Emotion - Motivation 1

SUMMARY 7.
1 Theories of Emotion
Name of theory Major features
James–Lange theory Specific physical sensations lead to an identification of the subjective feeling.
(a) (b) (c)
Perceived Perceived Perceived

stimulus stimulus stimulus
Specific Physical Subjective General

physical responses feeling arousal
responses
Subjective Assessment of
feeling surroundings
Cannon–Bard theory
Subjective
feeling Physical sensations and subjective feelings occur simultaneously and
(a) (b) (c) independently.
Perceived Perceived Perceived
stimulus stimulus stimulus
Specific Physical Subjective General

physical responses feeling arousal
responses
Subjective
feeling Schachter–Singer two-factor theory Assessment of
surroundings General arousal, not specific physical states, leads to an appraisal of our
(c) surroundings, which allows us to identify our subjective feelings.
Subjective
Perceived Perceived
feeling
stimulus stimulus
Physical Subjective General

feeling arousal
Assessment of
surroundings
Subjective
feeling
SAME Different emotional states produce physical responses ranging from specific to
ambiguous. Ambiguous responses require more appraisal than specific responses
before a subjective feeling is identified.
Appraisal theory Emotions begin with the detection and assessment of stimuli that are relevant to
personal well-being.
Credits: Fourth row—Ian Paterson/Alamy Stock Photo; Fifth row—Asier Romero/Shutterstock.com, Monkey Business Images/Shutterstock.com
What Does It Mean

to Be Motivated?
Animals, including humans, have limited time and resources, and a state of arousal is expen-
sive in terms of the energy it requires. Motivational systems allow an animal to be aroused
only when necessary, such as when it needs food, and then reduce arousal following the so-
lution of a problem, such as after a meal. Preventing the waste of precious energy resources
provides a significant survival advantage. Motivation also provides the benefit of helping an
252 Chapter 7 THE FEELING MIND: EMOTION AND MOTIVATION
Copyright 2022 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s).
Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
animal prepare to meet future needs. Most animals are motivated to explore their environ-
homeostasis A steady internal balance,
ments because familiarity with an environment allows them to act more effectively when a or equilibrium.
need arises.
set point A value that is defended to
We can think of motivation as a process that maintains homeostasis, a term introduced maintain homeostasis.
by psychologist Walter Cannon (1932) to describe a steady internal balance or equilibrium. drive A state of tension and arousal trig-
To achieve homeostasis, we carefully regulate such variables as core body temperature, fluid gered by cues important for survival.
levels, and body weight around set points. Deviations from these set points stimulate be- drive reduction The state of relief and
havior by the organism that is designed to reestablish the original values. You might think reward produced by removing the tension
about this process as analogous to your home’s thermostat. If your home’s temperature and arousal of the drive state.
drops below its set point, the furnace is activated until the set point is again established. If incentive A reward that pulls an organ-
your home’s temperature rises above the set point, the air-conditioning system is activated ism’s behavior in a particular direction.
until the set point is regained. Similarly, if your core body temperature drops below 98.6 °F intrinsic reward A reward that arises
(37 °C), your body initiates several processes designed to increase its temperature, such internally.
as producing heat by the muscle contractions we know as shivering. If your core body extrinsic reward A reward from an out-
temperature rises above its set point, cooling mechanisms are activated. You sweat, and the side source.
evaporating moisture cools your skin. Blood is diverted to the outer parts of the body, lead-
ing to a flushed appearance.
Motivation begins with a stimulus, arising from either the internal or the external en-
vironment of the organism, that serves as a cue for motivated behavior. Stimuli that are
important to survival, such as the presence of a predator or a deficit in body fluids, generate
arousal and tension, a state frequently called drive (Hull, 1943). Being in a drive state propels
the organism into some sort of action related to the stimulus, whether that means running
from the predator to safety or pulling a bottle of water from a backpack to quench thirst. If
actions are successful in regaining equilibrium, we experience drive reduction, accompanied
by a rewarding feeling of relief.
Drive theories of motivation are often described as push theories because drive is seen
as pushing an organism toward a goal. However, not all psychologists agree that motivation
requires the push of drive. Instead, they suggest that rewards or incentives have the capacity
to pull an organism in a particular direction. According to this view, animals are viewed as
naturally inclined to act on their environment rather than wait passively for a need to arise
(Deci & Ryan, 2000). In incentive theories, no reference to unpleasant internal drive states is
required to explain motivated behavior.
Incentives or rewards may be intrinsic or extrinsic. Intrinsic rewards arise internally,
such as feelings of accomplishment when a goal is met. Extrinsic rewards come from outside
sources, such as grades in school, money for completing work, or praise from a supervisor.
These different types of reward can interact in complex ways (see ● Figure 7.13). In some
cases, extrinsic rewards can have negative effects on intrinsic motivation. For example, if a
child who enjoys reading suddenly gets paid for each book completed, the child’s enjoyment
of reading might decrease because the motivation shifts from intrinsic, the love of reading, to
extrinsic, the love of reward money (DeCharms, 1968).
Humans consume a range of diets,
Psychologists have studied a range of motives, from the mostly physical motives of tem-
from the nearly all-meat diet of the
perature control and thirst to the more cognitive and social motives to affiliate with others and
traditional Inuit cultures to the
to achieve. We will explore this range by discussing some specific motives in detail, including
vegan diet.
hunger, sexuality, affiliation, and achievement. After discussing
these examples, we will examine the ways humans set priorities
when faced with competing motives.
Hunger and Eating

