War at Sea - Issue 11, 2022 - Carrier Combat Aircraft

ISSUE 11
CARRIER COMBAT AIRCRAFT

★★★ THE SKY’S THE LIMIT ★★★
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Helicopters play an important role in support carrier
combat aircraft. Picture DPL
The Harrier remains in service with Spanish Navy. Picture DPL
ISSUE 11

★★★ THE SKY’S THE LIMIT ★★★
Author: David Reynolds Published by Kelsey Publishing Ltd, The Granary, Downs Court, Yalding Hill, Yalding, Kent, ME18 6AL. First published
Editor: Charles Waters August 2022. © All rights reserved. Reproduction in whole or in part is forbidden except with prior permission from
Publisher: Paul Appleton the publisher. The publisher cannot accept responsibility for any errors in articles or advertisements. The views
Design and layout: Burda Druck India Pvt. Ltd. expressed are not necessarily those of the Editor or Publisher. ISBN: 9 772633 765007-05
CONTENTS
CHAPTER ONE
CARRIER combat aircraft are the ultimate military asset of modern naval warfare. Their high readiness allows commanders to respond to threats anywhere
in the world, deploying from remote floating platforms. Today, carrier aviation is seen as a vital tool in the projection of global power and in an increasingly
unstable world, the capability to deploy a maritime aviation force that can loiter thousands of miles from its base aboard a carrier is a major strategic asset.
Those who currently field strike aircraft from aircraft carriers include the United States, the United Kingdom, France, Spain, Japan, China, Russian, Italy and
India. Several other nations including Australia, Egypt, Turkey and Brazil operate helicopter carriers – which in some cases can operate jump jet aircraft such
as the Harrier and the F-35B – although with limited payloads.
CHAPTER TWO
F-35 SUPERSONIC SECURITY
THE F-35 is the modern supersonic combat carrier aircraft. It represents a quantum leap in air superiority, engineered around technology that shrinks the
aircraft’s radar signature to evade enemy forces and strike deep into the battle-space. This advanced stealth aircraft is fitted with the most powerful and
comprehensive integrated sensor package of any fighter aircraft in history, allowing pilots to fly undetected and access environments in which legacy aircraft
would have been identified and engaged. It is a world beating airframe that neither China or Russia can match. Produced by Lockheed Martin, the F-35 is a
single-seat, single-engine, fifth generation multi-role fighter that can deliver ground attack, reconnaissance, and air defence missions with a revolutionary
stealth capability. There are three variants of the F-35 currently in service. The US Air Force F-35A, while the US Marine Corps flies the F-35B, short take-off and
vertical landing (STOVL) variant, and the US Navy operates the carrier F-35C variant.
CHAPTER THREE
CARRIER AIRCRAFT COUNTRIES
AFTER the Second World War, nations reduced the size of their fleets as governments started to recover from the cost of conflict – likewise naval air-power
was reduced. The United States, France and the United Kingdom opted to maintain the capability to deploy combat aircraft at sea. In the post war years,
Britain and the United States took part in the Korean conflict deploying carrier borne aircraft groups. Then at Suez the British and French deployed carrier
combat aircraft and mounted the first helicopter assault. But there were political concerns that the then Soviet Union was planning to expand communism,
first across Indo-China and then further. This sparked geo-political tension which manifested itself in a diplomatic and military ‘stand-off’ between Moscow
and the West, which became known as the Cold War. The US Navy took the decision to embark on a project of re-investment in its military as the Cold War
acted as a catalyst of ongoing fear which resulted in an ‘arms race’ – spearheaded by a carrier capability. The Soviets looked at cruiser carriers equipped with
helicopters while the UK and the US focussed on flat top carriers. By the 1970s, those countries who had adopted the aircraft carrier role held a strategic
military advantage of being able to deliver carrier combat aircraft anywhere in the world.
CHAPTER FOUR
WORLD’S TOP COMBAT CARRIER AIRCRAFT
THE US NAVY’s Super Hornet strike fighter is the ultimate naval fighter spearheading Washington’s global carrier force alongside the F-35. The aircraft has
a been a stalwart since its introduction. It has undergone upgrades to enhance operational capability and is the dominant fighter in the US Navy. There are
variants of the F/A-18 from A to D with the E (single seat) and F (two-seater) variants having undergone major changes and are termed the Hornet and Super
Hornet. Today, it is assigned to 34 operational naval squadrons, and each carrier air wing typically deploys with around 40 aircraft. The single and two-seat
versions of the ‘legacy’ or ‘classic’ Hornet are also flown by 11 operational US Marine Corps squadrons. Developed by McDonnell Douglas and Northrop
(now Boeing and Northrop Grumman), the Hornet was conceived in response to a US Navy requirement for a multi-role fighter/attack aircraft. The prototype
first flew in November 1978, and the F/A-18A entered service in February 1981, becoming operational in 1983. Three years later it was in action over Libya
in 1986. The single-seat F/A-18C and two-seat F/A-18D were the result of a block upgrade programme that initially provided new computers, the airborne
self-protection jammer and provisions for carrying the AIM-120, AGM-65 and AGM-84 missiles. The F/A-18C/D entered production in 1987 and a night attack
capability was incorporated.
CHAPTER FIVE
THE ICONIC HARRIER
THE HARRIER was an iconic aircraft with its short take-off and vertical landing/vertical take-off capability. It served with the RAF in a ground attack role, the Royal
Navy as a reconnaissance and attack aircraft and with the US Marines, Spanish and Italian fleets as the AV-8. The aircraft first entered service with the Royal Navy in
April 1980 as the Sea Harrier FRS1 and became informally known as the ‘Shar’. Unusual in an era in which most naval and land-based air superiority fighters were
large and supersonic, the principal role of the subsonic Sea Harrier was to provide air defence for Royal Navy task groups – while at the same time, delivering a
reconnaissance and attack role if needed. Developed from the Hawker-Siddeley Harrier, which used the RAF and in a different variant known as the AV-8A – which
was used by the United States Marine Corps, as well as the Spanish and Italian fleets. The Sea Harrier was operationally approved just before the Falklands war
and saw active service in the South Atlantic on what was called Operation Corporate.
CHAPTER SIX
THE FUTURE – UNMANNED CARRIER AIRCRAFT
THE FUTURE of naval aviation will in the next two decades, see a major adoption of unmanned combat systems with the ultimate aim being to create an
autonomous super fighter that can deliver long range kinetic operations. Unmanned aircraft will be able to launch from carriers on direction and managed
missions overseen by a carrier-based team of UAV pilots. As Western forces are already looking ahead to replace the Super Hornet and the Rafale by the late
2030s, a generation of unmanned platforms is emerging.
WAR AT SEA | CARRIER COMBAT AIRCRAFT 4

CARRIER
COMBAT AIRCRAFT
CARRIERS provide military forces with Korea, Turkey and Spain. Thailand retains jets with heavy payloads and more fuel for
the ability to project combat power from a carrier in service but it is not regarded as greater flying endurance.
floating airfields across the worlds’ ocean. an operational platform. The US Navy operates the F-18 and F
With their embarked force of fighter Russia has a powerful naval air force, but 35 giving the fleet the ability to operate
aircraft, they can demonstrate political its sole carrier, the Kuznetsov, is outdated anywhere, anytime with the F-35 providing
intent, support humanitarian operations and limited in its operational delivery. the stealth, speed and surprise. The Royal
and if needed launch a kinetic attack on This 40-year-old vessel has been in repairs Navy also operates the F-35, opting for the
an adversary. for more than three years, leaving Moscow B variant, flying from both HMS Queen
In the 21st century, the so called ‘carrier with no maritime air capability. Several Elizabeth and HMS Prince of Wales. China
club’ is small, but growing. The United countries utilise amphibious assault operates the Shenyang J-15 fighter from
States and the United Kingdom field the ships which allows them to operate Short its two carriers and is building a third
newest and biggest carriers in the world. Take-off and Landing (STOL) jets. But platform. Russia operates Su-33 and MiG
China has joined the carrier club and is dedicated ‘flat tops’ which operate systems 29K aircraft and while it currently lacks a
building more along with India, France, such as Catapult-Assisted Take-Off and carrier, Moscow claims it intends to build a
Egypt, Australia, Brazil, Italy, Japan, South Arrested Recovery – allow them to operate new platform called the Varan-class.
FA-18C Super Hornet taking off from the USS Kitty Hawk.
5 CARRIER COMBAT AIRCRAFT | WAR AT SEA

CHAPTER 1
The super stealth F-35B which is

currently a world beating carrier
combat aircraft. Picture DPL
CARRIER COMBAT
AIRCRAFT
CARRIER combat aircraft are the ultimate military asset of modern naval warfare. Their
high readiness allows commanders to respond to threats anywhere in the world,
deploying from remote floating platforms. Today, carrier aviation is seen as a vital tool
in the projection of global power and in an increasingly unstable world, the capability
to deploy a maritime aviation force that can loiter thousands of miles from its base
aboard a carrier is a major strategic asset. Those who currently field strike aircraft from
aircraft carriers include the United States, the United Kingdom, France, Spain, Japan,
China, Russian, Italy and India. Several other nations including Australia, Egypt,
Turkey and Brazil operate helicopter carriers – which in some cases can operate jump
jet aircraft such as the Harrier and the F-35B – although with limited payloads.
US Navy Greyhound lands on

the French carrier Charles de
Gaulle. Picture DPL
D
ifferent methods of take-off from wire as it lands and brings the aircraft catapult for further use instead of being
and landing on the deck have to a rapid halt. The catapult system was lost in the sea.
developed over the years with the invented by British scientists in the 1950s The system used by the Royal Navy
US Navy and the French fleet adopting and used throughout the 1960s and 70s since the early 1980s, has been based
the Catapult-Assisted Take-Off, But aboard Royal Navy carriers to launch around the Harrier jump jet in what is
Arrested Recovery, known as CATOBAR. the Sea Vixen and the Gannet, as well termed the Short Take-Off and Vertical
Under this system, the aircraft is Buccaneer and Phantom fighters from Landing (STOVL) role. A ‘Ski-Jump’
launched from the deck of an aircraft HMS Ark Royal and HMS Eagle. The allows aircraft to take-off with higher
carrier using a catapult to drastically protrusions at the bow of these carriers payloads of weapons and fuel, compared
reduce the length of the take-off run. For and at the end of the angled deck were to a vertical take-off, thus dispensing
landing, a tailhook, mounted at the rear ‘strop catchers’ used to recover the wire with the need for a catapult. The system
of the fighter jet, captures an arrester strop that connected the aircraft to the proved its value in the 1982 Falklands ➽
CHAPTER 1
The Royal Navy Fairey Gannet Airborne Early Warning aircraft. Picture DPL
moving sideways over the deck and gently

lowering down. A rolling landing requires
the pilot to make a more conventional
approach to the landing, flying towards
the ship from the stern at speed, before
using thrust from its nozzle and lift
created by air over the wings to touch
down and gently come to a stop. A third
system known as Short Take-Off but
Arrested Recovery (STOBAR) is used by
Russia, India and on Chinese carriers. In
this design, the aircraft is not launched
by a catapult, but takes off under its own
power and uses a Ski-Jump to boost the
take-off run. On landing, arrester wires are
used to stop the aircraft within a few feet
from touchdown. A new electric powered
catapult has been fitted to the USS Gerald
Ford and will eventually be introduced on
all US Navy carriers. It operates in exactly
the same way as the previous system and
does not require any additional equipment
to be fitted to aircraft.
The pioneering years of aviation in the
Buccaneer taking off from the Royal Navy carrier HMS Ark Royal. Picture DPL 1900s and through the First War resulted
in the development of ‘flat top’ warships
war, when HMS Invincible and HMS from their American counterparts. UK which could carry war planes with
Hermes launched Harrier jump jets using test pilot Peter Wilson made history when payloads that had matured and allowed
the ‘ski-lift’ ramp system. he conducted the first ever shipborne aircraft to strike shore bases and enemy
During the procurement process of rolling vertical landing (SRVL) in 2018 – a warships at distance from their floating
the new Queen Elizabeth-class carriers, method which looks like a conventional base. The origins of carrier based aircraft
there was a plan to fit catapults to both aircraft landing but requires intense skill can be traced back to 1919 when an
warships, but this was cancelled and the and precision. Previously, jump-jets American civilian pilot flew a plane from
‘ski-jump’ adopted instead. Royal Navy had only conducted vertical landings, the deck of the cruiser USS Birmingham.
carrier-based jump-jets land differently hovering by the side of the ship before Eugene Ely then landed on a bespoke
F4 Phantom in service with the US Navy. Picture US DoD
landing platform built on the quarter-deck

of the battleship USS Pennsylvania. The
Royal Navy’s first true ‘flat-topped’ carrier
in the First World War, was HMS Argus.
It was converted from a civilian hull, but
the war ended before HMS Argus could
be deployed into action. Both the US and
Japanese fleets quickly followed the British
example. The first American carrier, a
converted merchant ship renamed the USS
Langley, joined the fleet in March 1922.
A Japanese carrier, the Hosyo, entered
service in December 1922, and was the
first carrier designed as such from the
keel up. During the Second World War,
the development of carrier borne aviation
advanced at a pace. Aircraft carriers
became the primary means of delivery
for this new form of warfare providing
the ability to protect the fleet from the
air, mount air strikes on enemy ships and
land bases. Aircraft were also used to fly
forward and locate German submarines
and warships.
Carrier aircraft made a significant
contribution during the Second World ➽ Indian Navy MiG 29K takes off from the carrier INS Vikramaditya. Picture INS/DPL

CHAPTER 1
A photograph of Pearl Harbor taken by
Japanese pilot during the attack. Picture DoD
War. Among the operations that ‘carrier Panther. The squadron scored another first Among the new maritime based aircraft
combat aircraft’ successfully mounted, in 1950 during the Korean War as it flew joining the US naval aviation force was
include the Royal Navy attacks at Taranto the first Marine combat mission, providing the Phantom, the Sky Hawk, the Intruder,
in Italy in November 1940, the strike by close-air support to Army formations the A7 Corsair, the C2 Greyhound, E2
Japanese fighter aircraft on the US Navy at operating near the Chosin Reservoir. Hawkeye and the Sky raider. Many of
Pearl Harbor in December 1941, the US The biggest innovation in carrier power these aircraft saw action during the
bombing of the Japanese base in the South came in September 1960 when the first Vietnam war launching operations from
Pacific at Rabaul in November 1943 and nuclear-powered carrier was launched by offshore based carriers. This capability
at Truk Island in the Pacific in February the United States Navy. The USS Enterprise allowed the US to provide close air
1944. There were many more examples allowed the American Navy to sail across support to troops on the ground, drop air
in which carrier borne combat aircraft the globe without the requirement to supplies and mount helicopter missions
launched attacks against enemy shipping refuel. These carriers could maintain, as and when required. In the early 1960s,
or onto the mainland. In 1948, the Tomcat overhaul and refuel combat aircraft as well the Royal Navy fielded seven carriers
squadron were the first Marine Corps as accommodating surveillance planes and – with air wings formed of Phantoms,
unit to receive jet aircraft, which included helicopters in the search and rescue, anti- Buccaneers, Gannets and Sea Vixens. In
the F-80A Shooting Star and the F9F2 submarine and troop-carrying roles. addition, the success of the first rotary
P80A were flown by the US Air Force and US Navy. Picture US DoD
F9F-2 Panther operated by the US Navy and US Marines. Picture US DoD
operation at Suez in 1956 introduced the

concept of helicopter borne assaults from
warships ensuring that both US and UK
carriers carried assault helicopters. The
Royal Navy operated the troop-carrying
variants of the Sea King as well as the
smaller Wasp. The US deployed the Sea
Sprite and the Sea King, the Huey, the Sea
Knight CH47 and the CH53 Sea Stallion.
In 1965, the Russians commenced
work on their first carriers. But both the
Leningrad and the Moskva, of the Moskva-
class, did not carry fixed wing aircraft and
instead fielded helicopters. During the
Cold war the then Soviet fleet deployed six
aircraft carrying cruisers, a seventh was ➽ The Corsair A-7E was a subsonic light attack aircraft.

