mix in batch freezer and fill the freezer and fill the freezer up to 2/3 rd of total
volume only.
 Pack the freezer with alternate layers of ice cube, salt and run it for 30 minutes.
 After freezing, the product is ready for packaging.
 Packaging is done in different size container.
 Finally store the filled container of ice cream in refrigerator before distribution in the market.
Calculation of ice cream mix:
 Calculate the ingredients of mix to find out the required quantity along with the required
amount of sugar and stabilizer.
 Calculations are simplified by first finding the weight of ingredients needed to make 100 kg
of mix and then convert it into required volume or weight according to problem.
 Calculation is done by algebraic method.
Examples:
Prepare 50 kg of ice cream mix containing 14% fat, 38% total solid, 15% sugar and 0.5% gelatin out
of cream, milk, skim milk and condensed milk.
Ingredients:
Solids% Fat% SNF% Total
Cream 40 5.5 45.5
Milk 6 9.5 15.5
Skim milk --- 8.5 8.5
Condensed milk 11 24 35
Solution:
Let be choose any three ingredients out of four E.G. cream, skim milk, condensed milk, and let X =
cream, Y = Skim milk, and Z = Condensed milk.
a) Total weight equation:
X + Y + Z + 15 + 0.5 = 100
X + Y = Z = 84.5…………………………(i)
b) Fat equation:
40/100 x X + o/100 x Y + 11/100 x 2 = 14/100 x 100
Or, 0.4X + 0Y + 0.11Z = 14……………………..(ii)
c) Total solid equation:

45.5/100 x X + 8.5/100 x Y + 35/100 x Z = 38-15.5
Or, 0.455X + ).085Y + 0.35Z = 22.5………………..(iii)
From equation (i) and equation (ii)
(X + Y + Z = 84.5) x 4
Or, 0.4X + 0.4Y + 0.4Z = 33.5
0.4X + 0Y + 0.11Z = 14
- - - -
0.4Y + 0.29Z = 19.8……………………… (iv)
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Again,
From equation (i) and equation (iii)
(X + Y + Z = 84.5) x 0.455
Or, 0.455X + 0.455Y + 0.455Z = 38.44
0.455X + 0.085Y + 0.35Z = 22.5
- - - -
0.37 Y + 0.105Z = 15.94……………………… (v)

Again , from equation (iv) and equation (v) multiplying equation (iv) by 0.105 and equation (v) by
0.29
0.42Y + 0.03045Z = 2.07
0.1073Y + 0.03045Z =4.62
- - -
-0.065 Y = -2.55
Or, Y = 2.55/0.065 = 39.27
Therefore: Skim milk (Y) = 39.27 kg.
Putting the value of Y in equation iv),

0.4Y + 0.29Z = 19.8
Or, 0.4(39.27) + 0.29Z = 19.8
Z = 4.09/0.29 = 14.103
Therefore, condensed milk (Z) = 14.103 kg.
Again putting the value of Y and Z in equation (i)
X + Y + Z = 84.5
X + 39.27 + 14.103 = 84.5
Or, X = 31.12
Therefore, Cream (X) = 31.12 kg.
Total weight = X + Y + Z + 15.5 kg = 100
31.12 + 39.27 + 14.103 + 15.5 = 100
Or, 84.5 + 15.5 = 100
But our required amount of mix is only 50 kg. so it should be converted into 50 kg weight and given
as:
i. Cream (X) = 31.12/100 x 50 = 15.56 kg.
ii. Skim milk (Y) = 39.27/100 x 50 = 19.63 kg.
iii. Condensed milk (Z) = 14.103/100 x 50 = 7.05 kg.
iv. Sugar = 15/100 x 50 = 7.5 kg.
v. Gelatin = 0.5/100 x 50 = 0.25 kg.
Proof:
Fat%
Total fat content = 50 x 0.14 = 7kg
Cream fat content = 15.6 x 0.4 = 6.24 kg.
Skim milk fat content = 19.63 x 0 = 0
Condensed milk fat content = 7.05 x 0.11 = 0.77
Total fat content = 6.24 + 0.25 = 7 kg.
SNF%
Total SNF = 50 x 0.38 = 19 kg.
Cream SNF content = 15.6 x 0.4 = 6.24
Skim milk SNF content = 19.63 x 0.085 = 1.67 kg.
Sugar + Gelatin = 7.5 + 0.25 = 7.75
Total SNF = 18.91
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Methods of preparation
 Preparation of balance mix, weight all ingredients separately in the proportion i.e. whole milk
60%, 20% cream, 5% skim milk powder, 15% sugar, 0.5% stabilizer
 Flavour and colours are adds as per the requirements
 Put into the vat the liquid ingredients first
 Start heating and then add dry ingredients
 Gelatin stabilizer if used should be liquefied and then added in the mixture. Colour and flavour
are added just before running the mixture into the freezer
 Pasteurize the mixture to 1450F for 30 minutes and cool and 320F. Then the mixture is aged at this
temperature for 4 hours after a going put the mixture in the ice-cream pat (cylinder) upto ½ of the
capacity of the cylinder is covered
 The scrapper is then turned slowly until it is just beginning to turn hard after which it should be
turned faster to whip then necessary air into the ice cream
 After ice-cream is half frozen, it should be packed with ice and left for hardening in the
refrigerator
10. Cream:
Cream may be defined as that portion of milk which is rich in milk fat or that portion of milk
into which has been gathered and which contains a large portion of milk fat or when milk fat is
concentrated into a fraction of the original milk, that portion is known as cream.
Classification of cream:
Cream is not a definite specific substance. It contains all the milk constituents but in varying
proportions. The milk fat in cream may vary from 18-85% , the solids non-fat constituent occur
in lower proportion than in milk. Cream may be classified broadly as:
i) Market cream: Which is used for direct consumption.
ii) Manufacturing cream: This is used for the manufacture of dairy products.
The various types of cream are:

Table cream. Containing20-25% milk fat.
Light cream containing 20-25% milk fat.
Coffee cream containing 20-55% milk fat.
Whipping cream containing 30-40% milk fat.
Heavy cream containing 30-40% milk fat.
Plastic cream containing 65-85% milk fat.
COMPOSITION OF CREAM:
It will be observed that the higher the fat percentage in cream, the lower the solid non-fat
contents. The formula of determining the percentage of solid non-fat in cream is:
%SNF in cream = 100-%fat in cream x % SNF in milk
100- %fat in milk
Food and nutritive value:
Cream is rich in energy giving fat and fat soluble vitamins A, D, E & K are the content of which
depend on the fat level in cream.
Principle of cream separation:
Separation of cream from milk is possible because of a difference in specific gravity between
the fat and the liquid portion or serum. Whether separation is accomplished by gravity or
centrifugal methods, the result is dependent upon this difference. Centrifugal methods, is based
on the fact that milk fat is lighter than the skim milk portion. At 16oc (60oF), the average
density of milk fat is 0.93 and skim milk 1.036. hence when milk, which may be considered to
be a mixture of fat (as cream) and skim milk, is subjected to either gravity or centrifugal force,
the two components, viz, cream and skim milk, by virtue of their differing densities, stratify or
separate from one another.
Method of cream separation: Cream is obtained from milk by either gravity or centrifugal
methods:
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1) Gravity method:
When milk is allowed to stand for some time, there is a tendency for the fat to rise. The
velocity, or rate at which the fat globules rise, is given by the following equation, which which
is known as stock’s law.
V = 2G (ds-df) r2
9n
Where,
V = velocity or rate at which a single fat globule rises.
G = acceleration due to gravity.
df = density of fat
r =radius of fat globules.
n = viscosity of skim milk.
From stock’s law it will be observed that, theoretically, velocity is increased by
 Increase in radius of fat globules
 Increased in difference in densities of skim milk and fat
 Decreased in viscosity of skim milk.
Factors affecting the rate of rise of cream in gravity methods are:
i. Size of fat globules: As the size of fat globule increase rate F rise as increase.
ii. Temperature: Temperature increase and viscosity decreases hence velocity increase.
iii. Clumping: Cump/cluster F fat globules increases radius which increase velocity.
iv. Addition of adhesive: increase rate F rise up.
2) Centrifugal method:
When milk inters rapidly revolving bowl of the cream separator it is immediately subjected to a
tremendous centrifugal force, which is 3000-6000 times greater than gravitational force. While both
the fat and skim milk are subjected to the centrifugal force, the difference in density affect the heavier
portion (i.e. skim milk) more intensely than the lighter portion (i.e. cream). There by the skim milk is
forced to the periphery while the fat portion moves towards the center. The skim milk and cream both
form vertical walls within the bowl and are separated by being led through separate outlets. (The
cream outlet is at higher level than the skim milk outlet, both being near the axis of rotation).
11. Milk powder