Hunger is a complex motive. In comparison to the regulation
Yvette Cardozo/Alamy Stock Photo
of body temperature through processes such as sweating or

shivering, the reduction of hunger through eating is more heav-
iStock.com/Elenathewise
ily influenced by emotion, learning, and culture. Humans take

in a remarkable variety of nutrients. The traditional diet of the
Inuit people living in Arctic regions contains little plant material,
whereas vegans adhere to a diet that contains no animal material.
WHAT DOES IT MEAN TO BE MOTIVATED? 253
FIGURE 7.13
Economist Roland Fryer Asks Whether Incentives Work. Harvard University economist
Roland Fryer overcame a tough childhood in Daytona, Florida, to become the youngest
tenured African American professor in the history of the university. Drawing on his personal
experiences, Fryer experimented with different incentives for a variety of school-related
behaviors. His results suggest that the relationships among intrinsic rewards, extrinsic
rewards, and behavior can be quite complex. Although previous research has shown that
extrinsic rewards can undermine intrinsic motivation, it is important to remember that this
Sonia Moskowitz-Globe Photos, Inc./Newscom

result occurs only when behavior is intrinsically motivated in the first place. If children do not
intrinsically enjoy reading, Fryer suggests paying them to read might work. Unfortunately,
Fryer has been the target of death threats for suggesting this simple solution to illiteracy.
Location DALLAS CHICAGO WASHINGTON NEW YORK CITY
What students
Reading Grades Various† Test scores
were paid for
Grade level Sixth-, seventh-, Fourth- and

Second-graders Ninth-graders
participating and eighth-graders seventh-graders
$50 for A’s

Up to $100 every $25 (fourth-graders) to
How much $2 per book $35 for B’s
two weeks $50 (seventh-graders) per test
$20 for C’s
Average $139.43 (fourth-graders)

$13.81 $695.61 $532.85
student earned $231.55 (seventh-graders)
Study 1,780 from 4,396 from 3,495 from 8,320 from

size* 22 schools 20 schools 17 schools 63 schools
Results Very Positive Mixed Positive No Effect