CHAPTER 1

C2 Greyhound twin engine
cargo aircraft designed for carrier
support. Picture DPL

CHAPTER 1
Royal Navy Sea Venom pictured at Suez. Picture MoD Royal Navy helicopters mount the first helicopter assault at Suez in 1957.
started but never finished. Throughout the Sergei Gorshkov. Appointed by Nikita Missile crisis highlighted the Soviet Navy’s
1970s, more countries saw the strategic Khrushchev to the position of Commander lack of long-range capability. Moscow’s aim
advantage of fielding combat fighters at sea in Chief of the Soviet Navy in 1956, was to build a multi-platform that could
with countries such as Australia, India, the Gorshkov served in that post for a operate both jump jets and helicopters.
Netherlands, Canada and Spain opting to remarkable 25 years and oversaw the Named the Kiev-class they entered service
build or buy second hand aircraft carriers – expansion of the Soviet Navy from a in the late 1970s with the Kiev and Minsk
the majority operating US fighters. strategically insignificant force, after the being followed by Novorossiysk and Baku –
The Kiev-class aircraft carriers were Second World War, to a well-balanced carrying short take-off and landing Russian
developed during the office of Admiral one that could project power. The Cuban jump jet , the Yak-38M fighter aircraft. ➽
US Navy Sea sprite helicopter. Picture DPL

Sky Raider single seat attack aircraft. Picture US DoD
Sea Vixen was the first British two-seater aircraft to achieve supersonic speed. Picture DPL

CHAPTER 1
US Navy Sikorsky SH3H.

Picture US DoD
Like the Moskva-class before them, the used two downward facing engines and to operate from the Soviet’s Kiev-class
vessels were a mix of ship types, with the a vector-thrust engine in the rear to take after the the Soviets took the opportunity
front half resembling a guided missile off and land vertically. At sea, the ships to develop their own VTOL fighter and
cruiser and the remainder of the ship typically carried up to 13 Forgers and a based it on heavy cruisers as opposed to
resembling an aircraft carrier. At 899 feet, dozen Ka-25 ‘Hormone’ helicopters acting building full-scale aircraft carriers. Having
the ships were approximately 85 percent in the anti-submarine and search and an operational VTOL would allow for
as long as the US Navy’s new Nimitz- rescue roles. landing and take-off in much more limited
class carriers. The real innovation found Russia’s Yak-38 seemed like a promising spaces and reduce production costs. After
in the Kiev-class, however, was the ship’s fighter jet that could have truly helped releasing the experimental model in 1971,
aviation capabilities. The ships featured a the Soviet Navy. However, the plane was development took an additional five years
six-degree angled flight deck that started riddled with many problems that made the and four prototypes. These years were
parallel to the bridge and ran all the way project a failure when judged on its merits: necessary to incorporate a functional
to the stern; in that way, the carrier flight The Yakovlev Yak-38 (Forger) was the thrust vectoring system supportive of
deck could be two-thirds the overall Soviet’s first and only vertical take-off and consistent and reliable take-off action.
length of the ship while half of the ship landing (VTOL) strike fighter. Developed The Yak-38 officially started production
retained traditional cruiser characteristics. in the 1960s with its first flight in 1971, in 1976. Its maximum speed was 795mph
The carriers were designed to operate the fighter looked remarkably similar to with a range of about 800 miles and an
up to 22 Yak-38 ‘Forger’ fighters, which the UK Harrier. It was introduced in 1976 altitude of just over 36,000ft.
Royal Navy Sea King. Picture RN
Sea Knight CH47. Picture US DoD
Later, Moscow commissioned two Harrier was declared operational in 1968 and operational a year later renamed
aircraft carriers, the Kuznetsov-class. 1981 on board the aircraft carrier HMS ARA Veinticinco de Mayo, the warship’s air
The first vessel was built and deployed Invincible with further aircraft joining group initially included F9F Panthers and
on operations, but the second carrier, the the carrier HMS Hermes. Just a year F9F Cougars jets. These aircraft were later
Varyag, was never completed following later, in 1982, the Argentines invaded the replaced with A-4Q Skyhawks supported
the collapse of the Soviet Union and Falklands prompting the British to deploy by S-2 Tracker anti-submarine warfare
the hull was sold to China. The Admiral two carrier groups. Initial planning by aircraft and Sikorsky Sea King helicopters.
Kuznetsov was the first fully operational Argentine naval commanders sought to In September 1969, as the carrier mounted
Russian aircraft carrier capable of deploy their carrier the ARA Veinticinco its first deployment with the Argentine
launching normal take-off aircraft such de Mayo. Navy the UK aerospace company Hawker
as Sukhoi Su-27s and Mikoyan MiG-29s. The ship was originally built for the Royal Siddelely demonstrated the new Harrier
The earlier Kiev-class had only been able Navy by Cammell Laird in Birkenhead GR1 on board the carrier, but the sale fell
to launch its STOVL (Short Take-Off during the Second World War with the through. Instead a refit allowed the carrier
Vertical Landing) jets. Colossus-class carrier being named to operate the French Super Étendard.
By the 1980s, the Harrier jump jet was HMS Venerable. It was later sold to the But the planes were never deployed due
evolving as the combat aircraft of the Netherlands government and renamed to a series of technical problems. Both the
decade. The prototype of the Sea Harrier HNLMS Karel Doorman. The ship was failure to purchase Harrier and the Super
was flown in August 1978 and the Sea then procured by Argentina in October Étendard ‘problems’ proved crucial errors ➽
CHAPTER 1
US Marines CH-53 Sea Stallion. Picture DPL

for the Argentina’s naval combat fighter
capability in 1982.
In response to the Argentine invasion,
the UK government quickly signalled
its intent to recapture the islands
by assembling a Naval Task Force –
spearheaded by a Carrier Battle Group.
An initial 12 Sea Harrier FRS 1s (SHARs)
embarked on HMS Invincible and eight
embarked on HMS Hermes. (Numbers
800 and 801 Naval Air Squadrons (NAS)
respectively). Additional vital stores and
aircraft were flown to Ascension Island
and transported to the group when within
Yak-35 jump jet which was deployed during the Soviet era. Picture DPL range. This would include eight additional
SHARs of the newly reformed No 809
NAS, taken from the training unit – as
well as an additional ten RAF Harrier
GR3s of No 1 Squadron, deployed to
operate from the carriers.
The Argentinians committed more
than 100 combat aircraft – including A-4
Skyhawks, IAI Daggers – Israeli version
(copies of the Mirage V), Super Étendards
and Mirage III interceptors against
the British force. In total, the carrier
battle group had two squadrons of Sea
Harriers, totalling 20 aircraft as well as
an additional reinforcement of eight Sea
Harrier and ten RAF Harriers (GR3s). The
Sea Harrier pilots did have an advantage.
The Argentinians only had two aerial
refuelling aircraft to support the combat
Soviet Ka-25 anti-submarine helicopter. Picture US Navy fighters – and that shortage meant only
Sukhoi 27SK.
so many planes could be sent on a given faster, the Sea Harrier was significantly to detect large targets such as maritime
strike. Furthermore, their most capable more manoeuvrable and carried the reconnaissance aircraft and bombers.
fighters, the Mirages and Daggers, were latest AIM-9L Sidewinder missiles. In Despite the fact that the Argentines
not equipped for mid-air refuelling. addition, the Harriers were fitted with had secured the airfield at Stanley,
One of the most notable dogfights Blue Fox radar. Its primary role being they had failed to fly forward fuel and ➽
involving the Sea Harrier took place on 8
June 1982. A pair of RAF Sea Harriers, led
by RAF Flight Lt. David Morgan, engaged
four A-4 Skyhawks following up on an
attack that had inflicted severe damage on
the landing ships HMS Sir Galahad and
HMS Sir Tristan. Morgan engaged the
Skyhawks first, firing two Sidewinders
and scoring two kills. His wingman shot
down a third. The last Skyhawk fled.
Morgan and his wingman then returned
to the carrier HMS Hermes. Morgan
was later awarded the Distinguished
Service Cross for his actions. Six days
later the Argentinean forces on the
Falkland Islands surrendered. Both
the RAF and Royal Navy Sea Harriers
had proven their capability in combat.
A number of factors contributed to
the failure of the Argentine’s combat
aircraft to shoot down a Sea Harrier.
While the Mirage III and Dagger were MiG 29 fighter.

CHAPTER 1
services to support their combat aircraft aircraft to approach. The Sea Harriers Argentine fighter aircraft heading for
at the base. The RAF had also bombed were outnumbered by Argentinian the Falklands. The RAF and Royal Navy
the airfield at Port Stanley and the threat aircraft and had to provide combat air Harriers won the air war in the South
loomed that they could do it again. As patrols without a dedicated airborne Atlantic, against the odds.
a consequence, the Argentine air force early warning system. This capability In 1991, the US Marines deployed the
mounted its attack from the mainland – had been provided by the Fairey Gannet Harrier AV8 to the Gulf, after Saddam
a distance of almost 800 miles. Fuel was AEW, which had been retired in 1978 as Hussein’s forces invaded Kuwait. A
therefore precious and Argentine aircraft part of defence cuts, and not replaced. decade later, the Royal Navy Sea Harrier
only had five minutes over the islands to As part of an ‘ad hoc’ plan, Royal Navy saw action in the 1992-1995 conflict
search for and attack an objective, while submarines sat off the Argentine coast in Bosnia. The Harrier crews launched
a Sea Harrier could stay on target for 30 at periscope depth and reported back to raids on Serbian forces and provided air-
minutes plus waiting for the Argentine the task force when their systems located support for the international taskforce
S-2 Tracker aboard USS
Lexington. Picture US DoD
Early variant of a Royal Navy Sea Harrier
Argentine Super Étendard which were purchased

from France. Picture DPL.
naval fighters, the next generation

of US fighter aircraft development
started in 1995 and culminated with the
production F-35 in three variants, two
of which were designed for operations
in the maritime domain. These aircraft
are the most advanced stealth aircraft
in the world and within a short time of
entering service were flying operations
over Syria. By the start of the 21st
century, the role and capability of carrier
borne combat aircraft had changed
dramatically from the pioneering flights
of the First World War.
Today, the United States and the
United Kingdom field the newest and
biggest carriers in the world with the
most modern combat aircraft. Both the
US and UK fleets field the F-35. It has
been produced in three variants with the
F-35A designed for conventional take-
off and landing (CTOL), the F-35B for
short take off/vertical landing (STOVL)
and the F-35C carrier variant (CV).
China has invested heavily in the carrier
which faced the Army of the Republic Later, the Royal Navy Harriers were borne concept and has two in service
of Serbia. On 16 April 1994, a Sea deployed on board HMS Illustrious and a third under way – although their
Harrier of the 801 Naval Air Squadron, in support of Operation Palliser – the aviation concept of operations and
operating from the aircraft carrier HMS British intervention in the West African capability appears some years behind the
Ark Royal was shot down by a surface- state of Sierra Leone. By 2003, military UK and US. Moscow has seen its ability
to-air missile fired by the Serbs. Later operations in Iraq and Afghanistan saw to operate combat aircraft from the
in the 1999, NATO campaign against naval fighters, both US and UK, deploying maritime environment shrink. Modern
the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia, Sea into these regions from carriers – with combat aircraft continue to project
Harriers were again deployed, this time Royal Navy aviation flying direct and power with revolutionary technology
operating from HMS Invincible, to patrol being based in Kandahar. Aware of and in the 2020s they are able to evade
the airspace and keep Yugoslavian MiGs progress being made by both Beijing radar and strike enemy targets without
on the ground. and Moscow in the area of frontline being traced. ■
CHAPTER 2
F-35 – SUPERSONIC
SUPERIORITY
The F-35 has been developed in three variants

for the Air Force, Navy and Marines.

