Chapter 4 Flow Measurement and Bernoulli Equation

Diploma in Civil Engineering DCC30122 FLUID MECHANICS
CHAPTER 4 :
FLOW MEASUREMENT AND

BERNOULLI’S EQUATION
DISEDIAKAN OLEH:
AZMI BIN MOHAMMAD
JABATAN KEJURUTERAAN AWAM
POLITEKNIK SULTAN SHAH
COURSE LEARNING OUTCOMES (CLO):
CLO2:
Determine the principles of fluid mechanics

engineering in pipe flow appropriately. (C4, PLO2)
PLO 2 :
Identify and analyze well-defined engineering

problems reaching substantiated conclusions using
codified methods of analysis specific to their field of
activity (DK1 to DK4).
DEFINE VELOCITY AND FLOW RATE
Diploma in Civil Engineering
FLOW RATE
The quantity of a liquid, flowing per second
through a section of a pipe or a channel.
Also known as rate of discharge or simply
discharge. It is generally denoted by Q.
Unit = m3/s
Q = Rate of flow or Discharge (m3/s)

A = Cross-sectional area of pipe (m2)
V = Velocity of fluid across the section
(m/s)
DEFINE VELOCITY AND FLOW RATE
Velocity
❑ The average speed of an object is defined
as the distance traveled divided by the
time elapsed.
❑ It is generally denoted by v.
❑ Unit = m/s
s = distance travel
t = time
STATE CONTINUITY EQUATION
CONTINUITY EQUATION
If an incompressible
liquid is continuously
flowing through a
pipe or a channel
(whose cross-sectional
area my or may not be
constant) the quantity
of liquid passing per
Figure 6.1. Continuity of a liquid flow
second is the same at

all section
a) Q1 = Q2
1 2
b) Q1 = Q2
CALCULATE THE VELOCITY AND FLOW RATE USING CONTINUITY EQUATION
Example 1
Water is flowing through a pipe of
100 mm diameter with an average
velocity of 10 m/s. Determine the rate
of discharge of the water. Also
determined the velocity of water at the
other end of the pipe, if the diameter of
the pipe is gradually changed to
200 mm
Solution: 1 2
𝐷1 = 0.1 𝑚 , 𝑣1 = 10 𝑚/𝑠
𝜋𝐷2 𝜋 × 0.12
𝐴1 = = = 7.854 × 10−3 𝑚2
4 4 𝑄1 = 𝑄2
𝑄 = 𝐴𝑣 = 7.854 × 10−3 × 10 = 0.0785 𝑚3 /𝑠
𝑄1 = 𝑄2 𝐷2 = 0.2 𝑚
𝐴1 𝑣1 = 𝐴2 𝑣2 𝜋𝐷2 𝜋 × 0.22
𝐴2 = = = 0.0314 𝑚2
4 4
𝐴1 𝑣1
𝑣2 =
𝐴2
0.0785
𝑣2 = 0.0314
𝒗𝟐 = 𝟐. 𝟓 𝒎/𝒔
Example 2
Figure 6.2
A pipe AB branches into two pipes C and D as

shown in figure 3.2. The pipe has diameter of
0.45m at A, 0.3m at B, 0.2m at C and 0.15m at D.
Find the discharge at A, if the velocity of water at
A is 2 m/s. Also find out the velocities at B and
D, if velocity at C is 4 m/s.
Solution:
Discharge at A
𝐷𝐴 = 0.45 𝑚 , 𝑣𝐴 = 2 𝑚/𝑠
𝜋𝐷2 𝜋 × 0.452
𝐴𝐴 = = = 0.159 𝑚2
4 4
𝑄𝐴 = 𝐴𝐴 𝑣𝐴 = 0.159 × 2 = 0.318𝑚3 /𝑠
velocity at B
𝐷𝐵 = 0.3𝑚
𝜋𝐷2 𝜋 × 0.32
𝐴𝐵 = = = 0.0707 𝑚2
4 4
𝑄𝐵 = 𝑄𝐴
𝑄𝐵 = 𝐴𝐵 𝑣𝐵
𝑄𝐵 0.318
𝑣𝐵 = = = 4.5𝑚/𝑠
𝐴𝐵 0.0707
velocity at D
𝐷𝐶 = 0.2𝑚 , 𝐷𝐷 = 0.15𝑚
𝜋𝐷2 𝜋 × 0.22
𝐴𝐶 = = = 0.0314 𝑚2
4 4
𝜋𝐷2 𝜋 × 0.152
𝐴𝐷 = = = 0.0177 𝑚2
4 4
𝑄𝐵 = 𝑄𝐶 + 𝑄𝐷
𝑄𝐷 = 𝑄𝐵 − 𝑄𝐶
= 0.318 − 0.0314 × 4
= 0.1924𝑚3 /𝑠
𝑄𝐷 0.1924
𝑣𝐷 = = = 10.9 𝑚/𝑠
𝐴𝐷 0.0177
EXERCISE 4.1
1. The water is flowing through a pipe line of 100 mm