Paying children to Children cut fewer Rewarding five different Paying children for
read dramatically classes and got actions, including higher test scores
boosted reading- slightly better grades. attendance and did not lead to more
comprehension scores. Standardized test behavior, seemed to learning or better
scores did not change. improve reading skills. grades—or any
measureable changes.
*Not including control groups † A combination of metrics that varied from school to
school but always included attendance and behavior
The Sensation of Hunger We respond to combinations of external and internal cues

that make us feel hungry. External cues for hunger include time of day, the sights and smells
of favorite foods, admonitions that we should “clean our plates,” or the social settings in which
food is presented. These external cues may encourage us to eat when our bodies do not need
nutrients or to eat more food than we require. Individuals who are very responsive to external
cues might find maintaining a healthy weight to be somewhat challenging.
Internal cues for hunger are generated when our bodies are genuinely short on nutrients.
“Short on nutrients” applies to the maintenance of current, not necessarily ideal, weight. A
morbidly obese person is likely to feel as hungry as a thin person when sufficient nutrients are
not available to maintain the status quo.
Walter Cannon believed that stomach contractions were an important component in
the detection of hunger, and to prove his point, he persuaded his colleague A. L. Washburn to
FIGURE 7.14
Stomach Contractions and
Hunger. Walter Cannon (1871–1945)
and his assistant, A. L. Washburn,
performed one of the earliest
experiments on the relationship
between stomach contractions and
feelings of hunger. The large waves
at the top were Cannon’s recordings
of Washburn’s stomach contractions,
Bettmann/Contributor/Getty Images
and the smaller waves at the bottom

represent Washburn’s key taps
indicating hunger. Although these
two events are correlated, there
is more to hunger than a growling
stomach.
swallow a balloon attached to an air pump (Cannon & Washburn, 1912). The balloon allowed
glucose A type of sugar that plays an
Washburn’s stomach contractions to be monitored while Washburn indicated feelings of hun- important role in hunger levels.
ger by pushing a telegraph key (because he couldn’t talk with a tube down his throat). Although
Washburn’s key presses correlated with his stomach contractions, these signals do not tell the
whole story. People who have had their stomachs surgically removed still experience a sense of
hunger in the general region where the stomach used to be. Most of us start eating long before
our stomachs begin to growl, indicating that additional
types of signaling must be at work (see ● Figure 7.14). 120
An important hunger cue is a low level of circulating
sugars, particularly glucose. Glucose concentrations in 100
the blood are highest just following a meal. As glucose Healthy control
Plasma insulin [mU/ml]
levels drop over time, a person begins to feel hungry Type 2 diabetes
80
again. Glucose levels are intimately connected with levels
of the hormone insulin. Insulin, released by the pancreas,
moves circulating glucose from the blood into cells 60
awaiting nutrients. Typically, glucose and insulin levels
are positively correlated. Right after a meal, both are high. 40
Glucose levels rise as glucose is extracted from the food
that has been consumed, and insulin is high because its 20
release is triggered by the anticipation and consumption
of food. As time goes by without more food, glucose
0
moves from the blood into other tissues, and insulin is no –30 0 30 60 90 120
longer released, leading to lower levels of both substances Time (min)
in the blood. These lower levels of glucose and insulin
should signal the need for more food (see ● Figure 7.15). FIGURE 7.15
This is an overly simplistic conclusion, however.
High glucose levels occur in poorly managed diabetes Insulin Release Is Reduced in Type 2 Diabetes. Following a meal (time 0),
because of either a lack of insulin production (type 1 dia- a healthy person experiences a large spike in insulin levels. In contrast, a person
betes) or the body’s resistance to insulin (type 2 diabetes). with type 2 diabetes has a slower and less dramatic release of insulin. The
Without sufficient insulin activity, circulating glucose is person with diabetes will not be able to move glucose out of the blood into
unable to move out of the blood into the cells that need cells requiring nutrients. The appetite-suppressing action of insulin will be less
nutrients. If hunger results from low levels of circulating effective, and the person with diabetes will remain hungry.
glucose, we would expect people with untreated diabetes Source: M. A. Pfeifer et al. (1982). “Insulin Responses to Nonglucose Stimuli in Non-
to not feel very hungry, but this is not the case. Most Insulin-Dependent Diabetes Mellitus during a Tolbutamide Infusion,” Diabetes, 31(2),
people with diabetes who have high blood sugar report 154–159, doi: 10.2337/diab.31.2.154
When glucose availability, fat stores, and leptin levels are low feeling hungry all the time. This makes sense when you consider that
and ghrelin and orexins are active: their cells are starving because of their inability to obtain glucose
from the blood. It is more accurate to say that the amount of glu-
cose that is available to cells is an indicator of hunger (Mayer, 1955;
Eating behavior Abraham, 1974). Hunger results whenever cells are unable to obtain
the glucose they require.
Initiated Hunger also occurs in response to low levels of stored fats
(Kennedy, 1953). If you maintain a healthy weight, you are carrying
Autonomic nervous system sufficient body fat to survive 5 to 6 weeks of total starvation. The
heavier the person, the longer that individual can survive without
Parasympathetic nervous food. One person survived a medically supervised fast of 382 days,
system is activated: during which time his weight dropped from 455.4 pounds (207 kilo-
Body stores nutrients.
grams) to 179.5 pounds (81.6 kilograms) (Stewart & Fleming, 1973).
The body monitors fat stores by assessing levels of the hormone
Lowered metabolic activity leptin. Leptin, from the Greek word leptos, or “thin,” is produced and
secreted by fat cells (Zhang et al., 1994). Because fat stores and leptin
iStock.com/Weekend images Inc.