THE F-35 is the modern supersonic combat carrier aircraft. It represents a quantum
leap in air superiority, engineered around technology that shrinks the aircraft’s
radar signature to evade enemy forces and strike deep into the battle-space. This
advanced stealth aircraft is fitted with the most powerful and comprehensive
integrated sensor package of any fighter aircraft in history, allowing pilots to fly
undetected and access environments in which legacy aircraft would have been
identified and engaged. It is a world beating airframe that neither China or Russia
can match. Produced by Lockheed Martin, the F-35 is a single-seat, single-engine,
fifth generation multi-role fighter that can deliver ground attack, reconnaissance,
and air defence missions with a revolutionary stealth capability. There are three
variants of the F-35 currently in service. The US Air Force F-35A, while the US Marine
Corps flies the F-35B, short take-off and vertical landing (STOVL) variant, and the US
Navy operates the carrier F-35C variant.
T
he F-35B has the flexibility to integrated and sustainable joint operation and electronic warfare missions. The
deploy from carriers and on to facilitate the UK’s wider armed forces in Full Mission Simulators currently allows
amphibious assault ships. Each of which RAF and Army rotary aviation assets up to 55% of initial training flights to
the three variants is specific to its domain can operate from the deck. be accomplished within the virtual
in the air, land or maritime environment. Designed to operate in the future reality trainer. The aircraft presents new
The Pentagon’s plan directed the purchase battle-space where electronic attack, ways to tactically employ aviation and
of 1,763 of the Air Force F-35A, 353 of the total evasion from radar and the ability requires pilots to master new systems and
F-35B STOVL version for the US Marine to collate intelligence, surveillance and procedures. The carrier variant has larger
Corps (USMC), and 340 of the Navy’s reconnaissance while executing air-to- wings and more robust landing gear than
F-35C variant. The F-35C made its maiden air combat will be key to success, the the other variants, to support the stress of
flight from Fort Worth on 6 June 2010, F-35 is in a generation of its own. With constant catapult launches and arrestor
the anniversary of D Day. Development the US Air Force equipped with the A braking during landings back on deck. Its
test work has been undertaken at Naval Variant, the B Variant is a STOVL (short wingtips also fold to allow for more room
Air Station Patuxent River, Maryland, by take-off and vertical landing) – designed on the carrier’s deck while deployed. The
an Integrated Test Team who carried out to support expeditionary forces known Navy’s ‘C’ variant also has the greatest
land-based trials on the arrestor system to operating from assault ships. The Royal internal fuel capacity of the three F-35
ensure the hook engagement worked. The Navy operates ‘ski jumps’ which with their variants. It carries nearly 20,000 pounds
UK was the first allied nation to procure angled elevated ramp allows aircraft such of internal fuel for long-range missions.
the F-35 selecting the B variant in 2001 as as the Harrier and F-35B to get airborne Like the F-35B, the F-35C can use probe
the UK’s Joint Combat Aircraft for both carrying their full weapons payload. and drogue refuelling to give it added
the RAF and Royal Navy. Physics is key to the ‘take-off calculation’ flying endurance. This enhanced flying
Today, the Netherlands, Norway, Italy, and the ramp’s ‘helping hand’ in getting capability allows the carrier to operate at
Australia, Japan and Israel have selected the F-35B in the air. In simple terms, a safe distance away from potential strike
the super jet while others including the aircraft does not fly off the ski jump, operations and threats, while its fighters
Turkey aspire to operate the plane. In the instead, it is able to utilise its forward reach remote targets.
US, the F-35 will eventually replace the speed into vertical thrust which allows After trials aboard the USS Carl Vinson,
A-10 Warthog, the F-16, F/A-18 hornet it to fly forward for several hundred Joint Strike Fighter, the F-35C Lightning
and Super Hornet. In the UK, the aircraft yards until it generates sufficient forward II, achieved Initial Operational Capability
replaced the Royal Navy’s Sea Harrier, the mobility for the wings to provide the (IOC) in early 2019. At the time, Rear
RAF’s GR9 fleet and the Tornado. The forward lift. Admiral Dale Horan, the director of the
decision to procure the F-35B for the Royal The F-35C carrier variant sets new F-35C Fleet Integration Office said: “The
Navy marks a return to the fleet’s carrier- standards in weapon system integration, F-35C will revolutionise capability and
borne strike capability for the first time lethality, maintainability, combat radius operating concepts of aircraft carrier-
in nearly a decade, following the demise and payload that deliver a significant based naval aviation using advanced
of the Harrier. The Royal Navy delivers projection of maritime capability. technologies to find, fix and assess threats
its carrier borne naval air power in a Simulated training and instruction allow and, if necessary, track, target and engage
capability known as Carrier Enabled Power the US Navy’s F-35C pilots train for a them in all contested environments.”
Projections (CEPP) which provides an broad range of air-to-air, air-to-ground Initially, given the codename X-35, this ➽
CHAPTER 2
RAF and RN pilots pictured during F-35B trials on the carrier HMS Queen Elizabeth.
helmets, which cost in excess of $400,000,

is top secret, but we do know that they
incorporate an advanced Helmet-Mounted
Display System (HMDS), a hi-tech version
of the former Head up Display (HUD).
In effect, the pilot can view the primary
flight display system through his head-
gear. Each carbon-fibre unit is individually
made to fit each pilot and is 3D-milled
to make a bespoke fit for each pilot. The
‘tailored’ fit ensures that alignment of the
pilot’s eyes and helmet displays is precise,
which allows pilots greater ability to see
the display during high-G manoeuvres.
Perfect ‘eye’ alignment is particularly
important in the F-35 because so much
crucial data is provided to the pilot on
the helmet’s display. The helmet uses a
The supersonic jet lands on a US Navy carrier. tracker to tell where the pilot is looking
at any given time. Then working with the
single engine, single pilot aircraft faced fighter enters service ready to support Distributed Aperture System (DAS) the
spiralling costs during development high-end conflict well into the 21st 360-degree real-time video, augments
as designers and engineers overcame century. The state-of-the-art technology the vision in both eyes with additional
technological challenges to deliver the is evident in all areas of the F-35 – even information, even if the pilot isn’t looking
ultimate fighter. It has made history as the the pilot’s helmet. The new bespoke out the cockpit’s windshield. Using the
most expensive procurement project in US headgear provides a 360-degree situational same tracker, pilots can essentially aim
military history and in 2001 the budget awareness of ‘real time’ vision, thanks to their weapons just by looking at a target.
soared from $233 billion to $400 billion. six infrared cameras, which allow the pilot Salt water is always a threat to aircraft
The huge cost of the F-35 is expected to to see above, behind and below. The full and the F-35C is no different. Despite
pay dividends in the long term as the new scope and capability of the Generation III a highly sensitive coating to protect the ➽
F-35 using vertical thrusts to land.
F35 on the deck of a Royal Navy carrier.

CHAPTER 2
fuselage, aircraft handlers and maintainers
make sure that salt spray is constantly
removed after each flight as a routine
element of the computer maintenance
checks. In the same manner as modern
day motorcars, the direct maintenance of
the F-35 is totally dependent on computer-
aided systems, which could be at risk
from cyber-attack by an adversary. Such
is the level of technology that after each
sortie data is downloaded from the aircraft
which provides an instant check on engine
performance as well as the performance of
mechanical parts. The computer controls
the start-up process and like hi-tech
Formula One cars, a minor error can
demand that the system is re-booted.
Secrecy around the ‘computer systems’
demands that all engineers must undergo
a strict vetting clearance process to ensure
Israeli F-35 in action. that intelligence spies from adversary
nations do not get the opportunity to
obtain sensitive information about the
aircraft. To secure data and prevent
‘hacks’ Lockheed Martin have developed
a fire-wall to prevent information being
downloaded from the flight system which
allows engineers to profile the aircraft’s
performance and especially the operation
of mechanical systems. Called the JSF
Autonomic Logistics System (ALS) it
downloads current flight information from
sorties, including aspects such as take-off
speed and landing, as well as performance
of the engine during flight – nothing
is missed. The system also sends that
information back to Lockheed Martin’s to
allow specialist engineers to analyse wear
on engine parts and identify any potential
F-35 in Norwegian colours. parts on the aircraft that need replacing.
The software also allows Lockheed Martin
to send out critical software updates,
known as patches. This has caused concern
for some nations who operate the F-35,
fearing national security secrets, including
records of the plane’s flight path and
mission profile, communications data,
video imagery, electronic signatures could
be compromised. There is also concern
that information stored on Lockheed
Martin’s servers could be vulnerable to a
cyber-attack.
With Iran, China and Russia focussing
their efforts on electronic counter
measures, a breach of the ALIS system
could cripple the operational capability of
the F-35 fleet at a time of conflict. Rather
than risk an ‘overt attack’ using an air-to
air or surface to air missile, an adversary
is more likely to engage a proxy to mount
a network attack and infect the F-35
US Marine F-35B jets on Royal Navy carrier. computer processing unit with a worm.
The F-35 Joint Strike Fighter (otherwise
known as the ‘Lightning II’) was originally
conceived as a relatively low-cost aircraft
to replace the USAF’s aging fleet of F-16s
and A-10s and supplement the Navy’s
fleet of F/A-18s. Then in 1994, the United
States Congress directed the US Marine
Corps to combine its efforts to replace its
AV-8B Harrier aircraft with the JSF (F-35)
program in order to avoid the costs of
developing an independent aircraft. As a
consequence, the goal of the JSF program
was to develop three variants of a single
aircraft with a high degree of commonality
across the different versions. The aim
being that each would use similar or
identical airframes, avionics, and engines.
More than 500 pilots and 4,500
engineer/ maintainers have qualified
through the F-35 Training System,
including personnel from at least eight
nations, who have procured the F-35 and
have pilots and maintainers in training.
Simulation plays a prominent role in
the F-35 training process, more so than ➽ F-35B lands on deck.
F-35B picture during trials.

CHAPTER 2
F-35 lands on deck. British F-35 high above the carrier HMS Queen Elizabeth.
F-35 lifts off from

UK carrier.
previous legacy platforms. Because of The US Navy’s test squadron is based first F-35C carrier variant squadron, are
the advanced capabilities of the F-35, it at Naval Air Station Patuxent River in also at Elgin. The base also served as the
is not possible to adequately challenge Maryland and tasked with flight-testing initial training base for the ‘Warlords’ of
pilots in the live environment alone. With the F-35B for the US Marines and the US Marine Fighter Attack Training Squadron
simulation, the F-35 team can redefine Navy’s F-35C. The fleet also has a footprint 501, comprised of F-35B pilots and
how pilots train to be tactically aware and at the F-35 Integrated Training Centre maintainers and continues to house the
provide the range of experience required at Elgin Air Force base in Florida where US Marine Corps’ growing fleet of F-35Cs.
to maximize the jet’s 5th Generation both pilots and maintainers are co-located US Marine Corps F-35B pilot training has
capabilities. The Full Mission Simulators to create a total training solution for the now transitioned to MCAS Beaufort in
for the F-35 provide students with the F-35. The ITC at the 33rd Fighter Wing is South Carolina.
most realistic experience possible while where the 58th Fighter Squadron became The high level of technology used in the
accelerating the process for software the US Air Force’s first full squadron of F-35C, is controlled by computer. The
upgrades as the F-35 continues to F-35As. The ‘Grim Reapers’ of Strike complex stealth design, which can hide
develop and mature. Fighter Squadron (VFA) 101, the Navy’s weapons and shield communications, as ➽
F-35 screams off the ski-ramp.
F-35 lifts off US Navy carrier.

CHAPTER 2
Sunset landing for F-35.
F-35 pilots training in the United States.

Carriers provide the floating airfield for combat aircraft to operate across the globe.
well as sensors, demand the highest of not taken off the flying schedule. The Australia, Israel, Norway, South Korea and
expertise and engineers constantly undergo engineer teams are mission critical to Japan are developed.
refresher training to ensure they are aware the success of F-35C operations and The F-35 has been described as a game
of upgrades and software additions. At investing in the highest standard of changer. It is replacing jets, which are
Eglin Air Force Base, maintainers rotate training is a priority for the US Navy. on average 25 years old and expensive to
from the classroom to training devices As new developments are introduced to operate. The F-35s futuristic technology
to develop an in-depth understanding the aircraft, such as potential weapon allows it to perform existing missions
of the F-35 weapon system. This mix of systems, the maintenance crews will with fewer aircraft, while the design and
simulation and flight-line training varies undergo additional package of instruction concept of the F-35 variants embraces the
for each specialist area of maintenance. The to make sure they can fit the system and most advanced technology. The cockpit is
majority of training occurs via computer- understand its weight and size impact on dominated by a large ‘user friendly’ touch
based courses and hands-on exercises the airframe. After graduating, engineers screen display, which provides the pilot
with simulators which add a variety of can find themselves being sent to three with all information from navigation,
realistic experience for students. This locations – Eglin Air Force Base, Luke situational awareness, target acquisition
enables students to execute the spectrum of Air Force Base, or MCAS Beaufort. Pilots and threat displays. The F-35 is armed
maintenance tasks on the F-35C and keeps and engineers/maintainers remain in a with a GAU-22/A, a four-barrel version of
them at the top of their game. continuous learning environment with the 25mm GAU-12 cannon. The cannon
Areas such as the aircraft’s landing gear, access to deployable training devices is mounted internally with 182 rounds for
which receives constant stress impact to keep their training up-to-date and the F-35A or in an external pod with 220
on landing, needs specific attention. sharp. International training will expand rounds for the F-35B and F-35C. The F-35
Using simulation means reduced impact significantly in the coming years, as has external weapon hard-points or racks
on aircraft availability since the jets are training facilities in the UK, Italy, to carry missiles, bombs and additional ➽
The advanced F-35 simulator. The hi-tech helmet worn by F-35 pilots.

CHAPTER 2
F-35s shortly after initial trials.

Mechanics and engineers inspect an F-35.
UK F-35 lands on Royal Navy aircraft carrier.

CHAPTER 2
F-35C launches off the deck

of a US carrier.

drop tanks, but carrying external weapons
and fuel tanks risks compromising its
radar signature. These under wing pods
can carry AIM-120 (advanced medium
range air to air missiles), the AGN-158
(Joint Air to Surface Standoff Missile),
guided laser bombs and the AIM-9X
Sidewinder missile for short range air
to air engagement. The aircraft also has
two internal weapons bays which can
hold JDAM bombs (Joint Direct Attack
Munitions), Brimstone missiles, and
cluster munitions. Lockheed Martin states
that the weapons load can be configured
as all-air-to-ground or all-air-to-air, and
has suggested that a Block 5 version will
carry three weapons per bay instead of
two, replacing the heavy bomb with two
smaller weapons such as AMRAAM air-
missiles.
Advanced avionics give the pilot real-
time access to battle space information
with full spectrum coverage and an
unparalleled ability to dominate the
tactical environment. Data collected by
sensors on the F-35 will immediately be
shared with commanders at sea, in air
command aircraft, or on the ground,
providing an instantaneous, high quality
view of ongoing operations. These systems
allow F-35 pilots to hit well-defended
targets at speed with the vital element
of surprise. The F-35 will enter the air
battle space first, spearheading strike
missions and clearing the way with air
dominance for follow-on legacy coalition
forces to operate with relative impunity.
Its design supports an ultra-low radar
footprint allowing it to safely enter
defended airspace areas without being ➽
F-35B landing at dusk.

CHAPTER 2
The UK plans to operate the F-35B from both carriers.
F-35s undergoing mid-air refuelling.