Milk powder is the product obtained by the removal of water from milk by heat or other
suitable means, to produce a solid containing 5 % or less moisture. Whole milk, defatted milk
or skim milk may be used for drying. The dried product obtained from whole milk is called
dried whole milk or whole milk powder (WMP); and that from skim milk is known as dried
skim milk or skim milk powder (SMP), or non-fat dry milk (NFDM). The various dried milk
products are given specific names.
Milk
Milk power
Receiving and selection
Storage at 20oc.
Clarification
Sedimentation Packaging
Cooling 4oc.
Drying at 130-150oc. Water
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Storage of raw milk 4oc.
Homogenization
Standardization
Fat Heat treatment on 88-

Evaporation
90oc for 3-5 minutes
Flow chart of cheese making process:
Purposes of drying milk

 To remove the moisture so as to reduce bulk, there by effecting a saving in storage space and
packaging costs.
 To reduce the cost of transportation (due to reduce bulk).
 To improve the storage-life of the product (due to low moisture content)
 To provide a product this can be utilized for many food manufacturing operations.
 To conserve, as far as possible, the natural properties of the original raw materials.
Food and nutritive value

 Dry whole milk is a good source of vitamin A, calcium and phosphorus.
 It is also a valuable source of riboflavin.
 It conserves most of the natural properties of the original raw material.
 It consists most of the protein except lysine which destroy in some extent in spray drying
process and more in roller drying process.
Composition:
Types of dry milk Moisture (%) Fat (%) Protein (%) Lactase (%) Ash (%)
WMP 2 27..5 26.4 33.2 5.9
SMP 3 0.8 35.9 52.3 8
Types of dry milk:

I) Dry whole milk: Dry whole milk powder is made largely by the spray process. The term applied to
the powder made from whole milk which contained a normal percentage of milk fat.
II) Dry cream: Dry cream or cream powder is product where the moisture of cream has been
removed almost entirely by the drying process of spray drying.
III) Skim milk powder: Dry skim milk or skim milk powder is made by spray and hot roller process.
The term implies that the powder made from skim milk solid of non- fat milk solid.
IV) Dry butter milk/Butter milk powder: Butter milk powder is more frequently made by hot roller
process. The term butter milk powder is commonly understood to mean butter milk dried by the hot
roller process.
V) Dry whey/whey powder: Dry whey/whey powder is prepared either by the drum/spray process.
Due to anhydrous lactose present in the whey, it is necessary to introduce some process to encourage
lactose crystallization before drying.
METHOD OF PREPARATION:
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A) DRYING MILK BY COLD TREATMENT:

It is done by two ways:
i) Freezing out water and centrifuging: This system was proposed and replaced as early as 1884
and now a days completely replaced by heat treatment process.
ii) Drying milk by freezing and sublimation: It was developed by 1945 which consists of freezing
the product and supplying heat so that moisture is removed by sublimation without passing through
the liquid phase by maintaining a vacuum in the vaporizing chamber.
Demerits of cold treatments:
 The plant is complicated (freezing chamber, centrifuging chamber, vaporizing chamber and
sublimation chamber) operating cost are very high i.e. approx 10 times higher than that of
heat drying.
B) DRYING MILK BYHEAT TREATMENT
It consists of mainly two processes with specific differences:
1. Film, roller or drum drying systems:
Principles: The milk, preferably concentrated, is applied in a thin film upon the smooth surface
of a continuously rotating steam heated metal drum, roller or cylinder, and the film of dry milk is
continuously scraped off by a stationary knife/doctor blade/scraper, located opposite the point of
application of milk. The milk-film (in the form of a sheet) has to be ground to obtain the powder.
Advantage:
 Relatively low capital and operating costs.
 Plant is movable and occupies little floor space.
 Plant is easy to handle.
 Suitable for operating small quantities of milk economically.
 Produces milk powder of better keeping quality.
Disadvantage:
 Produces milk powder with low solubility.