levels are positively correlated, leptin levels provide a measure for
Hypothalamus the amount of fat that has been stored. As shown in ● Figure 7.16,
leptin levels and their associated fat stores initiate a cascade of events
Lateral hypothalamus
stimulates eating behavior.
that influence eating behavior.
When available glucose, fat stores, and leptin levels are low, brain
areas that include the lateral hypothalamus (LH) initiate feeding.
When the LH is lesioned, rats fail to eat and die of starvation unless
Result: Stored fat levels increase and feeding stops. force-fed (Anand & Brobeck, 1951). Stimulation of the LH typically
initiates immediate eating. Low glucose availability, fat stores, and
FIGURE 7.16 leptin levels also activate the parasympathetic division of the auto-
nomic nervous system, enhancing the body’s ability to digest and store nutrients. Metabolism,
Mechanisms of Hunger. or the chemical reactions required by life, slows down, allowing nutrients to be stored rather
than used up right away. Activation of the parasympathetic nervous system, initiation of feeding
behavior, and reduction in metabolic rate allow the animal to find, eat, and store nutrients.
leptin A hormone secreted by fat cells As glucose, insulin, and leptin levels increase and fat stores return to normal, the feeding
that helps the body maintain an appropri-
ate level of stored fat. cycle tapers off. Unfortunately for the person trying to lose weight, this system does a good
satiety A sense of feeling full and not
job of defending a set point. As the dieter successfully decreases body fat levels, the associated
requiring further food. low levels of leptin initiate a feeding cycle. The dieter feels constantly hungry, making the
maintenance of weight loss often more difficult than the initial loss.
Feeding is stimulated by two additional hormones: ghre-
lin, which is released by the pancreas and the lining of the
stomach (Howard et al., 1996), and orexins, produced in
the LH (de Lecea et al., 1998; Sakurai et al., 1998). Ghrelin
release increases with time since the last meal and appears to
contribute to the rewarding aspects of feeding. Orexin activity
contributes to feeding because it is negatively correlated with
blood glucose levels (Cai et al., 1999). Orexins also participate
in sleep (see Chapter 6), suggesting that they might link feed-
ing, activity levels, and sleep.
AP Images/Gurinder Osan
The Sensation of Satiety We reach the point of satiety