Navy F-35 pilots undergo fighter training.
seen by systems that 4th Generation and Reconnaissance (ISR) missions with by F-35Bs assigned to the 13th Marine
earlier legacy fighters cannot evade. The more sophisticated data capture than any Expeditionary Unit, took place against
combination of the stealth features, active previous fighter aircraft. The F-35 has a fixed target ‘in support of ground
electronically-scanned array (AESA) radar the most powerful and comprehensive clearance operations’. This was followed by
technology, and the aircraft’s ability to integrated sensor package of any fighter more than 100 sorties by F-35B aircraft in
carry its full component of weapons stores aircraft in history, giving pilots access to Afghanistan, Iraq and Syria.
and fuel internally allows F-35 pilots to ‘real-time’ battlefield information. Much The first operational deployment of
engage ground targets at longer ranges, of the F-35’s electronic warfare and ISR the F-35A variant, took place in April
using precision-guided munitions and air- capabilities are made possible by a core 2019 when six aircraft from the 4th
to-air radar-guided missile to successfully processor that can perform more than 400 Expeditionary Fighter Squadron flew to
suppress any adversary attack. billion operations per second. This core Al Dhafra air base in the United Arab
The F-35’s integrated sensors, processor collects data from the classified Emirates. Later that same month the F-35s
information and weapons systems give electronic warfare suite, developed by fitted with AIM-9X Sidewinder missiles
pilots an advantage over potential threat BAE Systems, to identify enemy radar were assigned to the daily tasking order
front-line fighter aircraft. Compared to and electronic warfare emissions and, as of Operation Inherent Resolve. Finally,
5th Generation fighters like the F-35 and happens with the eight sensor Electro- on 30 April, two F-35As mounted the
F-22, legacy aircraft, such as the F18 have Optical Targeting System (EOTS) first kinetic action when they conducted
a larger Radar Cross-Section (RCS), which providing the pilot 360-degree coverage, an air strike at Wadi Ashai in Iraq. In
means they can be more easily detected by recommending which target to attack a statement, US Central Command
an enemy radar system. In aerial combat, and whether he or she should use either announced that the two F-35s had used
legacy aircraft have relatively equal kinetic or electronic means to counter GBU-31 (JDAMs) to hit a tunnel network
opportunities to detect and engage one or negate the threat. The F-35’s stealth used by Islamic State fighters and a second
another, while a 5th Generation fighter capabilities are unprecedented in tactical target – a weapons cache in the Hamrin
pilot can see enemy aircraft first and take fighter aviation. Mountains near Baiji, also in Iraq. The
decisive, lethal action from a standoff The first operational sortie was made first UK F-35B operational sorties were
distance. The ability to see and not be seen by an Israeli F-35 in May 2018, against flown on Sunday 16 June in support of
is redefining previous generation air-to-air Islamic State targets in Syria. Then in Operation Shader, by 617 Squadron RAF.
tactics. September 2018, two F-35B joint strike Operation Shader is the UK contribution
Drawing on the advantage of stealth, fighter aircraft from the 13th Marine to the global Coalition’s Daesh mission to
advanced sensors, and data fusion Expeditionary Unit, based aboard the counter Islamic State (Daesh) in Iraq and
providing enhanced pilot situational amphibious assault ship USS Wasp Syria. The two aircraft conducted a patrol
awareness, F-35 pilots can fly critical mounted the first F-35B combat mission over Syria, and completed a futher 12
Intelligence, Surveillance and in Afghanistan. The strike, carried out sorties in the following weeks. n
CHAPTER 3
Carrier Aircraft
Countries

AFTER the Second World War, nations reduced the size of their fleets as governments
started to recover from the cost of conflict – likewise naval air-power was reduced.
The United States, France and the United Kingdom opted to maintain the capability
to deploy combat aircraft at sea. In the post war years. Britain and United States took
part in the Korean conflict deploying carrier borne aircraft groups. Then at Suez the
British and French deployed carrier combat aircraft and mounted the first helicopter
assault. But there were political concerns that the then Soviet Union was planning
to expand communism, first across Indo-China and then further. This sparked geo-
political tension which manifested itself in a diplomatic and military ‘stand-off’
between Moscow and the West, which became known as the Cold War. The US Navy
took the decision to embark on a project of re-investment in its military as the Cold
War acted as a catalyst of ongoing fear which resulted in an ‘arms race’ which was
spearheaded by carrier capability. The Soviets looked at cruiser carriers equipped
with helicopters while the UK and the US focussed on flat top carriers. By the 1970s,
those countries who had adopted the aircraft carrier role held a strategic military
advantage of being able to deliver carrier combat aircraft.
US Navy air power a

Super Hornet lands on
deck. Picture DPL

CHAPTER 3
T
oday, in the 21st Century, naval of maritime aviation. Aircraft carriers delivered in 2017 as the force structure
warfare is multi- dimensional. The allow governments to have force strength replacement for USS Enterprise CVN 65.
days of sea fighting being restricted ‘at readiness’ across the globe to react The US Navy carriers currently in service
to open battles between warships on the to national incidents. In the past two are CVN-68 USS Nimitz, CVN-69 USS
high seas are gone. The fleets of today decades, carrier aircraft have supported Dwight D. Eisenhower, CVN-70 USS Carl
fight on the sea, in the air above, and in operations in Bosnia, Sierra Leone, Vinson, CVN-71 USS Theodore Roosevelt,
the waters below. But combat aircraft the Gulf, Iraq and even land locked CVN-72 USS Abraham Lincoln, CVN-73
remain dominant, they provide the ability Afghanistan where US Marine Harriers USS George Washington, CVN-74 USS
to control the air-space – a vital factor in AV-8s flew direct from their floating base John C. Stennis, CVN-75 USS Harry S
support of amphibious missions, regional to mount combat air patrols. Truman, CVN-76 USS Ronald Reagan and
conflicts and naval operations. In 2022, the US Navy continues to CVN-77 USS George H W. Bush.
While the post-war years witnessed operate the largest carrier air groups. The F-35 stealth fighter arrived in service
an initial reduction in western naval They deploy from 11 carriers as well as the new Ford-class was being delivered
assets, the expansion of the Soviet Union as an additional two dozen flat-decked to the US Navy. The carrier’s design
and their seven Warsaw Pact satellite amphibious ships that can also operate features numerous hi-tech additions.
states forced politicians in Europe and the F-35B. These warships support a The flight deck ‘island’ which houses its
the United States to focus on defence huge air wing of combat aircraft which command hub, is set 140 feet further aft
investment. On 3 December 1945, a are increasingly supported by unmanned and includes more space. Other design
jet powered twin boom aircraft called aerial platforms. The Nimitz and Gerald R. features, such as advanced weapons
the Sea Vampire made the first ever ‘jet Ford-class aircraft carriers are the largest elevators and ‘in-deck’ fuelling stations,
landing’ on a carrier, touching down on warships in the world, each designed for are intended to allow the carrier to launch
HMS Ocean. This innovative milestone a 50-year service life with a capability to more aircraft sorties at a faster rate. The
delivered a strategic boost to the navy, undergo a single mid-life refuelling. The USS Gerald R. Ford features digitally
highlighted potential future capability lead ship of the next generation of aircraft operated Advanced Arresting Gear, which
and inspired the wider development carriers, USS Gerald R Ford (CVN 78) was replaces the legacy hydraulic system to
US Navy Greyhound lands on the French carrier Charles de Gaulle. Picture DPL

The super stealth F-35B which is currently a world beating carrier combat aircraft. Picture DPL
trap aircraft for landings – with the F-35C

Lightning II being the primary aircraft for
operations from the carrier. The F-35 will
eventually replace the F/A-18C/D Hornet
as the carrier strike group’s primary
offensive fighter for aerial defence and
close air support. The US Navy carrier
variant, the F-35C, has larger wings and
more robust landing gear than the other
variants, making it suitable for catapult
launches and aboard naval aircraft
carriers. Its wingtips fold to allow for more
room on the deck on the carriers while
deployed. The F-35C also has the greatest Royal Navy Sea Vampire lands on the deck of HMS Ocean.
internal fuel capacity of the F-35 variants,
and, like the F-35B, the C-variant uses
probe and drogue refuelling.
The Royal Navy’s ability to generate
carrier combat aircraft has returned
thanks to the arrival of the Queen
Elizabeth-class – giving the UK the second
largest force of carrier combat air power.
The UK selected the F-35B to operate
from the QE carriers after the retirement
of the Harrier. The aircraft which operated
from HMS Hermes, HMS Invincible
and HMS Illustrious were sold off to the
United States Marine Corps when the
carriers were withdrawn from service –
leaving the fleet with no ability to project
naval air power. Both the new UK carriers
will have the capacity to deploy 40 aircraft
and in the interim years this is expected
to include airframes from the US Marines
Fighter Attack Squadron. The Royal ➽ AV-8B of the US Marines deployed in the Gulf War in 1991. Picture DPL

CHAPTER 3
Air power also includes the ability to project rotary operations.
F-35C, the dedicated carrier aircraft with larger wings and higher payload.

F-35C prepares to take off.
Super Hornet lands on carrier USS Harry S Truman.

CHAPTER 3
Super Hornet, the most advanced of

the F/A 18 aircraft.
Navy is to form an additional naval air

squadron to operate alongside the RAF’s
617 Squadron of F-35Bs. The UK fleet also
operates several amphibious assault ships
but to date these have not been cleared for
the F-35B.
In the Far East, China began to focus its
naval energy in the 1980s when Beijing
began planning to build its own carrier in
a move to generate maritime air power.
The government purchased the Australian
carrier HMAS Melbourne and later, two
Minsk-class carrier cruisers under the
masquerade that they were for scrap,
but in reality, they were the template
for designers to study ‘carrier design’.
Following the collapse of the Soviet
French Navy’s Breguet Alize. Union in 1991, construction work on the
Chinese PLAN Shenyang J-15..
second Russian aircraft carrier, Varyag,

was halted. The ship was sold to China
at auction. Relocated from Ukraine, the
carrier underwent a major refit and was
re-named Liaoning to become China’s first
aircraft carrier. In November 2012, the
first Shenyang J-15 landed on the deck.
China is also developing a new twin
engine aircraft to be flown by the
People’s Liberation Army Navy Air Force
(PLANAF) from China’s future Type-003
Fujian-class aircraft carriers. The Chinese
Shenyang J-35 (the plane is officially
designated the J-31 with the naval variant
being listed as the J-35) stealth fighter
also referred to as the FC-31 has been
photographed in a grey tactical paint
scheme. The aircraft will be flying from
the Fujian-class aircraft carriers, the first
of which was launched in June 2022. It
is roughly comparable to the US Navy’s
Ford-class at 80,000 tonnes. The carrier
will be a CATOBAR (catapult-assisted
take-off but arrested recovery) design.
Thanks to its three EMALS (electro-
magnetic aircraft launch system) catapults,
it will be able to launch the J-35 as well
as KJ-600 airborne early warning and
Control (AEW&C) aircraft.
France has operated carrier combat
aircraft since the 1950s and while the
French Navy experimented with an early
carrier, it was in the post-war years that
saw the commission of FS Arromanches,
the former Royal Navy vessel HMS
Colossus. The carrier, operated alongside
the FS La Fayette, a former US Navy
carrier. Both carried 48 warplanes
including the Breguet Br-1050 Alizé, the
Vought F4U-7 Corsair, the Grumman
F6F-5 Hellcat, the Fouga CM-175 Zéphyr,
the Curtiss SB2C-5 Helldiver, the Douglas
SBD-5 Dauntless, the SNCASE Aquilon,
the Supermarine Seafire Mk III and XV,
as well as the Grumman TBM Avenger.
Vought F4U Corsair which was used on the French carriers. In 1968, Arromanches was converted to ➽
CHAPTER 3
F-35Bs on Royal Navy carrier.
Fouga CM175 Zéphyr which was deployed on French Navy carriers.
a helicopter carrier. More carriers were which now included 30 Dassault Rafale Royal Navy’s Queen Elizabeth-class. In
loaned from the US Navy, then by the M fighters, two E-2C Hawkeyes, as well early 2022, the carrier Charles De Gaulle
late 1960s, Paris built and commissioned as NFH Caïman, Panther and Dauphin deployed with its full air group into the
the FS Foch and FS Clemenceau. Both helicopters in the search and rescue, anti- Mediterranean. The embarked air group
warships carried a 40 strong aviation submarine and surveillance roles. French included more than 20 Rafale F3R fighters,
group consisting of Super Étendard, carriers are the only ‘non-American’ flat two E-2C Hawkeyes Airborne Early
Étendard IVP, F-8E Crusaders, Alizé anti- tops that can operate the US Navy’s FA-18s Warning and Control (AEWC) aircraft.
submarine aircraft as well as Dauphin and and F-35s as they operate a conventional Italy’s ability to mount maritime
Super Frelon helicopters. By the 1990s, CATOBAR with arrestor gear and two combat aircraft is based around the
the two carriers were retired and the new steam catapults similar to those used by carrier the Giuseppe Garibaldi which
nuclear-powered super carrier FS Charles the US. France is looking to the future was commissioned into service in 1986.
De Gaulle was commissioned. The De with plans to develop new fighter jets The warship was primarily designed as
Gaulle carried a similar size air group and a carrier that is bigger than the an anti-submarine platform and its air
Grumman TBM
Avenger.
group comprised mainly of helicopters,

although crucially the warship was
designed to carry the Harrier and the
Garibaldi was fitted with a ski jump. The
Italians opted to procure the VSTOL
aircraft from the United States – who had
acquired the rights to build the Harrier
under licence as the AV-8B Harrier 11 for
the United States Marine Corps. In 1999,
AV-8Bs from the Giuseppe Garibaldi
undertook more than 30 missions –
using Mk82 GBU bombs and AGM-65
Maverick missiles – against targets in
Kosovo. In 2011, Italian Harriers, from
Giuseppe Garibaldi, deployed alongside
other nations during Operation Unified
Protector, as part of the Coalition
military intervention in Libya. Italy’s
30,000 tonne carrier, Cavour, also
includes a ski-ramp and will be joined in
2022 by the Trieste – both will operate the
F-35. The Italian Navy’s current air wing
comprised the AV-8B Harrier 11 and the
Lockheed Martin F-35B Lightning 11 as
well as Augusta UH-10A helicopters. ➽ Super-Etendard designed and built by the French.