diameter with a velocity of 1.5 m/s. Determine the
discharge through the pipe. [Ans. 0.0118 m3/s]
2. Find the size of pipe, which has to discharge an oil, at

the rate of 2 m3/s and of specific gravity 0.8 with a
velocity of 3 m/s . [Ans. 0.92m]
3. What is the flow rate of water in l/s for a 0.2m

diameter pipe, if the average velocity of flow is 1.5m/s.
if the pipe reduces to 0.1m din diameter at another
section. What is the velocity of flow at that section?
[Ans. 47.1 l/s; 6 m/s]
4. Water runs through a water main of cross-sectional

area 0.4 m2 with a velocity of 6 m/s. Calculate the
velocity of the water in the pipe when the pipe tapers
down to a cross-sectional area of 0.3 m2. [Ans. 8 m/s]
5. Water enters a typical garden hose of diameter 1.6 cm

with a velocity of 3 m/s. Calculate the exit velocity of
water from the garden hose when a nozzle of diameter
0.5 cm is attached to the end of the hose.
[Ans. 30.6 m/s]
6. Water is flowing through a pipe, the velocity and rate of

flow are 2.55 m/s and 2 m3/s. Find the diameter of a
pipe? [Ans. d=1.00 m]
7. The diameters of a pipe at the sections 1 and 2 are 10
cm and 15 cm respectively. Find the discharge through
the pipe if the velocity of water flowing through the
pipe at section 1 is 5 m/s. Determine also the velocity at
section 2.
[Answer]
𝑸𝟏= 0.18 𝑚3 / s
𝑨𝟏= 0.07 𝑚2
𝑨𝟐= 0.03 𝑚2
𝑨𝟑= 0.02 𝑚2
𝒗𝟑= 0.18 𝑚3 /𝑠
• Bernoulli’s theorem states that ‘for a perfect
incompressible stream, the total energy of a particle
remains the same, while the particle moves from one
point to another.
• It is assume that there are no losses due to friction in the
pipe.
Where,
The Bernoulli’s equation as

expresses above can be
applied between any two
points, 1 and 2 (or 2 and 3
or 1 and 3) as shown in
Figure 6.7 in a steady flow
of an incompressible fluid
as Figure 6.7
CALCULATE FLOW RATE OF FLOW THROUGH UNIFORM AND TAPERED PIPE
Example 3
A pipe is 50mm in diameter and
pressure is 200kN/m2 with an average
velocity of 2m/s. Plumbing is at level
of 9m from datum. Calculate the total
energy when water flows through pipe.
Solution:
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦
𝑣2 𝑃
=𝑧+ +
2𝑔 𝜌𝑔
22 200 × 1000
=9+ +
2 × 9.81 1000 × 9.81
= 29.59𝑚
Example 4
Figure 6.8
The diameter of a pipe changes from 200 mm at a section

5 meters above datum to 50 mm at section 3 meters
above datum (Figure 6.8). The pressure of water at first
section is 500kPa. If the velocity of flow at the first
section is 1 m/s, determine the intensity of pressure at
the second section.
Solution:
𝐷1 = 0.2 𝑚 , 𝑣1 = 1 𝑚/𝑠
𝜋𝐷2 𝜋 × 0.22
𝐴1 = = = 0.0314 𝑚2
4 4
𝐷2 = 0.05 𝑚 , 𝑣2 =?
𝜋𝐷2 𝜋 × 0.052
𝐴2 = = = 1.963 × 10−3 𝑚2
4 4
𝐴1 𝑣1 = 𝐴2 𝑣2
𝐴1 𝑣1
𝑣2 =
𝐴2
0.0314×1
𝑣2 = 1.963×10−3
𝒗𝟐 = 𝟏𝟔 𝒎/𝒔
𝐴𝑝𝑝𝑙𝑦𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝐵𝑒𝑟𝑛𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑖 ′ 𝑠 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑏𝑜𝑡ℎ 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑒𝑛𝑑𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑝𝑖𝑝𝑒
𝑣12 𝑃1 𝑣22 𝑃
𝑧1 + + = 𝑧2 + + 𝜌𝑔2
2𝑔 𝜌𝑔 2𝑔
12 500 × 1000 162 𝑃2