 Produces cooked flavor/scorched flavor in the re-constituted milk.
EXPLANATION:
Receiving milk: Only high grade milk should be accepted.
Filtration: The chief objective is to remove extraneous matter
Standardization: This is done to adjust the ratio of fat and SNF in raw milk to meet the legal
standard for composition in final product. It is done by calculating amount of skim milk/cream.
Fore-warming: This is done for the destruction of MO and inactivation of enzymes and for
improving the physical quality of finished product. Heating skim milk to 85 oc for 10 minutes ensure
good backing properties in SMP.
Condensing: condensing process normally adjust 16-18% T.S in the final product.
Homogenization: The whole milk is usually homogenized before drying to reduce the proportion of
free fat in dried product, thereby lowering the chances of oxidized flavor development. It is carried
out at 63-77oc in two stages 2500 PSI in 1st stage and 500 PSI in 2nd stage.
Preheating: It increases the efficiency of drum drying. It is carried out by heating the milk to 74-85 oc
before pumping into the reservoir between the drums.
Drum drying: The drum are normally horizontal, hollow steel cylinders of 3-12ft.in length and 2-4ft.
in diameter. They are heated internally by steam usually at 4.2 to 4.9kg/sq.cm (60-70 PSI) with
83
suitable arrangement. In case of double drums, the cylinders are mounted parallel to each other about
0.5 to 0.75mm apart.
The product may be placed in its natural form/pre-condensed form in a vacuum pan/evaporator before
it is fed to the drum drier. The product is usually pre-heated and pumped turning drums. The blade
which is sharp, hard and flexible knife scrapes the dried material from the drum. The anger for each
drum discharges the product to the elevator, then to the grinder which pulverizes the product, then it
shifted to the packaging unit it is packaged, stored and marketed.
Packaging: Packaging by hand is undesirable as it is difficult to avoid dust, wastage, manual contact
and generate discomfort. Powder filling machine may be used for large containers. This type depend
upon the nature of the container. Semi-automatic single head machine may be used for large container
while fully automatic multi-head rotatory machine is used for rapid filling of small containers. Fiber
board cartoon with laminated paper, polyethene bag, foil and paper lining etc. are used for packaging.
Yield: The yield of milk powder will depend on the %TS in raw material, moisture retained in the
finished product and losses in manufacturing.
Storage: Since high storage temperature deteriorates the keeping quality of dried milk, temperature
lower than 24oc is desirable for storage purpose. To ensure maximum keeping quality, the dry product
should be stored in a vapor proof, moisture proof, and sealed package in a dark, cool and dry place.
Refrigerated storage should be used for long storage in warm climate.
2. Spray drying system
The basic principle of spray drying consists in atomizing the milk, preferable pre-heated and
concentrated, to form a spray of very minute droplets (fog –like mist ), which are directed into a
large, suitably designed drying chamber, where they mixed intimately with a current of hot air.
Owing to their large surface area, the milk particles surrender their moisture practically
instantaneously and dry to a fine powder, which is removed continuously.
Advantages:
 Milk powder is superior in appearance, flavor and solubility.
 Most economical when large quality of milk are handled.
Disadvantage:
 Involves large capital investment in plant and building.
 Plant is complicated.
3. Foam-spray drying
Common dairy products such as skim milk, whole milk, butter-milk, sweet and sour cream, whey
and emulsified cheese slurry can be foam-spray dried. This is done by forcing the ‘gas’ into the
liquid product after the pump but before the atomizer. Air is commonly used as the added gas for
making foam-spray non-fat dry milk, and nitrogen for foam-spray dried whole milk.
EXPLANATION:
a) Whole milk powder: (WMP)
i. Receiving: Only high grade milk should be accepted.