CHAPTER 3
The US Navy EC 2 Hawkeye.
Turkey has ambitions to operate the

F-35B from its amphibious assault ship the
TCG Anadolu. It can also operate a wide
range of Unmanned Aerial Vehicles and
drones. The 27,000 tonne Anadolu, is due
to be joined by a second vessel, the TCG
Trakya as President Erdogan invests in his
Navy to reinforce Turkey’s role in NATO. In
2019, the United States suspended Turkey’s
participation in its F-35 program over
Ankara’s purchase of the Russian S-400
air defence system and later completely
removed it from the project. Despite harsh
backlash from the US and NATO over the
purchase, Turkey has insisted that it will
continue to use the S-400s.
Douglas SBD which was used aboard French carriers. The Egyptian Navy was able to expand
its ability to project airpower as a direct
result of the Russian invasion of Crimea.
An arms embargo, placed on Moscow
after the 2014 military intervention into
Crimea, resulted in the sale of two assault
ships built by the French for Putin’s being
frozen. The orders had been placed by the
Russian Ministry of Defence in an attempt
to bolster their capability to operate their
jump jet Yak-35 aircraft. The halt on the
ships’ sale to Russian eventually resulted in
their sale to the government in Cairo. The
vessels were named Gamal Abdel Nasser
and the Anwar El Sadat. Neither operate
fixed wing aircraft but if fitted with a ski-
ramp they could operate the F-35.
Spain’s first carrier platform began
service in 1976 when the former USS
Cabot was purchased and renamed Dedalo
with an air-group of US McDonnell
Royal Navy Supermarine Seafire used by the French. Douglas AV-8Bs. The Dedalo was replaced
by the Principle de Asturias which was commissioned the ship in 1961 as INS jumps instead. If the tests are successful,
fitted with an angled deck as opposed to Vikrant operating Hawker Sea Hawks and the Indian government could well select
a dedicated ski-jump – to provide greater French Alize anti-submarine planes and the aircraft for the Indian Navy’s Multi-
lift to the AV-8Bs, before the purpose-built later Sea Harriers. By the mid 1980s, the Role Carrier-Borne Fighter (MRCBF)
San Carlos entered service in 2010. In the India Navy was looking for a new carrier competition. India is also developing its
2020s, Spain operates a single maritime and purchased the former Royal Navy own twin engine carrier-based fighter
platform, the 26,000 tonne SPS Juan carrier HMS Hermes, renaming it INS called the HAL TEDBF. In the meantime,
Carlos1 with a primary role as an assault Viraat. But instead of Harriers they opted the Indian Navy’s aircraft carriers operate
ship capable of carrying 900 troops and to operate MiG-29 K fighters as well as the Russian MiG -29K Fulcrums.
their supporting armour. The Spanish Kamov Ka-31 helicopters and Sea King For many years Brazil operated
Navy continues to operate the Harrier helicopters. By 2021, the Indian Ministry the former Royal Navy carrier HMS
AV-8S and can embark an air group of of Defence had purchased the former Vengeance having renamed the ship Minas
11 fighters as well as Chinook, Sea King Russian cruiser-carrier Admiral Gorshkov, Gerais. The Brazilian Navy operated
and HB90 helicopters. The design of the renaming the ship INS Vikramaditya. The Skyhawks, S-2E Trackers as well as
San Carlos’s deck allows all NATO aircraft carrier operates Mikoyan MiG-29KUB Super Pumas and Sea King helicopters.
to operate from it – including the F-35B, and MiG-29K Fulcrum D fighters. India Minas Gerais served until 2001 when the
which Spain is to purchase as well as the then sought to build an indigenous government purchased the French carrier,
US Marine Corps V-22 Osprey. It was carrier and embarked on a project that FS Foch, and renamed it Sao Paulo. The
the Spanish design that was used by both could accommodate a new generation of 30,000 tonne carrier had the capability to
Turkey and Australia for their platforms. aircraft. The INS Vikrant took more than carry an air group of 40 aircraft including
Spain has indicated that it intends to a decade to deliver and instead of buying the Super Etendard, the F-8E Crusader
purchase the F-35B to replace the Harrier. Harriers from the UK the MiG-29K was as well as a range of Dauphin and Super
Since the 1960s, India has invested selected. Boeing has announced that two Frelon helicopters and served until 2017
in carrier combat aircraft – both to F/A-18E Super Hornets have successfully at which point the Brazilian government
prepare for any conflict with Pakistan completed operational demonstration tests entered talks with the UK regarding
and maintain its own ability to project at the Indian Naval Station Hansa in Goa, the purchase of the helicopter carrier
maritime air power in the Indian ocean India. The exercises were meant to prove HMS Ocean, which when procured was
and beyond. the Super Hornet’s suitability to operate renamed Atlántico. In a similar mode to
The government purchased the former from Indian Navy carriers, which do not the Egyptian ships the Brazilian Navy only
Royal Navy carrier HMS Hercules and have catapults and are equipped with ski operate helicopters, but pending the fit ➽
French Rafale which was produced after France dropped out of the Typhoon project.

CHAPTER 3
French Panther
helicopter.
of a ‘ski-ramp’ it could operate Harrier or

F-35B fighters.
The Russian Navy experimented
with the concept of a vertical take-off
and landing plane in the 1950s and
eventually developed the Yak-38. The
aircraft had stubby wings with folding
tips to facilitate storage and often used
a runway angled on the port side of the
aircraft carrier cruiser, Kiev, to make
short take off runs. This was preferred
to a vertical lift-off because it consumed
less fuel and permitted a heavier weapons
payload. The Yak-38, code-named Forger
by NATO, actually entered service in
1976, three years earlier than the Sea
Pilot of a Spanish AV-8A from the ski ramp Harrier. Harrier. Like the British plane, it could
fly just short of the speed of sound, at
around 680 miles per hour. But unlike
the Harrier, it had two dedicated lift
jets behind the cockpit in addition to
a single RD-27 vector thrust engine;
the additional jets resulted in higher
fuel consumption, limiting its range to
around 200 miles at best, and less if it
performed a vertical take-off.
The Soviet Union produced 231 Yak-
38s, including 52 which were upgraded
Yak-38M variants in the 1980s and fitted
with more powerful R-28 engines and
rugged landing gear. The most important
differences between the Yak-38 and Sea
Spanish Harrier lifts off. Harrier aircraft lay in payload – its ability
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to lift weapons and fuel. In addition, the
Yak-38 had no radar, limiting its potential
as a fleet defence fighter. Its air-to-air
armament was confined to small R-60
heat-seeking missiles with a maximum
range of five miles, as well as optional
23-millimetre cannon pods. For ground
attack, the Yak-38 had just four underwing
hardpoints for bombs or unguided
rockets, and had a small bomb load
between 1,000 and 2,000 lb. The Forger
could also launch Kh-23 anti-ship missiles
– although the limited technology made it
challenging for the single pilot to control
the weapons system. The temperamental
Forger was unpopular with pilots. Its
designers had observed that if one lift jet
broke down, which gave the aircraft its
vertical thrust to lift off, the other would
spin the aircraft over on its side. To protect
Indian Navy MiG-29k lifts off from carrier deck. the pilot, an automatic ejection system was
designed to detect sharp changes in pitch
and immediately eject the pilot at an angle
away from the carrier’s forecastle.
South Korea is building an aircraft
carrier, provisionally codenamed CVX,
which is expected to enter service in
2033. However, South Korea is expected
to purchase 20 new F-35A Block 4
Lightning II stealth fighters for the
Republic of Korea Air Force (RoKAF)
– with an order for F-35Bs planned to
follow as progress on the CVX develops.
Japan has stated that it plans to procure
the F-35 fighters in both A and B variants
with the total force expected to number
147. These aircraft will replace around
half of its aging F-15J fleet. Forty-two
Indian’s new naval fighter aircraft. of Japan’s F-35 jets will be of the F-35B
variety – a short take off/vertical landing
(STOVL) variant. The F-35B fighter
does not need to be deployed from as
long a runway as its conventional F-35A
counterpart, providing greater flexibility
– which is strategically important in
the country’s remote southwest island
territories. Japan’s F-35B fighters will
be deployed from its Izumo-class
helicopter destroyers Izumo and Kaga,
following the decision in 2018 by Tokyo’s
administration to modify these vessels
to allow the F-35 to operate. The Izumo
conversion will allow Japan’s armed forces
to operate an aircraft carrier for the first
time since the Second World War. The
ability of F-35B squadrons to deploy from
Izumo carriers will significantly raise
Japan’s rapid deployment capabilities
against a wide array of local threats and
enhance the country’s interoperability
with the US Navy carrier strike groups in
Russian Yak-38. the Pacific. ■
CHAPTER 4
WORLD’S TOP
COMBAT CARRIER
AIRCRAFT
The powerful Super

Hornet which remains
in service.

THE US NAVY’s Super Hornet strike fighter is the ultimate naval fighter
spearheading Washington’s global carrier force alongside the F-35. The
aircraft has a been a stalwart since its introduction. It has undergone
upgrades to enhance operational capability and is the dominant
fighter in the US Navy. There are variants of the F/A-18 from A to D
with the E (single seat) and F (two-seater) variants having undergone
major changes and are termed the Hornet and Super Hornet. Today,
it is assigned to 34 operational naval squadrons, and each carrier air
wing typically deploys with around 40 aircraft. The single and two-
seat versions of the ‘classic’ Hornet are also flown by 11 operational
US Marine Corps squadrons. Developed by McDonnell Douglas and
Northrop (now re-branded as Boeing and Northrop Grumman), the
Hornet was conceived in response to a US Navy requirement for a
multi-role fighter/attack aircraft. The prototype first flew in November
1978, and the F/A-18A entered service in February 1981, becoming
operational in 1983. Three years later it was in action over Libya in
1986. The single-seat F/A-18C and two-seat F/A-18D were the result
of an upgrade programme that initially provided new computers, the
airborne self-protection jammer and provisions for carrying the AIM-
120, AGM-65 and AGM-84 missiles. The F/A-18C/D entered production
in 1987 and a night attack capability was incorporated. Since 1978,
1,049 production Hornets and 570 Super Hornets have been supplied
to the navy and marines – 371 F/A-18As and 39 F/A-18Bs, 476 F/A-
18Cs and 163 F/A-18Ds, 297 F/A-18Es and 273 F/A-18Fs. Although
similar in configuration, the Hornet and Super Hornet are essentially
different aircraft and share few structural components. The combat-
proven Super Hornet delivers cutting-edge, next-generation multi-role
strike fighter capability, out performing current and emerging threats
well into the future. The Super Hornet has the capability, flexibility
and performance necessary to engage the air or naval aviation forces
of any country. Two versions of the Super Hornet – the single-seat
E model and the two-seat F model – are able to perform virtually
every mission in the tactical spectrum, including air superiority, and
night strike with precision-guided weapons, fighter escort, close air
support, suppression of enemy air defence systems, maritime strike,
reconnaissance, forward air control and tanker missions.
CHAPTER 4
C
lose behind the Super Hornet is the
Dassault Rafale, a French twin-
engine aircraft with a delta wing
and multirole capability – designed by
Dassault Aviation. The Rafale is intended
to deliver air supremacy, in the area
of interdiction, aerial reconnaissance,
ground support, in-depth strike, anti-ship
strike and if required nuclear deterrence
missions. In the late 1970s, the French Air
Force and Navy were seeking to replace
and consolidate their current fleets of
aircraft. In order to reduce development
costs and boost prospective sales, France
entered into an arrangement with UK,
Germany, Italy and Spain to produce an
agile multi-purpose fighter, which became Super Hornet the dominate fighter in service with the US Navy in 2022.
known as the Eurofighter Typhoon.
Subsequent disagreements over workshare
and differing requirements led to France’s
pursuit of its own development program.
Dassault built a technology demonstrator
which first flew in July 1986 as part of an
eight-year flight-test programme, paving
the way for the project. The Rafale is
distinct from other European fighters
of its era in that it is almost entirely
built by one country, involving most
of France’s major defence contractors,
such as Dassault, Thales and Safran. As
a result, most of the aircraft’s avionics
and features, such as direct voice input,
the active electronically scanned array
radar and the infra-red search and track
sensor, were domestically developed and
produced for the Rafale programme – a
major benefit to French business and
military security. The aircraft is available
in three main variants: Rafale C, the
single-seat land-based version, Rafale B,
the twin-seat also a land-based version,
and Rafale M, the single-seat carrier-
based version. The aircraft has been used
in combat over Afghanistan, Libya, Mali,
Iraq and Syria. Several upgrades to the
weapons and avionics of the Rafale have
been introduced. In December 2000, the
French Naval Aviation (Aéronavale), the
air arm of the French Navy, received its ➽
Maintenance in the cockpit of the Super Hornet. Super Hornet breaks the sound barrier.

Super Hornets in formation.

CHAPTER 4
Super Hornet, in the
foreground, on the
deck of a carrier.

CHAPTER 4
FA/18e single seater.
F-35C launches from an aircraft carrier.
first two Rafale M fighters. The French

Navy’s Flottille 12F squadron, which had
previously operated the F-8 Crusader,
became the first squadron to operate the
Rafale after it was officially re-activated
prior to the delivery of the sixth Rafale.
The Flottille 12F immediately deployed
aboard the aircraft carrier Charles de
Gaulle and took part in wargames to test
the Rafale’s avionics in simulated attacks
Super Hornet fully armed at speed. with various foreign aircraft, as well as
Super Hornet
lands on deck.
carrier take-offs and landings. After all contribute to the F-35’s unique stealth of greater than 1,200 nautical miles. This
almost four years of training, the Rafale M performance. This enables pilots to enables F-35C pilots to fly further and
was declared operational with the French evade enemy detection and operate in remain in a desired battlespace longer
Navy in June 2004. anti-access and contested environments, before refuelling is necessary. The F-35C
The US Navy’s F-35C is the first and improving lethality and survivability. can reach speeds of 1.6 Mach (1,200
world’s only long-range stealth strike The F-35 can operate as an intelligence, mph) even with a full internal weapons
fighter designed and built explicitly for surveillance and reconnaissance asset and load. The F-35C can carry more than
carrier operations. Its configuration, battle manager, sharing information to all 5,000 lb of internal weapons, or more
embedded sensors, internal fuel and networked ground, sea and air assets in than 18,000 lb of combined internal and
weapons capacity, aligned edges, and the battlespace. The F-35C carries nearly external weapons. This allows the Navy
state-of-the-art manufacturing processes 20,000 lb of internal fuel and has a range to operate in stealth when necessary, ➽
CHAPTER 4
or increase lethality with additional

Super Hornet pictured weapons externally when the air space is
during air to air refuelling. permissive.
The F- 35B Lightning II, the sister of the
C variant is an all-weather stealth multi-
role combat aircraft designed to perform
both air superiority and strike missions.
It is also able to provide electronic
warfare and intelligence, surveillance, and
reconnaissance capabilities. Designed and
developed by Lockheed Martin, the aircraft
is one of three variants produced for the
US armed forces. The F-35B Lightning II
is the Marine Corps variant of the Joint
Strike Fighter and features a vertical
Russian Navy. However, a lack of aircraft
French Rafale carrier has ‘paused’ the Russian Navy’s
undergoing air-to-air ability to project air power for more than
refuelling. five years – with the Admiral Kuznetzov,
Russia’s sole carrier in refit. The Su-
33 is derived from its predecessor, the
Su-27, and its NATO reporting name is
Flanker-D. It performed its maiden flight
in May 1985 and entered into service
in 1994. It is claiming the aircraft can
destroy hostile aerial targets, provide fire
support and demolish ground and sea
targets using missiles and rockets. The
aircraft was designed by Russia’s Sukhoi
Design Bureau – beginning in 1984 and
finalised in 1985. The aircraft is equipped
with sports canards to reduce the take-off
distance and enhance manoeuvrability,
and has power-aided folding-wings. The
aircraft is also fitted with an air-refuelling
probe to increase its range. The wings
are fitted with a two-piece, single-slotted
flap, an aileron and a larger leading-edge
flap to decrease speed when landing. The
Su-33’s airborne warning and control
system is used to automatically detect,
track and identify up to ten aerial and
ground-based targets. The aircraft is
equipped with a long-range navigation
system which determines the fighter’s
location based on the signals supplied by
a ground station. The aircraft is armed
with 30mm Gsh-30-1 cannons and can
carry air-to-air missiles, guided missiles,
cluster bombs and an electronic counter
measure pods. The landing gear is
reinforced with a double-wheel nose unit,
an arrestor hook and naval navigational
aids. The Russian Ministry of Defence
have indicated that a maritime variant
of the Su-57 will operate from their new
generation of aircraft carriers – although
the war in Ukraine is expected to impact
on the project.
Russia’s MiG-29K is a fast, all-weather
carrier-based multirole fighter aircraft.
The MiG-29K project was initiated in the
lift fan and pivoting engine nozzle to vertical landing mode. Because of the lift late 1970s to meet the requirements of
deliver vertical landing and short take-off fan, the STOVL variant has smaller internal the Soviet Navy for a supersonic carrier-
capability to expeditionary airfields. The weapon bay and less internal fuel capacity based fighter. The first proof of concept
F-35 will replace AV-8B Harrier IIs in than the F-35A. It uses the probe and version, MiG-29KVP, was based on the
service with the Marine Corps. Designed drogue method of aerial refuelling. To date, MiG-29M.The MiG-29KVP completed
to operate from remote bases and a range the United Kingdom, Italy, Netherlands, its maiden flight in August 1982. The
of air-capable ships with its short take- Canada, Denmark, Norway, Japan and aircraft with new undercarriage and
off/vertical landing capability, the F-35B Australia have opted to operate the F-35B. folding wings, differed from the MiG-29
can also take-off and land conventionally Russia’s Su-33 is regarded as a highly production model. The first MiG-29K
from longer runways on major bases. capable single-seat multirole carrier- took to the skies on 23 July 1988. The
F-35B aircraft have been delivered to the based conventional take-off and aircraft performed its first carrier landing
US Marines and the UK, whose air crews landing (CTOL) fighter aircraft. It is on the aircraft-carrying cruiser Tbilisi
train together. The F-35B has a lift fan just manufactured by Sukhoi in Komsomolsk- (later re-named Admiral Kuznetsov)
behind the cockpit and an engine that can on-Amur, Russia and was principally on 1 November 1989. The project was
swivel 90 degrees when in short take-off/ designed to meet the requirements of the halted due to the dissolution of the ➽
CHAPTER 4
Rafale on deck.

