Soil: Origin, formation, composition, soil profile.

The word Soil is derived from Latin word “Solum” which means earthy
materials in which plants grows. The science which deals with the
study of soil is called “Pedology” or “Edaphology”. It is defined as an
unconsolidated layer, formed from lithological – varying rocks by
weathering agencies which is modified by many organic and
biochemical processes.

Soil Profile:
A soil consists of three horizontal layers. They are true soil at the top,
sub soil and bedrock. Each horizon is different from other by its own
physical and chemical composition and organic contents produced
during the process of soil formation.
Soil Texture:
Soil texture refers to the mixture of different soil particles grading
from coarse into fine grades of gravel, sand, silt and clay. Soil with a
large proportion of sand grains are called Sandy Soils. Clayey Soils
have a large proportion of clay particles and a little of sand, and soils,
with fairly equal proportions of sand, silt and clay are called loams.

Loams can be termed as sandy loam, silty loam and clayey loam,
depending upon the preponderance of sand, silt or clay respectively.
Soils are said to be acid, neutral and alkaline on the basis of their
chemical properties. Soils with low lime content are called acid and
alkaline are soils with high lime content.

Soil Formation:
Soil is a stratified mixture of organic and inorganic materials and both
are decomposed products. The organic matter are derived from plant
and animal life as well as moisture and air, while the inorganic matter
is supplemented by parent rocks, topography and time which are
considered as passive agents. The factors supplementing organic
matter are called active agents.

Soil Classification/Types:
Soils are generally divided into two classes —Zonal soils or Residual
soils, and Azonal soils. Zonal soils are those which are generally
developed on well- drained, gently sloping land under the prolonged
action of climate and vegetation. Azonal soils are young immature
soils, developed on steep mountain slopes or recently deposited
sediments laid down by agents of gradation like rivers. Soils developed
on recent volcanic deposits are also known as azonal soils.

Zonal Soils:
1. Podzol:
It is found in those areas where subarctic, humid, cool, continental
type of climate dominates. It is usually infertile, due to deficiencies of
calcium, magnesium, phosphorous and potassium. Only conifers
which do not require these minerals grow well. It includes areas of
former U.S.S.R, Finland and parts of Sweden.

2. Laterite Soil:
It is found in hot and humid regions of the world, that is, equatorial
region. It is not fertile but suits the growth of dense forests. It is
composed of hydrated oxides of iron and aluminium and is deficient in
Nitrogen. Lateralization is due to lass of silica from soil from where
process of leaching is widespread.

3. Tundra Soil:
It develops in cold climate and remains frozen for most parts of the
year. The chemical action in soil layers is slow due to slow
temperature. Due to these, the soil appears like parent soil. It is found
covered with thick layers of “lichens” and “mosses” found in Siberia
and North Canada.

4. Chernozem/Black Soil:
It is one of the richest soils and is rich in humus and calcium. It is a
fertile soil with less fertilizers. It needs little irrigation because of its
greater moisture holding capacity. Also called “Regur” these are
derived from Deccan Traps. It is good for cotton cultivation and their
moisture retentiveness makes them suitable for dry farming.

The Steppes of Ukraine, central part of U.S.A., Central Africa,

Australia, are famous for growing big harvest of grain crops like oats
for livestock grazing. Because of this Chernozem soil, the area is called
“Bread Basket of the World”.

5. Prairie Soil:
It is similar to Chernozem but it lacks excess of calcium carbonate. It
has a crumby soil structure and is highly fertile. This belt lies between
the Podzol belt in Eastern Europe and U.S.A.

6. Alluvial Soils:
These are transformed soils. These soils have undergone very little
pedagenic evolution since their deposition. It is of two types “Khadar”
and “Bhanger”. Khadar is of light colour, more siliceous and composed
of newer deposits and Bhanger is dark with a clayey composition.

7. Chestnut Soil:
It is a dark brown soil similar to Chernozem but lacks humus. The soil
needs irrigation for good cultivation. Its belt lies towards the drier
parts of Chernozem in Asia and South America.

8. Desert Soil:
It is grey in colour in temperate regions and red in the hot deserts. It is
characterized by low rainfall, high temperature and high evaporation.
It is un-leached and alkaline and lacks humus or organic matter.
Intrazonal Soils:
1. Bog Soil:
It is found in marshy areas of humid climate and the soil is saturated
with water. The decay of vegetation takes place at a slow rate.

2. Meadow Soils:
This soil is found in flood-prone areas where water drainage is good.
The soil remains covered with a thin layer of humus which supports
the growth of grasses.

3. Saline Soil:
It is due to the excess o sodium salt. Excess salinity is due to the fact
that evaporation exceeds rainfall. It is confined to the Steppes and arid
regions and not good for agriculture.

4. Red Soil:
It is formed due to decomposition of crystalline rocks like granite and
gneisses and from rock types rich in mineral. Red Soil is due to diffu-
sion of iron oxide through the materials of the soil. They are siliceous
and aluminium in character.

Soil Composition

Soil composition is an important aspect of nutrient management. While soil minerals and organic
matter hold and store nutrients, soil water is what readily provides nutrients for plant uptake. Soil
air, too, plays an integral role since many of the microorganisms that live in the soil need air to
undergo the biological processes that release additional nutrients into the soil.

The basic components of soil are minerals, organic matter, water and air. The typical soil
consists of approximately 45% mineral, 5% organic matter, 20-30% water, and 20-30% air.
These percentages are only generalizations at best. In reality, the soil is very complex and
dynamic. The composition of the soil can fluctuate on a daily basis, depending on numerous
factors such as water supply, cultivation practices, and/or soil type.

Figure 1. Approximate composition of soil.

The solid phase of soil, which includes minerals and organic matter, are generally stable in
nature. Yet, if organic matter is not properly managed, it may be depleted from the soil. The
liquid and gas phases of the soil, which are water and air respectively, are the most dynamic
properties of the soil. The relative amounts of water and air in the soil are constantly changing as
the soil wets or dries.