ii. Cooling: It is done to preserve the quality of milk.
iii. Standardization: This is done to adjust the ratio of fat and SNF in raw milk to meet the legal
standard for composition in final product. It is done by calculating amount of skim milk/cream.
iv. Preheating: For efficient filtration and clarification.
v. Filtration: The chief objectives is that to remove extraneous matter.
vi. Homogenization: It is done to improve the keeping quality of the powder. A pressure of 2500
PSI on 1st stage and 500 PSI on 2nd stage is sufficient at 63oC and 74oC respectively.
vii. Heating: The main objectives is to prolong the self-life of dried product by inactivation of lipase
enzymes. It serves the purpose of pre-heating to ensure also the pasteurization, thus reducing the
micro-organisms. Temperature-time combination of heating is 32 oC for 15min or 93oC for 3 min.
viii.Condensing: Normally a concentration of 35-40% T.S. is produced and concentrate continuously
removed from the evaporator with the help of density tester.
84
ix. Pre-heating: In order to increase the efficiency of spray drying condensed milk is heated to 71 oC
in heat exchanger before pumping.
x. Pumping: This operation forces the hot concentrate through the automizer with 2500 PSI
pressure.
xi. Spray drying: The condensed milk is sprayed/automized into the hot air chamber where the
finally divided milk particles are dried as they fall to the bottom. A portion of the very fine
particles may blow without going air and for this reason various devices are provide to catch this
portion of dried milk. The hot air may be filtered through fine mask/cloth/it may be washed free
of powder with incoming milk.
After the dried milk has fallen to the floor of the drying chamber, it is
removed automatically either by means of mechanical devices or suction/operator may removes
by means of shovel.
Milk is dried with inlet hot air at 143-232 oC and exit at 74-993oC depending upon product
characteristics.
xii. Cooling: It is essential to cool the powder immediately to a temperature below the melting point.
Because higher the temperature and longer the time above the melting point adversely affect the
keeping quality of the product.
xiii.Shifting: For shifting purpose 12 mesh screen is used to sift the WMP or vacuum treatment may
provide for sifting purpose.
xiv. Packaging: Packaging by hand is undesirable as it is difficult to avoid dust, wastage, manual
contact and generate discomfort. Powder filling machine may be used for large containers. This
type depend upon the nature of the container. Semi-automatic single head machine may be used
for large container while fully automatic multi-head rotatory machine is used for rapid filling of
small containers. Fiber board cartoon with laminated paper, polyethene bag, foil and paper lining
etc. are used for packaging.
xv. Storage: Since high storage temperature deteriorates the keeping quality of dried milk,
temperature lower than 24oc is desirable for storage purpose. To ensure maximum keeping
quality, the dry product should be stored in a vapor proof, moisture proof, and sealed package in a
dark, cool and dry place. Refrigerated storage should be used for long storage in warm climate.
b) Skim milk powder (SMP):
i. Receiving
ii. Cooling
iii. Preheating and separation: Cream can be separated with pre-heating with taking
consideration of high degree of separation efficiency i.e. is not more than 0.1%. fat.
iv. Pasteurization: It manufacture requires producing the minimum number of heat induced
changes, it may go through the love heat treatment. But higher heat treatment imparts good
baking quality to the powder. For this purpose pasteurized the milk at 71 oC/15 seconds and
second time at 85oC for 20 minutes before condensing.
v. Condensing: Normally condensed to 40-42% of total solid in final product.
vi. Re-heating: This is done to increase the efficiency of drying.
vii. Filtration: This is done to remove any extraneous matter from the concentrate before
automization, so that it can functional smoothly.
viii.Pumping: This operation forces the hot concentrate through the automizer with 2500 PSI
pressure.
ix. Spray dry: The condensed milk is sprayed/automized into the hot air chamber where the
finally divided milk particles are dried as they fall to the bottom. A portion of the very fine
particles may blow without going air and for this reason various devices are provide to catch
this portion of dried milk. The hot air may be filtered through fine mask/cloth/it may be
washed free of powder with incoming milk.
After the dried milk has fallen to the floor of the drying chamber, it is
removed automatically either by means of mechanical devices or suction/operator may removes
by means of shovel. Low heat skim milk powder is dried up 3-4% moisture and in high heat SMP
is dried not more than 3.5% moisture.
x. Cooling: The dry product should be cooled at once. If the skim milk powder is too hot when
packaged, it may become lumpy due to heat caking.
85
xi. Shifting: For shifting purpose 25 mesh screen is commonly used for shifting dry skim milk.
xii. Packaging. : Packaging by hand is undesirable as it is difficult to avoid dust, wastage,
manual contact and generate discomfort. Powder filling machine may be used for large
containers. This type depend upon the nature of the container. Semi-automatic single head
machine may be used for large container while fully automatic multi-head rotatory machine is
used for rapid filling of small containers. Fiber board cartoon with laminated paper,
polyethene bag, foil and paper lining etc. are used for packaging.
xiii.Storage: Since high storage temperature deteriorates the keeping quality of dried milk,
temperature lower than 24oc is desirable for storage purpose. To ensure maximum keeping
quality, the dry product should be stored in a vapor proof, moisture proof, and sealed package
in a dark, cool and dry place. Refrigerated storage should be used for long storage in warm
climate.
Storage of dried milk:
Characteristics WMP SMP
Flavor odor Good Good
Moisture % (Maximum) 40% 5%
TS% 96% 95%
Solubility index (minimum) 85ml (rolled dried) 85ml (rolled dried)
98.5 ml (sprayed dry) 98.5 ml (sprayed dry)
Total ash on dry basis % Maximum 7.3 9.3
Fat% (minimum) 26% 1-5%
Total acidity % 1.2% 1.5%
Bacterial count per gram (max) 50000 50000
Coliform count per gram (max) 90 90
Legal standardization of different dairy products in Nepal