French naval fighter Rafale.
French Rafale fighter jets aboard the carrier Charles de Gaulle.

CHAPTER 4
Rafale moves into launch on

deck of aircraft carrier.
Soviet Union. Mikoyan continued the powerful RD-33MK engines, replacing Russian assault rifle has a reputation
development and struggled with funding the RD-33K turbofan engines used in as a robust weapon. Observers claim
issues until it received orders from India. the early prototypes. The glass cockpit the MiG-29K can fly and fly with little
The MiG-29KUB aircraft completed its of the MiG-29K aircraft accommodates maintenance and has been the major
first flight in January 2007. The MiG- one pilot. It is equipped with three workhorse of the Russian fleet when the
29K features a strengthened airframe multifunctional colour LCDs, a digital carrier was operational.
and undercarriage suitable for landing fly-by-wire flight control system and China’s Shenyang J-15, nicknamed the
on aircraft carriers. The aircraft is fitted TopOwl helmet-mounted targeting Flying Shark is a carrier-borne fighter
with folding wings, arrestor hook and a system. The range of the aircraft can be jet. Its development was marked by a
catapult for carrier operations. The radar increased by almost 1,000 km to 3,000km controversy. Russia claims that China
signature of the aircraft is reduced by with three underwing fuel drop tanks. violated intellectual property agreements
four to five times over the basic MiG-29. Many aviation analysts regard the MiG by creating its own version of Moscow’s
The MiG-29K is also fitted with more -29k as the ‘AK-47’ of the air power. The Sukhoi Su-33. China wanted to acquire
Rafale fully armed at speed.
Sukhoi Su-33 of the Russian Navy.
Sukhoi Su-33 for use on their aircraft

carrier, but negotiations stalled – it is
believed over financial disagreements. It
was alleged that in 2001, China acquired
an unfinished prototype of the Su-33
from Ukraine and when Beijing failed
to buy direct from Russia, they used
the aircraft from Ukraine as a template
for building the J-15. The Shenyang
J-15 made its first flight in 2009 and
was introduced in the Chinese Navy
in 2013. Currently there are more than
20 Flying Sharks built, all of which are ➽ Sukhoi Su-33 on the deck of the Admiral Kuznetsov.

CHAPTER 4
Russian MiG-29K – the naval variant.
Su-33 lifts off the deck of Russia’s only carrier.

unclear how the aircraft will perform
operationally.
Prior to the introduction of the J-35,
the backbone of China’s air force was
the J-15 fighter. The J-15 is believed to
be a reverse-engineered Chinese copy
of the Russian Sukhoi Su-33, a fourth-
generation fighter which has been
thoroughly surpassed by US planes
such as the F-22 and F-35. The J-15 is
restricted at sea, because while it can land
on China’s aircraft carriers, it cannot take
off with a full payload of weapons and
fuel. Western commanders say the J-15 is
easy to identify on modern radar, further
limiting its effectiveness. Therefore, the
development of the J-35 has marked
a major change in China’s ability to
fight an air battle at sea. While it has
the configuration of a stealth fighter,
MiG-29K at speed – the aircraft has been used by the Indian Navy. it also travels much faster but analysts
say it lacks performance at sea, making
employed by the Chinese Navy. In 2021, jet based on the Shenyang FC-31 as the it a serious threat for US and Coalition
China demonstrated a pair of its land- next-generation combat aircraft to equip F-35s. The first J-35 prototype was put
based J-20 stealth fighters powered by China’s growing fleet of aircraft carriers. on display at China’s 2014 Air Show,
indigenous engines which they proposed This new naval variant has since been where observers claimed it performed
for carrier operations. It has been confirmed as the J-35 and will deployed poorly and while some of its flaws were
speculated in recent years that China is on Beijing’s carriers. The J-35 made its corrected, the weight required the
developing a new carrier-based fighter maiden flight in October 2021, but it is development of domestic engines. ■
Inside the cockpit of a Sukhoi Su-33.

CHAPTER 5
THE ICONIC
HARRIER
The iconic Sea Harrier. Picture DPL

THE HARRIER was an iconic aircraft with its short take-off and vertical landing/vertical
take-off capability. It served with the RAF in a ground attack role, the Royal Navy as a
reconnaissance and attack aircraft and with the US Marines, Spanish and Italian fleets
as the AV-8. The aircraft first entered service with the Royal Navy in April 1980 as the
Sea Harrier FRS1 and became informally known as the ‘Shar’. Unusual in an era in
which most naval and land-based air superiority fighters were large and supersonic,
the principal role of the subsonic Sea Harrier was to provide air defence for Royal Navy
task groups – while at the same time, delivering a reconnaissance and attack role if
needed. Developed from the Hawker-Siddeley Harrier, which was used by the RAF
and in a different variant known as the AV-8A – which was used by the United States
Marine Corps, as well as the Spanish and Italian fleets. The Sea Harrier was operationally
approved just before the Falklands war and saw active service in the South Atlantic on
what was called Operation Corporate.
T
he aircraft was promoted overseas
but by 1983, India was the only
operator other than Britain. Both
Argentina and Australia declined to
invest in the aircraft. The decision by the
Buenos Aires government was significant
as UK pilots may have faced a much
formidable enemy had the Navy been
equipped with the Harrier. A second,
upgraded version for the Royal Navy
delivered in 1993 and listed as the Sea
Harrier FA2, improving its air-to-air
abilities and weapons compatibilities,
along with a more powerful engine. But
despite the overwhelming qualities of
the Harrier and without any replacement
at the time, the UK government made
the decision – on what appears to have
been financial reasons – to withdraw
the aircraft from service with the Royal Harriers land.
Navy in 2006. The Indian Navy continued
to operate the Sea Harrier until its
retirement in 2016.
In the 1950s, the government sought
to cut defence spending and reduced the
size of the fleet. The big battleships and
carriers were withdrawn from service but
senior officers wanted to develop a new
carrier to maintain a maritime fighter
aircraft capability. In 1966, the Ministry
of Defence plan for the CVA-01 class
of large aircraft carriers was cancelled.
During this time, requirements within
the Royal Navy began to form for a
vertical and/or short take-off and landing
(V/STOL) carrier-based interceptor to
replace the de Havilland Sea Vixen. The
first V/STOL tests on a ship began with a
Hawker Siddeley P.1127 landing on HMS
Ark Royal in 1963. With Ark Royal and ➽ Harrier launch.

CHAPTER 5
other carriers in need of extended and Variants: GR9 Harrier on deck.
expensive overhauls or total replacement,
a second concept for the future of naval
aviation emerged in the early 1970s. It
SEA HARRIER FRS.1
was centred around the concept of a 57 FRS.1s were delivered between 1978 and
new class of what was termed ‘through 1988; most survivors converted to Sea Harrier
deck cruisers’. The then Conservative FA2 specifications from 1988.
government (1970-1974) was opposed to
building new carriers and the description SEA HARRIER F(A).2
was carefully shaped to deliberately
avoid the term ‘aircraft carrier’, in order Upgrade of FRS.1 fleet in 1988, featuring the
to increase the chances of funding from Blue Vixen Pulse-Doppler radar and the AIM-120
a hostile government against expensive AMRAAM missile.
capital ships.
The ships were ordered and named
the Invincible-class and quickly became to 34. The Sea Harrier was declared
known as aircraft carriers. Almost operational in 1981 on board the first
immediately upon their construction, Invincible-class ship, HMS Invincible, with
a ski-jump was added to the end of the further aircraft joining HMS Hermes later
170-metre deck, enabling the carriers to that year. Following their key role in the
effectively operate a small number of V/ 1982 Falklands War, several lessons were
STOL jets. learned from the aircraft’s performance,
The Royal Air Force’s Hawker Siddeley which led to approval for an upgrade of
Harrier GR1s had entered service in the fleet to FRS.2 (later known as FA2).
April 1969 and the maritime version of The first flight of the prototype took
the Harrier was now developed to serve place in September 1988 and a contract
on the so called ‘through deck cruisers’. was signed for 29 upgraded aircraft in
In 1975, the Royal Navy ordered 24 Sea December that year. In 1990, the Navy
Harrier FRS.1 (standing for ‘Fighter, ordered 18 new-build FA2s, at a unit
Reconnaissance, Strike’) aircraft, the cost of around £12 million, four further
first of which was delivered in 1978. upgraded aircraft were ordered in 1994
Hawker Siddeley was now part of British with the first aircraft delivered on 2
Aerospace and when the prototype Sea April 1993.
Harrier was flown at Dunsfold on 20 The Sea Harrier was a subsonic aircraft
August 1978, the order had been increased designed for strike, reconnaissance and ➽
Harrier lands on deck in the sunset.

Harrier on deck of Royal Navy carrier. Picture Chris Smith /DPL

CHAPTER 5
Harrier on deck of carrier.

Picture Chris Smith/DPL
Harrier in sunset.

Harrier on deck. Picture UK MoD
SPECIFICATIONS (SEA HARRIER FA.2):

Crew: 1 Powerplant: 1 x Rolls-Royce Pegasus 106
vectored thrust turbofan engine, 21,500 lbf (96
Length: 46ft 6in (14.17m) kN) thrust with water injection
Wingspan: 25ft 3in (7.70m) Maximum speed:
618kn (711mph, 1,145km/h) / M0.94 at sea level
Height: 12ft 2in (3.71m)
578kn (665mph; 1,070km/h) / M0.97 at altitude
Wing area: 201.1 sq ft (18.68 m2)
Combat range:
Empty weight: 14,585lb (6,616kg) 400nmi (460mi, 740km) high-altitude intercept
with 3 minutes combat and reserves for VL
Max take-off weight: 26,200lb (11,884kg) 250nmi (288mi; 463km) for ground attack
STO / 17,620lb (7,992kg) VTO missions
Maximum fuel weight, internal: 5,182lb
(2,351kg) Ferry range: 1,740nmi (2,000mi, 3,220km)
fighter roles. It was powered by a single Service ceiling: 51,000ft (16,000m)
Rolls-Royce Pegasus turbofan engine with Fuel capacity: g limits: +7.8 -4.2
two intakes and four vectorable nozzles. 630 imp gal (757 US gal; 2,864 l) internal fuel in 5 Rate of climb: 50,000ft/min (250m/s)
It has two landing wheels on the fuselage fuselage and two wing integral tanks; provision for 2 Wing loading: 130.28lb/sq ft (636.1kg/m2)
and two on the wings. The Sea Harrier x 100 imp gal (120 US gal; 455 l) combat drop tanks Thrust/weight: 1.22
was equipped with four wing and three or 2 x 190 imp gal (228 US gal; 864 l) combat drop Take-off run STO: 1,000ft (305m) at MTOW
fuselage pylons for carrying weapons and tanks or 2 x 330 imp gal (396 US gal; 1,500 l) ferry without ramp
external fuel tanks. Use of the ski jump drop tanks on inboard wing pylons only
allowed the aircraft to take off from a
short flight deck with a heavier payload
than would otherwise be possible. changed to use corrosion resistant alloys clearance trials. The first production
The Sea Harrier was largely based on the or coatings to protect against the marine aircraft was delivered to RNAS Yeovilton
Harrier GR3, but was modified to have environment. After the Falklands War, the in 1979 to form an Intensive Flying Trials
a raised cockpit and pronounced canopy Sea Harrier was fitted with the Sea Eagle Unit, the 700A Naval Air Squadron. In
for greater visibility as well as an extended anti-ship missile. March 1980, the Intensive Flying Trials
forward fuselage to accommodate the The first three Sea Harriers were a Unit became 899 Naval Air Squadron and
Ferranti Blue Fox radar. Parts were development batch and were used for would act as the land borne headquarters ➽
CHAPTER 5
Harriers embarked on carrier on way to Falklands. Picture DPL Sea Harrier lifts off Falklands. Picture DPL
unit for the type. The first operational

squadron 800 Naval Air Squadron was
also formed in March 1980 initially to
operate from HMS Invincible before it
transferred to HMS Hermes. In January
1981, a second operation squadron
801 Naval Air Squadron was formed to
operate from HMS Invincible.
The Sea Harrier FA2 was fitted with the
then new Blue Vixen radar, which was
described as one of the most advanced pulse
doppler radar systems in the world; the Blue
Fox radar was seen by some critics as having
comparatively low performance for what
was available at the time of procurement.
The Blue Vixen formed the basis for
development of the Eurofighter Typhoon’s
CAPTOR radar. The Sea Harrier FA2
carried the AIM-120 AMRAAM missile,
Harrier lifts off the ski-ramp in the Falklands. Picture DPL the first UK aircraft to be provided with
this capability. An upgraded model of the
Pegasus engine, the Pegasus Mk 106, was
used in the Sea Harrier FA2. In response
to the threat of radar-based anti-aircraft
weapons electronic countermeasures were
added. Other improvements included an
increase to the air-to-air weapons load,
look-down radar, increased range, and
improved cockpit displays.
The cockpit in the Sea Harrier included
a conventional centre stick arrangement
and left-hand throttle. In addition to
normal flight controls, the Harrier had a
control lever to manage the direction of
the four vectorable nozzles. The utility of
the vertical landing capability of the Sea
Harrier was demonstrated in an incident
on 6 June 1983, when Sub Lieutenant
Ian Watson lost contact with the aircraft
carrier HMS Illustrious and had to land
Sea Harrier ZA176 on the foredeck of the
The Sea Harrier’s Vector nozzle. Picture UK MoD Spanish cargo ship Alraigo. ➽
Harrier lifts of from the carrier HMS Invincible during the Falklands war. Picture DPL
Harriers deployed to protect ships in San Carlos water. Picture DPL
Sea Harriers at end of Falklands war. Picture DPL