or fullness long before the nutrients we have eaten can make
their way to waiting cells.
Just as stomach contractions serve as signals for hunger,
an obvious sign of satiety is a feeling of stomach fullness. In
extreme cases of obesity, some people choose to have a por-
People of normal weight carry enough fat to survive 5 to 6 weeks of tion of the stomach stapled or banded to produce this feeling
total starvation, although this is obviously not a good thing to do for of fullness after less food has been eaten.
one’s health. Baba Ramdev, a yoga guru, was hospitalized after losing In the brain, the ventromedial hypothalamus (VMH)
12 pounds by the seventh day of a hunger strike against corruption. It is participates in sensing satiety. As shown in ● Figure 7.17,
likely that Ramdev was already quite thin at the beginning of his fast. lesions of the VMH produce a syndrome of large weight gains
130
120
110
Body weight (gm)
100
90 FIGURE 7.17
Voisin/Phanie/Science Source
VMH lesioned
80 Lesions of the Ventromedial Hypothalamus (VMH)
Lead to Obesity. Following lesioning of the VMH,
70 rats nearly tripled their normal weight, suggesting
that the VMH plays a significant role in satiety.
60
However, satiety is too complex to be explained as
Control the function of a single part of the brain.
50
Source: Adapted from R. G. Kurtz, P. Rozin, P. and Teitelbaum,
(1972). “Ventromedial Hypothalamic Hyperphagia in the
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 Hypophysectomized Weanling Rat,” Journal of Comparative and
Days after lesion of the ventromedial hypothalamus (VMH) Physiological Psychology, 80(1), 19–25. doi: 10.1037/h0032820
(Hoebel & Teitelbaum, 1966). Although the VMH plays a significant When glucose and leptin levels increase and fat stores are high:
role in satiety, it is overly simplistic to assume that it works alone and
directly. Among the many indirect effects of VMH lesions are boosts
in insulin production, which in turn produce low blood glucose levels Eating behavior
and hunger.
Satiety also results from the release of the gut hormone chole- Stops
cystokinin (CCK) by the digestive system in response to the arrival of
food, especially fatty foods. CCK not only acts in the digestive tract but Autonomic nervous system
also serves as a chemical messenger in the brain. CCK limits meals by
activating pathways that connect the hindbrain to the digestive system S
Sympathetic nervous
(Blevins et al., 2009). Drugs that inhibit CCK’s action in the brain system is activated:
increase eating behavior, further supporting the hypothesis that CCK Body expends nutrients.
normally acts to inhibit further eating (Cooper & Dourish, 1990).
Earlier we observed the cascade of events initiated by low levels Higher metabolic activity
of available glucose, stored fat and leptin that led to feeding and the
storage of nutrients. What happens when glucose, fat, and leptin levels
rise again? Increased glucose, insulin, stored fat, and leptin levels initi- Hypothalamus
Christopher Nash/Alamy Stock Photo
ate a sequence of events that inhibit feeding (see ● Figure 7.18). The
sympathetic division of the autonomic nervous system is activated, Ventromedial
hypothalamus supresses
leading to the expenditure of energy, metabolic rate increases, and eating behavior.
inhibition of feeding. As time without food progresses, glucose, fat,
and leptin levels drop and the feeding sequence is reinitiated.
Because of leptin’s role in satiety, scientists initially believed it Result: Stored fat levels decrease and feeding stops.
might be helpful as a dieting aid. Mice genetically engineered to lack
genes that produce leptin become obese. Injections of leptin allow them to lose weight (Halaas FIGURE 7.18
et al., 1995). Unfortunately, people do not respond like mice; obese humans have very high
circulating leptin levels but appear to become resistant to the satiety messages this state should Mechanisms of Satiety.
produce (Friedman & Halaas, 1998). Adding further leptin is unlikely to lead to weight loss.
Our ancestors were much more likely to starve than to be troubled by having too much