5+ + =3+ +
2 × 9.81 1000 × 9.81 2 × 9.81 1000 × 9.81
𝑃2
5 + 0.05 + 50.97 = 3 + 13.05 +
9810
𝑃2
= 39.97
9810
𝑃2 = 3922105.5 N/𝑚2
Example 5
Figure 6.9
A pipe 300 meters long has a slope 1 in 100 and

tapers from 1 meter diameter at the higher end to
0.5 meter at the lower end. The quantity of water
flowing is 900 liters/second. If the pressure the
higher end is 70kPa, find the pressure at the lower
end
Solution:
𝐷1 = 0.5 𝑚 , 𝑣1 =?
𝜋𝐷2 𝜋 × 0.52 𝑧1 = 0 ,𝑠𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒 = 1 𝑖𝑛 100
𝐴1 = = = 0.196 𝑚2
4 4 1
𝑧2 = × 300 = 3𝑚
𝐷2 = 1 𝑚 , 𝑣2 =? 100
𝜋𝐷2 𝜋 × 12
𝐴2 = = = 0.785 𝑚2
4 4
𝑄 0.9
𝑣1 = = = 4.59 𝑚/𝑠
𝐴1 0.196
𝑄 0.9
𝑣2 = = = 1.15 𝑚/𝑠
𝐴2 0.785
𝐴𝑝𝑝𝑙𝑦𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝐵𝑒𝑟𝑛𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑖 ′ 𝑠 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑏𝑜𝑡ℎ 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑒𝑛𝑑𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑝𝑖𝑝𝑒
𝑣12 𝑃1 𝑣22 𝑃2
𝑧1 + + = 𝑧2 + +
2𝑔 𝜌𝑔 2𝑔 𝜌𝑔
4.592 𝑃1 1.152 70 × 1000

0+ + =3+ +
2 × 9.81 1000 × 9.81 2 × 9.81 1000 × 9.81
𝑃1
1.08 + = 3 + 0.07 + 7.14
9810
𝑃1
= 9.13
9810
𝑃1 = 89565.3 N/𝑚2
Diploma in Civil Engineering CC303 Hydraulics I
EXERCISE 4.2
1. A uniformly tapering pipe has a 120mm and 80mm

diameters at its ends. If the velocity of water at the larger
end is 2m/s, find the discharge at the larger end and the
velocity head at the smaller.
2. Find the total head of water flowing with the velocity of 8

m/s under a pressure 80kPa. The center line of the pipe is
5m above the datum line.
3. A horizontal pipe 100m long uniformly tapers from 300mm

diameter to 200mm diameter. What is the pressure at the
smaller end, if the pressure at the larger end is 100kPa and
the pipe is discharging 50 liters of water per second.
4. A pipe 5 meter long is inclined at angle of 15o with
the horizontal. The smaller section of the pipe,
which is at lower level, is of 80 mm diameter and
the larger section of the pipe is 240 mm diameter
as shown in Figure 6.10. Determine the difference
of pressure between the two sections, if the pipe is
uniformly tapering and the velocity of water at the
smaller section is 1m/s
Figure 6.10
5. Water is flowing through a pipe at the rate 35

liters/s having diameters 200 mm and 100 mm at
section 1 and 2 respectively. The section 1 is 4m
above the datum and section 2 is 2m above the
datum. Find the pressure at section 2 if the
pressure at section 1 is 40kPa.
CALCULATE FLOW RATE OF FLOW THROUGH VENTURI METER
VENTURI METER
VENTURI METER
Figure 6.11
A venturimeter is an apparatus for finding out the

discharge of a liquid flowing in a pipe. Its consist of the
following three parts:
a) Convergent cone
b) Throat
c) Divergent cone
• The liquid, while flowing through the venturimeter, is

accelerated between the section 1 and 2.
• As a result of acceleration, the velocity of the liquid at section

2 (the throat) become higher than that at section 1.
• This increase in velocity results in considerably decreasing

the pressure at section 2.
• The liquid, while flowing through the venturimeter, is

decelerated between the section 2 and 3.
• As a result, the velocity of liquid decrease which consequently
increase the pressure.
FORMULA
Example 6:
Figure 6.12
One ventury meter has a diameter of 76mm and throat

of 38mm as shown in Figure 6.12. The pressure
difference is measured by mercury manometer. The
level of mercury in two different arms of the
manometer is 266mm. If the 2200 liters of water flow
through the ventury meter in 4 minutes, determine the
coefficient of discharge
Solution:
Solution:
Example 7:
Figure 6.13
One ventury meter has a diameter of 20cm and throat