CHAPTER 5
USMC AV-8B Harriers.
HARRIER ROLES
Combat air patrol:
Up to 1 hour 30 minutes on station at 100nmi
(115mi; 185km) carrying 4 x AMRAAM or 2 x
AMRAAM + 2 x ADEN cannon + 2 x 190 imp
gal (228 US gal; 864 l) combat drop tanks ;
Deck run 450ft (137m)
Reconnaissance:
Low-level cover of 130,000sq nmi (172,158sq
mi; 445,888km2) at a radius of 525nmi
(604mi; 972km), out and return at medium
level carrying 2x ADEN cannon + 2x 190 imp
gal (228 US gal; 864 l) combat drop tanks ;
Deck run 350ft (107m)
Harrier in Afghanistan. Picture IB/DPL Surface attack:

(hi-lo-hi) Radius of action 200nmi (230mi;
370km) to missile launch carrying 2x BAe Sea
Eagle + 2x ADEN cannon ; Deck run 300ft
(91m)
Interception:
Deck-launched against M0.9 target at 116nmi
(133mi; 215km), or a M1.3 target at 95nmi
(109mi; 176km), with initial radar detection
at 230nmi (265mi; 426km), at 2 minute alert
status carrying 2x AMRAAM.
In 2005, although already planned to be

retired, a Sea Harrier was modified with
an ‘Autoland’ system to allow the fighter
to perform a safe vertical landing without
any pilot interaction. Despite the pitching
of a ship posing a natural problem, the
system was designed to be aware of such
data, and successfully performed a landing
at sea in May 2005.
The US Marines regarded the Harrier
UK Pilot puts a sign indicating his Harrier for sale. Picture IB/DPL as the ultimate combat platform as it
Italian Harrier landing on the Cavour. Picture I/MoD.
US Marines AV-8B. Picture CMT
could operate from their assault ships designed Hawker-Siddley Kestrel, the Harrier II Plus, which first flew on 22
and provide close air support to troops AV-8B Harrier II was developed by a team September 1992. McDonnell Douglas
onshore. In 1991, Harrier IIs were the representing McDonnell Douglas, British Aerospace and British Aerospace
first US Marine Corps tactical aircraft Aerospace and Rolls-Royce. Production of worked in a joint collaboration to
to arrive for Operation Desert Storm AV-8B began in 1981, and more than 340 deliver the project. The AV-8B Harrier
over the Persian Gulf. During the 42 Harrier IIs were produced. They carried II Plus, with a more powerful engine
days of combat, 86 Harrier IIs flew 3,380 more fuel than the earlier AV-8As and had and advanced radar and avionics, was
combat sorties (4,112 combat hours) and higher lift and better cruise characteristics. able to operate efficiently in darkness
delivered more than six million pounds The United States, Spain and Italy and in adverse weather conditions. The
of ordnance. Based on the 1957 British- coordinated efforts to develop the AV-8B American AV-8A differed from their ➽
CHAPTER 5
US Marine Harrier over south Afghanistan. Picture CMT/DPL
The Harrier was retired by the UK but maintained by the US, Spain and Italy

HARRIER AV-8B
WEAPONS LOAD:
1. 25 mm five barrelled rotary cannon
2. LAU-10 and LAU-69 rocket pods (70mm)
3. AIM- 9 Sidewinder misiles
4. AIM-120 AMRAAM
5. Maverick missiles
6. CBU Cluster bombs
7. GBU-38 laser guided bombs
8. GBU-54 joint Direct Attack Munitions
Spanish Harrier
Italian Harrier AV-8B lifts off. Picture I/MoD
British counterparts mainly in the some The Sea Harriers mainly performed Mirage III and Dagger jets were faster,
of the equipment in the pilot’s cockpit the primary air defence role with a the Sea Harrier was considerably more
and the US weapons. The premium secondary role of ground attack and manoeuvrable, and the Harrier employed
AV-8A modification of the Harrier is interception while the RAF Harrier the latest AIM-9L Sidewinder missiles
capable of reaching a top speed of over GR3 provided the main ground attack delivered by the United States.
1150 km/h. The AV-8A was armed with force. A total of 28 Sea Harriers and British aircraft received fighter control
two ADEN 30mm automatic cannons 14 Harrier GR3s were deployed in the from warships in San Carlos Water,
in ventral pods. Various options can theatre. These squadrons shot down 20 although its effectiveness was limited by
be used to carry underwing munitions, Argentine aircraft in air-to-air combat their being stationed close to the islands,
including: two guided air-to-air missiles with no air-to-air losses, although two which severely limited the effectiveness of
AIM-9G Sidewinders, up to five 250-lb, Sea Harriers were lost to ground fire their radar.
500-lb or two 1000-lb high-explosive and four to accidents. Out of the total Both sides’ aircraft were operating in
bombs, as well as up to 76 unguided Argentine air losses, 28% were shot adverse conditions. Argentine aircraft
FFAR rockets or up to 16 unguided Zuni down by Harriers. One Harrier alone, were forced to operate from the mainland
Mk32 rockets. flown by RAF Flight Lieutenant David because airfields on the Falklands were
The UK victory in re-taking the Falkland Morgan, shot down two Skyhawks in a only suited for propeller-driven aircraft.
Islands in 1982, was significantly aided by single encounter. In addition, fears partly aroused by the
the Royal Navy Sea Harriers and RAF GR3 A number of factors contributed to the bombing of Port Stanley airport by a British
Harriers which operated from the carriers, failure of the Argentinian fighters to Vulcan bomber added to the Argentinians’
HMS Invincible and HMS Hermes. shoot down a Sea Harrier. Although the decision to operate them from the ➽
CHAPTER 5
Harrier lifts off carrier ski ramp.
jet aircraft used. The Argentine Air Force

used these aircraft to mount deception
missions and pretend they were going to
attack which pulled the Harriers away
from the fleet.
The Harriers also had to operate without
a fleet early warning system such as
AWACS that would have been available
to a full NATO fleet in which the Royal
Navy had expected to operate, which was
a significant weakness in the operational
environment. The lack of AWACS cover
resulted in air superiority as opposed to
air supremacy – the Sea Harriers could
not prevent Argentine attacks during day
or night nor could they completely stop
the daily C-130 Hercules transports’ night
Spanish Harrier AV-8B. Picture Fin Reynolds/DPL flights to the islands. A total of six Sea
Harriers were lost during the war.
mainland and not move their operating for and attack an objective, while a Sea The Sea Harrier was again deployed
base forward to Port Stanley airfield. Harrier could stay near to 30 minutes in the 1992-1995 conflict in Bosnia.
As most Argentine aircraft lacked waiting in the Argentine approach Pilots launched raids on Serb forces and
in-flight refuelling capability, they were corridors and provide Combat Air Patrols provided air-support for the international
forced to operate at the limit of their for up to an hour. taskforce units conducting Operations
range. The Sea Harriers also had limited The Sea Harriers were outnumbered Deny Flight and Deliberate Force against
fuel reserves due to the tactical decision to by the available Argentinian aircraft, the Army of Republika Srpska. On 16
station the British carriers out of Exocet and were on occasion decoyed away by April 1994, a Sea Harrier of the 801 Naval
missile range and the dispersal of the fleet. the activities of the Escuadrón Fénix – a Air Squadron, operating from the aircraft
In the main, Argentine aircraft only had photographic reconnaissance unit which carrier HMS Ark Royal, was brought
five minutes over the islands to search used two Lear jets and additional civilian down by an Igla-1 surface-to-air missile
SEA HARRIER:
Guns: 2 x 30mm (1.18in) ADEN cannon pods
under the fuselage, with 130 rounds each
Hardpoints: 4 x under-wing pylon stations,
and 1 fuselage pylon on centerline plus 2 attach
points for gun pods with a total capability of
8,000lb (3,630kg) of payload.
Rockets: 4 x Matra rocket pods with 18 SNEB

68 mm rockets each
Missiles:
AIM-9 Sidewinder
AIM-120 AMRAAM
ALARM anti-radiation missile (ARM)
Sea Eagle anti-ship missile
fired by the Army of Republika Srpska

while attempting to bomb two Bosnian
Serb tanks. The pilot, Lieutenant Nick Spanish Navy (Armada) Harrier. Picture Fin Reynolds/DPL
Richardson, ejected and landed in territory
controlled by friendly Bosnian Muslims. forces in the region. Against widespread introduction had been pushed back to 2016
The Harrier was in the frontline again in advice, ministers approved a proposal for at the earliest, with the price doubled.
1999, when NATO mounted a campaign the Sea Harrier to be withdrawn from The Royal Navy’s Fleet Air Arm would
against the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia service in 2006 and the last remaining continue to share the Joint Force Harrier.
in Operation Allied Force, Sea Harriers aircraft from 801 Naval Air Squadron were Harrier GR7 and the upgraded Harrier
which operated from HMS Invincible decommissioned on 29 March 2006. GR9 were retired prematurely a few years
frequently patrolled the airspace to keep Plans for retirement were announced in later due to budget cuts. The UK now
Yugoslavian MiGs on the ground. They 2002 by the Ministry of Defence and while operates the STOVL F-35B from the
were also deployed to Sierra Leone on the F-35B was due to replace the Harrier Queen Elizabeth-class aircraft carriers,
board HMS Illustrious in 2000, which in 2012 the project fell behind schedule. By but the gap in capability left the UK with
was itself part of a Royal Navy convoy to 2005, HMS Invincible and HMS Hermes a significant inability to project maritime
supply and reinforce British intervention had been retired. By March 2010, the F-35’s power for almost two decades. ■
Spanish Navy (Armada) Harrier. Picture Fin Reynolds/DPL

CHAPTER 6
THE FUTURE –
UNMANNED CARRIER
COMBAT AIRCRAFT
A graphic rendering ‘mock-up’

of what a future fighter may
look like. Graphic DRA Media

THE FUTURE of naval aviation will in the next two decades,
see a major adoption of unmanned combat systems with
the ultimate aim being to create an autonomous super
fighter that can deliver long range kinetic operations. This
graphic generated rendering shows just what a future
maritime fighter might look like with a closed cockpit and
no tail. Unmanned aircraft will be able to launch from
carriers un-detected and managed missions overseen by
a carrier-based team of UAV pilots. As Western forces are
already looking ahead to replace the Super Hornet and
the Rafale by the late 2030s, a generation of unmanned
platforms is emerging.
W
hile planners see the main planning will include an unmanned
force of fighter aircraft being capability as well as being able to deploy
manned, there is growing a swarm of mini-drones. Tempest is
evidence of a requirement for an a dedicated air force project but the
unmanned fighter capability with critics US has proposed that the US and UK
saying , it will be to the Navy’s detriment could consider a limited approach to a
if the future generation fighter program ‘technology share’. Colonel Charles E
delivers a manned fighter for the Metrolis, the US air attaché in London,
Navy, adding that designing a next- suggested that both countries could
generation manned aircraft will be a share ‘insight or capability’ – although
critical mistake. Every year remotely in the short term it is clear that both
piloted aircraft (RPAs) replace more and projects remain independent.
more manned aviation platforms, and The US F/A -XX future fighter will retain
artificial intelligence (AI) is becoming the primary missions of air combat, air
ever increasingly capable. By the mid- to air, ground attack, surface warfare and
2030s, when the F-35C will still be in close air support to ground forces. But this
operation, the next platform is expected top-secret aircraft is expected to include
to begin production. In order to make the next generation of science including
sure the Navy maintains the technical a ‘smart skin’ which will make the aircraft
edge in aviation, it needs, experts claim, impossible to see on radar or from the
to invest in an unmanned-capable ground. It will also be able to generate an
aircraft today. Recent advances and electromagnetic bubble around the aircraft
long-term trends in automation and to counter enemy missiles. A F/A -XX
computing make it clear that such demonstrator is understood to have been
an investment is not only prudent flying for the past year. But surrounded
but necessary to maintain capability in strict secrecy there are no pictures.
overmatch and avoid falling behind. The Analysts suggest the final aircraft will be
concept of an unmanned fighter may tailless and adopt the shape of the B2 Sprit
seem years away, but defence scientists and be capable of operating unseen on
expect at least one carrier will, by 2040 long range operations.
,deploy with an air group of unmanned In 2015, the US’s Chief of Naval
fighter jets. Operations Jonathan Greenert suggested
The US Navy’s F/A-XX project will that the F/A-XX would not rely primarily
oversee the development and acquisition on speed or stealth as much as previous-
of a sixth generation of fighter to replace generation jet fighters due to better
the Super Hornet and support the signature detection and proliferating high-
F-35C in the 2030s. It is understood the speed anti-aircraft weapons. The aircraft
project is aiming to deliver a manned will carry a wide array of new spectrum
and unmanned platform. At the same of advanced weaponry to overwhelm or
time, the UK is developing a new fighter suppress enemy air defences and ensure
called the Tempest which on current survivability. While he did not confirm, ➽
CHAPTER 6
The new fighter will enter service alongside

the F-35C before replacing it.

CHAPTER 6
Unmanned aircraft will be

launched from carriers.
he appears to have indicated that the US RSK MiG, which is running the project, In February 2018, the Kremlin
Navy is looking to deploy directed energy said the new plane would capable of revealed that the Russian Navy plans to
weapons and use the aircraft in a cyber speeds up to Mach 4 – about 3,500 miles commission a new carrier, which would
warfare setting. At the time the then an hour. Among his other comments were likely deploy Su-57 fighters replacing the
secretary of the Navy, Ray Mabus, stated that the aircraft will be equipped with an Su-33 on the Admiral Kuznetsov. Russia’s
that the F/A-XX should be a platform anti-missile laser, and be able to operate at new carrier, named the Shtorm-class, has
with the capability of optional unmanned very high altitudes. He also stated that it been hailed a supercarrier exceeding the
autonomous operation. could be transformed into an unmanned displacement of the United States Navy’s
Moscow has commissioned the Mikoyan version later. Many analysts regard Gerald Ford-class. Potential deployment
PAK-DP project to develop a longer- his comments as wild speculation and of the Su-57 with an electromagnetic
range stealth interceptor – although with highlight the fact that the Kremlin has not launch system would make the warship’s
the cost of the war in Ukraine spiralling, yet ordered the aircraft. Any new aircraft air wing highly capable This could give
it is unclear if the programme, which is will have limited benefits for the Russian the Russian Navy a distinct advantage
due to deliver the first aircraft in 2025, Navy until such times as the Kuznetsov over any potential adversaries and put
is still funded and on schedule. In an is overhauled and back in service or a its Navy in a better position to claim air
interview with Russian State television new aircraft carrier delivered to Russia’s superiority. But with no sign of the new
Ilya Tarasenko the Director General of Northern Fleet. carrier class being confirmed or any
Artists impression of the Future fighter being developed for the US Navy.
The Russian Navy is looking at a variant of the Su-57 for carrier operations.
suggested that Moscow is ready to fund a

maritime version of the Su-57, the project
appears to be on hold.
In Europe, the requirement to design
and build a new fighter aircraft is being
overseen by a European consortium of
Germany, Spain and France who have
engaged in a project termed the Future
Combat Air System (FCAS). The project
is also known as SCAF – Système de
Combat Aérien Future. The SCAF/FCAS
will replace air and maritime airframes
currently in service, such as the Rafales
and EF-18 Hornets. The replacement
aircraft is listed as the Next Generation
Fighter (NGA) and the French company
Dassault will serve as prime contractor ➽ The huge Su-57 is known as the T-50 by Russian forces.