food. Those who lived and reproduced exhibited characteristics best suited for surviving
famine. As we will see in the next sections, the same motivational mechanisms that evolved to
prevent starvation among hunter-gatherers might not work well in a society featuring cultural
body mass index (BMI) A height-
influences on body image and an ample and calorie-rich food supply. to-weight ratio used to identify healthy
weight, underweight, overweight, and
Obesity What do we mean by obesity? One medical approach to body weight is the body obesity.
mass index (BMI), shown in ● Figure 7.19. The BMI is a simple height-to-weight ratio computed
80 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 28
78 9 10 12 13 14 15 16 17 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 27 28 29
76 10 11 12 13 15 16 17 18 20 21 22 23 24 26 27 28 29 30
74 10 12 12 14 15 17 18 19 21 22 23 24 26 27 28 30 31 32
72 11 12 14 15 16 18 19 20 22 23 24 26 27 28 30 31 33 34
70 12 13 14 16 17 19 20 22 23 24 26 27 29 30 32 33 35 36
Height (inches)
68 12 14 15 17 18 20 21 23 24 26 27 29 30 32 34 35 37 38
66 13 15 16 18 19 21 23 24 26 27 29 31 32 34 36 37 39 40
64 14 15 17 19 21 22 24 26 28 29 31 33 34 36 38 40 41 43
62 15 17 18 20 22 24 26 27 29 31 33 35 37 38 40 42 44 46
60 16 17 20 22 23 25 27 25 31 33 35 37 39 41 43 45 47 49
58 17 19 21 23 25 27 29 31 34 36 38 40 42 44 46 48 50 52
56 18 21 22 25 27 29 31 34 36 38 40 43 45 47 49 52 54 56
54 19 22 24 27 29 31 34 36 39 41 43 46 48 51 53 56 58 60
52 21 23 26 29 31 34 36 39 40 44 47 49 52 55 57 60 62 65
50 23 25 28 31 34 37 39 42 45 48 51 53 56 59 62 65 68 70
48 24 28 31 34 37 40 42 46 49 52 55 58 61 64 67 70 73 76
80 90 100 110 120 130 140 150 160 170 180 190 200 210 220 230 240 250
Weight (pounds)
FIGURE 7.19 BMI under 18.5: Underweight BMI between 30 and 39: Obese
BMI between 18.5 and 24: Healthy weight BMI over 40: Severely/morbidly obese
Body Mass Index (BMI). BMI between 25 and 29: Overweight
by dividing weight in kilograms by the square of height in meters. We have converted Figure 7.19
to inches and pounds for convenience. A BMI score between 18.5 and 24.9 is considered healthy.
A BMI score between 25 and 30 is considered overweight, and a BMI score above 30 is considered
obese. This system works well for most people, but it does not account for those who have
unusually heavy skeletons or musculature. Many elite athletes would score in the overweight or
even obese range despite being quite fit.
Using a BMI score of 30 or above as a criterion, rates of obesity in the United States tripled
from 12% of the adult population in 1991 to 37% in 2014 (Ogden, 2015). In 1990, no state
reported that more than 15% of its adult population was obese, but by 2018, no state reported
fewer than 20% of its adult population was obese, and nine states reported that over 35%
of their adult population was obese (see ● Figure 7.20). How can we account for this rapid
WA
VT
MT ND ME
OR
ID MN NH
SD WI NY
FIGURE 7.20 WY MI RI
MA
IA PA CT
NV NE NJ
OH
U.S. Obesity Rates Have Risen UT IL IN
DE
CO WV DC
Dramatically. In 1990, no state CA KS MO VA MD
KY
reported that more than 15% of DC
NC
its population was obese, and the TN
AZ OK AR
NM SC
overall national rate of obesity was
AL GA
12%. By 2018, no state reported MS
<20%
that less than 20% of its adult TX LA
20%–<25%
population was obese, and nine
FL 25%–<30%
states reported that more than 35% AK
30%–<35%
of their adult population was obese.
$35%
Source: Behavioral Risk Factor
HI GU PR Insufficient data*
Surveillance System, CDC.
increase in obesity over the last two and a half decades? It is unlikely that current obesity levels
are the result of a single cause. Genetic predispositions, lifestyle issues, and social comparisons
all make significant contributions to obesity.
Genes can influence factors such as set point and rate of metabolism, and twin studies
indicate that some people are more likely than others to become obese (Livshits et al., 2007).
Although genes are unlikely to have changed dramatically over a few decades, complex