of 12.5cm as shown in Figure 6.13. The pressure
difference is measured by mercury manometer. The
level of mercury in two different arms of the
manometer is 87.8cm. Calculate the discharge at the
throat.
𝐴1 𝐴2
𝑄𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 = 2𝑔𝐻
𝐴12 − 𝐴22
𝐷1 = 0.2 𝑚
𝜋𝐷2 𝜋 × 0.22
𝐴1 = = = 0.0314 𝑚2
4 4
𝐷2 = 0.125 𝑚
𝜋𝐷2 𝜋 × 0.1252
𝐴2 = = = 0.0123 𝑚2
4 4
𝜌′ = 13600 𝑘𝑔/𝑚3 , 𝜌 = 1000 𝑘𝑔/𝑚3 , 𝑥 = 0.266 𝑚
𝜌′ − 𝜌 𝑥 13600 − 1000 0.878

𝐻= = = 11.063
𝜌 1000
𝐴1 𝐴2
𝑄= 2𝑔𝐻
𝐴12 − 𝐴22
(0.0314) × 0.0123
𝑄= 2 × 9.81 × 11.063
0.0314 2 − 0.0123 2
5.69 × 10−3
𝑄=
0.0289
𝑄 = 0.196 𝑚3 /𝑠
CALCULATE FLOW RATE OF FLOW THROUGH SMALL AND LARGE ORIFICE
ORIFICE
• An opening, in a vessel, through which the liquid
flow out is known as an orifice.
• The usual purpose of an orifice is the measurement

of discharge,
• An orifice may be provided in vertical side of a

vessel or in the base.
• There are many types of orifice depending upon

their size; example: small orifice and large orifice
orifice
orifice
VENA CONTRACTA
• Consider a tank, fitted
with an orifice, as shown
in Figure 6.14
• The liquid particles, in
order to flow out through
the orifice, move towards
the orifice from all
direction. Figure 6.14
• It may be noted, that the
liquid particles lose some
energy, while taking the
turn to enter into the
orifice.
• Thus, observed that the

jet, after leaving the
orifice get contracted.
• The maximum
contraction takes place
at a section slightly on
the downstream side of
the orifice, where the
jet is more or less Figure 6.14
horizontal.
• Such a section is known
as vena contracta as
shown by the section C-C
in Figure 6.14
Coefficient of contraction, Cc
The ratio of area of the jet at vena contracta to the
area of the orifice
Coefficient of velocity, Cv
The ratio of actual velocity of the jet at vena

contracta to the theoretical velocity of the jet
Coefficient of discharge, Cd
The ratio of actual discharge through an orifice to
the theoretical discharge
Formula
Example 8:
A jet of water issues from an orifice

of diameter 16mm under a constant
head 1.5m. Find the coefficient of
discharge for the orifice, when the
actual discharge is 0.65 litres/s
Solution:
Example 9:
A 60 mm diameter orifice is
discharging water under a head of
9m. Calculate the real discharge
and the velocity at vena contracta, if
Cd = 0.625 and Cv = 0.98.
𝑄 = 𝐶𝑑 𝐴 2𝑔ℎ 𝑣 = 𝐶𝑣 2𝑔ℎ
𝑣 = 0.98 × 2 × 9.81 × 9
𝐷 = 0.06 𝑚 , 𝐶𝑑 = 0.625 𝑣 = 13.02 𝑚/𝑠
𝜋𝐷2 𝜋 × 0.062
𝐴= = = 2.827 × 10−3 𝑚2
4 4
𝑄 = 𝐶𝑑 𝐴 2𝑔ℎ
𝑄 = 0.625 × 2.827 × 10−3 2 × 9.81 × 9

𝑄 = 0.0234 𝑚3 /𝑠
Example 10:
A jet of water issues from an

orifice under a head of 160mm.
Determine the coefficient of
velocity of the jet, if the horizontal
distance travelled by a point on
the jet is 320mm and vertical
distance is 170mm.
Solution:
Example 11:
Water of discharge at the rate of 98.2

liters/s through a 120mm diameter
vertical sharp edged orifice under a
constant head of 10m. A point, on the
jet measured from the vena contracta
has co-ordinates of 4.5m horizontal and
0.54m vertical. Find the values of Cv, Cc
and Cd the orifice.
ℎ = 10𝑚 , 𝑥 = 4.5𝑚 , 𝑦 = 0.54𝑚
𝑥2 4.52
𝐶𝑣 = = = 0.96
4𝑦ℎ 4 × 0.54 × 10
𝐷 = 0.12 𝑚 , 𝑄 = 0.0982𝑚3 /𝑠
𝜋𝐷2 𝜋 × 0.122
𝐴= = = 0.0113 𝑚2
4 4
𝑄 = 𝐶𝑑 𝐴 2𝑔ℎ
0.0982 = 𝐶𝑑 × 0.0113 2 × 9.81 × 10