CHAPTER 6
The US Navy’s Super Hornet will also be phased-out in the next 25 years.
China’s J-20 fighter which is already in service.
for the project, while Airbus will lead the

development of remote-controlled carrier
vehicles. The NGA will be carrier-capable
and will fly from the French Navy’s next
generation of carriers.
Japan is building its first domestically
developed stealth fighter currently listed
as the Mitsubishi F-X and known as the
F-3, with the potential for a maritime
variant. There has been no confirmation
that the F-X or F-3 as it is also called will
be carrier borne. But in February 2020,
An artist’s impression of the new Euro fighter in French navy colours. the UK and Japan agreed to collaborate
A European consortium is developing a new
fighter. This artists impression appears to
incorporate a similar design to the F-35
on sensor technologies for the RAF Chinese aircraft carriers which do not the PLAN’s third carrier would also be
Tempest and Japan’s F-X, future fighter have catapults. The new Type 003 carrier able to deploy a more complete suite of
programme further bolstering their employs a catapult launch, which experts aircraft associated with carrier strike
military-technology ties. The aircraft is say appears to be an electromagnetic-type group operations including carrier
due into service in the mid 2030s and will system like one originally developed by onboard delivery transport and airborne
replace Japan’s F-2. the US Navy for the Ford-class. Such a early warning.
The big player in the Far East, China, has system puts less stress on the aircraft than Remotely piloted drones and aerial
already commissioned the Chengdu J-20 older steam-type catapult launch systems, vehicles are developing as artificial
into service with the PLAN air force and and the use of a catapult means that the intelligence (AI) delivers opportunities to
is understood to be developing a naval ship will be able to launch a broader enhance the embarked naval air group.
variant. The existing J-15 weighs around variety of aircraft, which is necessary for In July 2020, India’s Defence research and
17 tons when empty. It can be launched China to be able to project naval power Development Organisation carried out the
via a ramp on the bow of the first two at a greater range. Once fully operational, maiden Flight of its Autonomous Flying ➽
CHAPTER 6
Artists impression of Japan’s new Mitsubishi F-X.
A mock-up of the Euro

consortiums plane.
Japan’s F-2 which will need to be replaced.
Wing Technology Demonstrator, called the can operate from warships and carriers.
Swift. Initially developed for the Air Force The X-47B was a tailless, strike fighter-
the small UAV is also being consider for sized unmanned aircraft developed by
the fleet. Artificial Intelligence (AI) offers Northrop Grumman as part of the US
significant advantages over humans as it Navy’s Unmanned Combat Air System
has lasting endurance – pending its fuel cell (UCAS) Carrier Demonstration program.
power. It can make a decision in seconds, Under a contract awarded in 2007, the
co-ordinate dozens of instructions from a company designed, produced and flight
command centre and avoid human errors. tested two X-47B aircraft. In 2013, these
Unmanned combat aircraft can be used aircraft were used to demonstrate the first
to refuel fighter aircraft, act as forward air ever carrier-based launch and recovery
communications platforms, deliver logistics by an unmanned autonomous aircraft.
and tasked to mount air patrols around In April 2015, the X-47B once again
a deployed Task Force. There have been made aviation history by successfully
numerous proposals including a project conducting the first-ever autonomous
called the Boeing Phantom Ray which aerial refuelling (AAR) of an unmanned
involved launching a UAV from a Nasa aircraft. AAR unlocks the full potential of
space shuttle aircraft. what unmanned surveillance, strike and
Overall, the US Navy is leading global reconnaissance systems can do in support
fleets in the development of unmanned of the Navy. These demonstrations proved
combat aerial vehicles (UCAV) which the concept of future unmanned aircraft ➽
X-47B lifts off carrier.

CHAPTER 6
MQ-25 lifts off during trials.
and highlight that the X-47B can perform learned from the company’s Phantom For example, the refueler’s engine intake
standard missions – like aerial refuelling Ray flying wing and its other unmanned is located on the fuselage top, shielding
– and operate seamlessly with manned aerial systems. General Atomics engine fan blades from returning a radar
aircraft as part of the Carrier Air Wing. proposed their Sea Avenger, based on signal. Likewise, the Stingray’s fuselage is
The X-47B evolved after the US its Predator, as a refuelling platform contoured to deflect radar and minimize
Navy embarked on a programme to while Lockheed Martin proposed their radar returns.
develop an aircraft carrier-based UAV Sea Ghost, drawing on experience Although never seen, the RQ-180,
in 2006. The original concept was for on the RQ-170 Sentinel. Northrop a stealth unmanned aerial vehicle,
a stealthy strike platform capable of Grumman earlier announced that they designed by Northrop Grumman is
penetrating enemy air defences. By would be withdrawing its X-47B from currently in development and may have
2012, intelligence, surveillance and the competition. In 2018, the US Navy already flown. This top-secret project
reconnaissance capabilities particular in announced Boeing as the winner of is understood to have adopted much of
the area of counter terrorism missions the competition and awarded an $805 the proven technology from the X-47B.
became the priority. This became million development contract for four It is an air force asset. But US analysts
known as Unmanned Carrier Launched MQ-25A aircraft to be completed by say there are plans to deliver a maritime
Surveillance and Strike (UCLASS). But the August 2024. An additional three test variant. The RQ-180 can allegedly reach
operational imperative was switched to MQ-25As were ordered on 2 April 2020. 60,000ft and has a wing span of 130 feet.
the requirement for an unmanned combat The Boeing MQ-25 Stingray resulted Its secret design has led to speculation
platform that could refuel carrier-based from the Carrier Based Aerial Refuelling that is has a ‘bat wing’ and embraces
aircraft – such as the Super Hornet and System which itself was developed technology from the B2, B21, F22 and
the F-35C known as Carrier Based Aerial from the earlier Unmanned Carrier the F-35. The RQ-180 is understood to
Refuelling System (CBARS). Launched Airborne Surveillance and deliver a shift from UAVs that operate
As a new contract was issued, Boeing Strike programme. The ‘MQ-25’ will in permissive environments, such as the
finished building its wing-body-tail in be the world’s first operational, carrier- RQ-4 Global Hawk and MQ-9 Reaper,
2014 when the UCLASS program was based unmanned aircraft and is integral to ones that can perform missions in
paused, and revived it for the CBARS to the future carrier air wing . Although contested airspace. While not confirmed
contract. On 19 December 2017, Boeing the Stingray is not a purpose-built it is understood that the RQ-180 has
unveiled its entrant for the CBARS, stealth aircraft, it does incorporate some flown on active missions. The RQ-180
which incorporated design and lessons radar-mitigating features in its design. is believed to be about the size of the ➽
MQ-25 refuels an F-35C.
The Boeing MQ-25 Stingray.

CHAPTER 6
The revolutionary X-47B.
B2 Spirit – many believe this shape will be adopted for future UAVs.

MQ-4C offers new capability in surveillance.
The MQ-4C which has been developed for the US Navy.

CHAPTER 6
The unmanned Fire Scout

helicopter.
Kaman K-1200 K-Max

unmanned helicopter.

from the Global Hawk, and called the the Advanced Precision Kill Weapon
MQ-4C Triton. It is intended to provide System (APKWS). The MQ-8B Fire Scout
real-time intelligence, surveillance has also demonstrated the ability to
and reconnaissance missions (ISR) operate concurrently with other manned
over vast ocean and coastal regions, aircraft while operating at sea.
continuous maritime surveillance, The MQ-8C Fire Scout is the Navy’s
conduct search and rescue missions, next-generation autonomous helicopter.
and operate in-conjunction with the The un-manned helicopter’s airframe
Boeing P-8 maritime patrol aircraft. In is based on the commercial Bell 407,
late January 2022, two MQ-4C Tritons, a helicopter with more than 1,600
representing an early operational airframes produced and over 4.4 million
capability for the UAV, arrived in Guam flight hours. Combined with the maturity
to conduct intelligence, surveillance and of Northrop Grumman’s autonomous
reconnaissance missions. In June 2019, systems architecture, Fire Scout meets
Iran shot down an older model Navy customer requirements for ship-based
RQ-4 Global Hawk Broad Area Maritime and land-based autonomous systems.
Global Hawk, which weighs 32,250 lb Surveillance-Demonstrator (BAMS-D), It also has the ability to autonomously
(14,630 kg), and have similar capabilities a prototype for the MQ-4C. The Navy take off and land on any aviation-capable
of endurance (24 hours) and range bought five BAMS-Ds from the US Air ship and from prepared and unprepared
(12,000 miles). The huge size of the RQ- Force as a demonstrator platform before landing zones.
180 would suggest that a maritime based moving to the Triton. In 2010, the US Navy deployed a drone
variant would need to be much smaller. The Navy is also adopting technology helicopter in support of US Marines in
Current operational systems such as in the area of rotary combat platform and Afghanistan. The self-flying helicopter
Predator and Global Hawk have pioneered currently operates the MQ-8 Fire Scout was used to deliver logistics to remote
future design and capabilities. Unmanned and has experimented with autonomous USMC bases in areas where vehicles faced
aircraft are inherently more ‘risk worthy’ variants of the Black Hawk. There are the constant threat of roadside bombs.
for commanders to deploy than manned two Fire Scout variants. The smaller Lockheed Martin landed the $45.8 million
aircraft. Planning and execution of MQ-8B Fire Scout has deployed on contract to make it happen and adopted to
operations with unmanned aircraft would frigates and has deployed on a Littoral use a Kaman K-1200 K-MAX. Outfitting
appear to allow greater risks and more Combat Ship (LCS). MQ-8B Fire Scout the uncomplicated K-MAX-one engine,
aggressive missions. But unmanned has seen operations in Afghanistan to one transmission, no high-pressure
platforms may in their ‘risk averse’ support counter-improvised explosive hydraulic system, no tail rotor – for
capability create opportunity for errors device (IED) operations. This system has autonomous flight wasn’t overly difficult
and spark conflict. completed more than 16,600 flight hours say engineers. The drone helicopter
Northrop Grumman has developed a over 6,200 sorties. The Navy has integrated which was used for more than a year
high-altitude long endurance unmanned a multi-mode maritime radar on MQ-8B met all expectations with less than one
aerial vehicle from the US Navy, derived and tested an onboard weapons capability, maintenance man-hour per flight hour. ■
ISSUE 12
AMERICAN NAVAL MUSEUMS
Everything in the United States is done billions producing countless numbers of The breath of the preserved vessels is
on a grander, bigger and more spectacular warships of all types, classes and specialities, outstanding, and the United States has more
scale than anywhere else in the world the vast majority of these ships end their preserved warships and coastguard vessels
and it is true of their naval museums days being torn apart by scrap man’s than any other nation on the planet. But
too. America is the world’s premier gas torches and their components being it’s not just Post War vessels that have been
naval superpower and has held the title recycled and reused, but a lucky few, usually preserved for the people of America. For
since the end of the Second World War, those with interesting or heroic histories are a nation with only just over two hundred
in those intervening years the USA has preserved for a grateful nation. years of collective history, they have collected
been at war, be it against Russia in the A huge nation as the United States, has vessels from the Civil War, First World War
Cold War, against North Korean forces, the space and the resources to preserve and every war since.
Communists in Vietnam, insurgencies in battle wagons as complex and demanding In the final issue of War at Sea we will list
the Caribbean, against tyrants in the Gulf as aircraft carriers, battleships and cruisers the preserved warships and give an insight
or even against terrorism. with virtually all of the 50 states having some into what it takes to keep the battleship USS
For a nation that has spent the last eight naval memorial within their boundaries even New Jersey in first class condition when we
decades policing the world, it has spent some with no coastlines at all. talk to its curator.
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Super Hornets flying in formation.

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ISSUE 11

CARRIER COMBAT AIRCRAFT

OR CALL 01959 543 747

The Harrier remains in service with Spanish Navy. Picture DPL

CARRIER COMBAT AIRCRAFT

WAR AT SEA | CARRIER COMBAT AIRCRAFT 4

5 CARRIER COMBAT AIRCRAFT | WAR AT SEA

The super stealth F-35B which is

US Navy Greyhound lands on

moving sideways over the deck and gently

landing platform built on the quarter-deck

9 CARRIER COMBAT AIRCRAFT | WAR AT SEA

F9F-2 Panther operated by the US Navy and US Marines. Picture US DoD

operation at Suez in 1956 introduced the

11 CARRIER COMBAT AIRCRAFT | WAR AT SEA

WAR AT SEA | CARRIER COMBAT AIRCRAFT 12

13 CARRIER COMBAT AIRCRAFT | WAR AT SEA

US Navy Sea sprite helicopter. Picture DPL

WAR AT SEA | CARRIER COMBAT AIRCRAFT 14

15 CARRIER COMBAT AIRCRAFT | WAR AT SEA

US Navy Sikorsky SH3H.

Sea Knight CH47. Picture US DoD

US Marines CH-53 Sea Stallion. Picture DPL

19 CARRIER COMBAT AIRCRAFT | WAR AT SEA

Early variant of a Royal Navy Sea Harrier

Argentine Super Étendard which were purchased

naval fighters, the next generation

The F-35 has been developed in three variants

WAR AT SEA | CARRIER COMBAT AIRCRAFT 22

helmets, which cost in excess of $400,000,

F35 on the deck of a Royal Navy carrier.

25 CARRIER COMBAT AIRCRAFT | WAR AT SEA

F-35B picture during trials.

27 CARRIER COMBAT AIRCRAFT | WAR AT SEA

F-35 lifts off from

F-35 lifts off US Navy carrier.

29 CARRIER COMBAT AIRCRAFT | WAR AT SEA

Sunset landing for F-35.

F-35 pilots training in the United States.

WAR AT SEA | CARRIER COMBAT AIRCRAFT 30

31 CARRIER COMBAT AIRCRAFT | WAR AT SEA

F-35s shortly after initial trials.

WAR AT SEA | CARRIER COMBAT AIRCRAFT 32

UK F-35 lands on Royal Navy aircraft carrier.

33 CARRIER COMBAT AIRCRAFT | WAR AT SEA

F-35C launches off the deck

WAR AT SEA | CARRIER COMBAT AIRCRAFT 34

F-35B landing at dusk.

35 CARRIER COMBAT AIRCRAFT | WAR AT SEA

The UK plans to operate the F-35B from both carriers.

F-35s undergoing mid-air refuelling.

WAR AT SEA | CARRIER COMBAT AIRCRAFT 36

WAR AT SEA | CARRIER COMBAT AIRCRAFT 38

US Navy air power a

39 CARRIER COMBAT AIRCRAFT | WAR AT SEA

WAR AT SEA | CARRIER COMBAT AIRCRAFT 40

trap aircraft for landings – with the F-35C