Standard of milk and milk products as per Nepal Food Act 2023
S.N. Milk and milk products Minimum standards
1. Cow milk Fat- minimum 3.5%
SNF- minimum 7.5%
2. Buffalo milk Fat- minimum 5%
SNF- minimum 8%
3. Pasteurized milk Fat- minimum 3%
SNF- minimum 8%
Coliform test- absence of coliform test
Total microbial count/ml- not more than 50000/ml
4. Cream Fat- minimum 18%
5. Butter Fat- minimum 80%
Water- maximum 16% but can be put upto 18%
Milk solid matter- maximum- 2%
6. Dahi Should meet the minimum standards of cow or buffalo
processed milk
7. Ghee Water- maximum 0.5%
Free fatty acids- maximum 3%
Butyro-refractometer reading- 42 to 45 at 400C
8. Evaporated milk Fat- minimum 7.8%

SNF- 25.9%
9. Sweetened condensed milk Fat- minimum 8%
SNF- 28%
Sugar added
86
Minimum standard of raw milk testing

S.N. Tests Minimum standards
1. Organoleptic test Normal
2. Clot on boiling test Do not clot on boiling
3. Alcohol test Do not clot while testing with 60% alcohol
4. Fat test 3.5% for cow milk and 5.1% for buffalo milk
5. SNF test 8.1% for cow milk and 8.3% for buffalo milk
6. Adultration test Mix nothing
Costing of different dairy products
87

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Dairy and Dairy Product Technology

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Dairy and Dairy Product Technology

Unit-2 Mammary system, milk letdown and hormones

Unit-3 Clean milk production

Unit-5 Milk quality

Unit-6 Fluid milk

Unit-7 Buying and collection of milk

Unit-8 Product processing

Dairying situation in Nepal

season; August-September to January-February, 90% calving in Augest to November; lean

Demand and supply of milk and milk products in Nepal

Importance of milk and milk products

1. Role of dairy sector in poverty reduction

3. Socio-Cultural and Political Dynamics

Scope of milk and milk products

vi. MDCS: Milk Products Co-operative supply.

Branches of dairy sciences:

Dairy farming Dairy technology Dairy microbiology

Function of mammary glands

Physiology of mammary gland

Figure: Support system of udder

2. Glandular system (Secreting tissue)

Figure: Structure of alveolus

Figure: Glandular system of Mammary gland

B. Anatomy or growth of mammary gland

Figure: Blood flow to and from the mammary gland

F. Neuro-hormonal reflex or milk ejection or milk letdown or milk withdrawal

Species Lactation period

Factors affecting milk withdrawal

Hormones related to Mammary gland development, Lactation, Involution and regeneration

Hormonal control of mammary development

Hormonal control of lactation:

Sources of milk constituents/Biosynthesis of Milk

Milk constituents and their blood precursors

Milk Constituents Blood precursors

Water and minerals in milk

Synthetic hormones related to milking process

Hypothalamus (single): pituitary gland (L.H and F.S.H)

Egg migration down to fallopian tube

Progesterone is released by CL (corpus leutem)

Progesterone promotes pregnancy

CL break (if pregnancy)

High level of estrogen/progesterone

Prevents further egg maturation

Hormones response udder for lactation.

Figure: Level of hormone during lactation

Sources of milk constituents:

Glucose + ATP Hexokinase glucose 6-p + ADP

Glucose- 6- p Phosphoglucokinue glucose- 1- p

Gluose – 1- p UDP (Uridine diphosphate) UDP – glucose – pyrophosphate

UDP – Glucose Galactose u – epimerase UDP Galactose

UDP galacotose +glucose lactose synthesase Lactose + UDP

Metabolic disorders affecting lactation in Bovine, Sheep and goat

Decrease glucose level in blood.

Lack of CHO in hepatic cells.

Production of ketone bodies.

 There will be increased hepatic lipogenosis with accumulation of lipids in enlarged

Figure: Full hand milking

Figure: Stripping method of milking

Figure: Fisting or Knuckling method of milking

d) Full hand milking followed by stripping

Figure: Machine Milking