0.0982
𝐶𝑑 =
0.1582
𝐶𝑑 = 0.62
𝐶𝑑 = 𝐶𝑣 × 𝐶𝑐
𝐶𝑑
𝐶𝑐 =
𝐶𝑣
0.62
𝐶𝑐 =
0.96
𝐶𝑐 = 0.65
LARGE ORIFICE
Example 12:
A rectangular orifice of 1.5m wide and

0.5m deep is discharging water from a
tank. If the water level in the tank is 3m
above the top edge of the orifice, find
the discharge through the orifice. Take
the coefficient discharge for the orifice
as 0.6.
𝐶𝑑 = 0.6 , 𝑏 = 1.5𝑚 , 𝐻1 = 3𝑚 , 𝐻2 = 3.5𝑚

3 3
2
𝑄 = 𝐶𝑑 𝑏 2𝑔(𝐻22 − 𝐻12 )
3
2
𝑄 = × 0.6 × 1.5 × 2 × 9.81 3.53 − 33
3
𝑄 = 3.592 𝑚3/𝑠
EXERCISE 4.3
1. A flow passes through an orifice of diameter
25mm under a head of water 1.22 is 1.53 x
10-3 m3/s. Calculate the discharge coefficient.
2. Find the discharge through a small orifice of

150mm deep and 400mm wide under a
constant head of 250mm. Take Cd as 0.625.
3. A jet of water issues from an orifice
under a head of 160mm. Determine
the coefficient of velocity of the jet, if
the horizontal distance travelled by a
point on the jet is 320mm and vertical
distance is 170mm.
4. Find the discharge through a small

orifice of 150mm deep and 400mm
wide under a constant head of 250mm.
Take Cd as 0.625.
5. In laboratory, 53.5 litres of water per

second is collected through a small
orifice of 100 mm deep and 250mm
wide under a constant head of
600mm. Find the coefficient of
discharge.

Chapter 4 Flow Measurement and Bernoulli Equation

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Chapter 4 Flow Measurement and Bernoulli Equation

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Diploma in Civil Engineering DCC30122 FLUID MECHANICS

FLOW MEASUREMENT AND

Determine the principles of fluid mechanics

Identify and analyze well-defined engineering

Q = Rate of flow or Discharge (m3/s)

second is the same at

𝑄 = 𝐴𝑣 = 7.854 × 10−3 × 10 = 0.0785 𝑚3 /𝑠

A pipe AB branches into two pipes C and D as

1. The water is flowing through a pipe line of 100 mm

2. Find the size of pipe, which has to discharge an oil, at

3. What is the flow rate of water in l/s for a 0.2m

4. Water runs through a water main of cross-sectional

5. Water enters a typical garden hose of diameter 1.6 cm

6. Water is flowing through a pipe, the velocity and rate of

The Bernoulli’s equation as

The diameter of a pipe changes from 200 mm at a section

12 500 × 1000 162 𝑃2

A pipe 300 meters long has a slope 1 in 100 and

4.592 𝑃1 1.152 70 × 1000

1. A uniformly tapering pipe has a 120mm and 80mm

2. Find the total head of water flowing with the velocity of 8

3. A horizontal pipe 100m long uniformly tapers from 300mm

5. Water is flowing through a pipe at the rate 35

A venturimeter is an apparatus for finding out the

• The liquid, while flowing through the venturimeter, is

• As a result of acceleration, the velocity of the liquid at section

• This increase in velocity results in considerably decreasing

• The liquid, while flowing through the venturimeter, is

One ventury meter has a diameter of 76mm and throat

One ventury meter has a diameter of 20cm and throat

𝜌′ − 𝜌 𝑥 13600 − 1000 0.878

• The usual purpose of an orifice is the measurement

• An orifice may be provided in vertical side of a

• There are many types of orifice depending upon

• Thus, observed that the

The ratio of actual velocity of the jet at vena

A jet of water issues from an orifice

𝑄 = 0.625 × 2.827 × 10−3 2 × 9.81 × 9

A jet of water issues from an

Water of discharge at the rate of 98.2

0.0982 = 𝐶𝑑 × 0.0113 2 × 9.81 × 10

A rectangular orifice of 1.5m wide and

𝐶𝑑 = 0.6 , 𝑏 = 1.5𝑚 , 𝐻1 = 3𝑚 , 𝐻2 = 3.5𝑚

2. Find the discharge through a small orifice of

4. Find the discharge through a small

5. In laboratory, 53.5 litres of water per

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