interactions between genes and environmental factors, such as the bisphenol A in plastic
products discussed in Chapter 3, could affect current rates of obesity (Dolinoy et al., 2007).
Genes might also interact with the bacteria populations in the gut, which differ considerably
between obese and lean humans (Million et al., 2013). Manipulations of bacteria through
antibiotics and probiotics have been used to promote weight gain in livestock for decades.
Transplantation of gut bacteria from obese to lean animals led to obesity (Turnbaugh et al.,
2006). The bacteria found in the obese animals appears to be more efficient at harvesting
energy from the animal’s diet.
A cultural contribution to obesity is our contemporary, sedentary lifestyle, with many
people spending hours sitting in front of televisions or computers. Humans use energy ef-
ficiently. At rest, we use only 12 kilocalories (usually described simply as calories) per pound
per day. This means that the average 150-pound couch potato needs only about 1,800 calories
of food per day. Even the most demanding activities require a re-
markably small investment in resources. Cyclists competing in the Beginning in the 1800s, in an effort to prevent
challenging Tour de France use an average of 5,900 calories per starvation, initiatives leading to increased cheap
day (Armstrong & Jenkins, 2000). Meals at many chain restaurants sources of high-calorie foods were adopted worldwide.
contain more than 2,500 calories, the total daily requirement for a Currently, global agriculture produces 2,600 calories
person who weighs 208 pounds and has a typical level of activity. per person per day, which is expected to rise to 3,000
To avoid starvation, our ancestors developed strong prefer-
calories per person per day by 2030 (Caballero, 2007).
ences for calorie-rich foods containing sugars and fats. When food
supplies are limited, these preferences ensured that humans would With such a plentiful food supply, we can see why
spend the greatest amounts of time and energy seeking these rich obesity is becoming a global problem even as starvation
sources of calories. Unfortunately, we retain these preferences to- remains a serious concern in many parts of the world.
day and continue to gravitate to sugary, fatty foods.
Zooming out from individual factors to the larger social context, we see that social factors
also contribute to obesity. We apparently “keep track” of how we are doing by comparing our
size to that of those in our social circles. Having an obese spouse raises your risk of obesity by
37%, and having obese friends raises your risk by 57% (Christakis & Fowler, 2007).
The path to a healthy weight can be difficult. Unfortunately, weight loss for our ances-
tors usually meant they were one step closer to death by starvation, and we are well pre-
pared to prevent that occurrence. Once a person is obese, a new set point is established and
subsequently staunchly defended. Even the surgical
removal of fat, or liposuction, does not result in per-
manent weight loss because the fat removed by the
process is replaced or redistributed to other parts of
the body within one year (Hernandez et al., 2011).
Calorie-reducing and low-carb diets work, but
dietary changes cannot be viewed as something to
do until a goal weight is reached. If the dieter returns The average adult weighing 150
to previous eating habits, the lost weight is quickly pounds needs only 1,800 calories per
regained. Successful diets should be viewed as life- day. When a single dessert item such
Mark Avery/ZUMA Press/Irvine/California/USA/Newscom
style changes that are sustainable for an individual. as cheesecake provides about 70%
For example, removing one sugared soft drink per of that daily requirement, it becomes
day should result in about a 10-pound weight loss easy to see how people eating out
over the next year. It is essential for the dieter to frequently could become overweight
avoid triggering mechanisms designed to prevent or obese. It is also likely that before
starvation, such as lowering metabolic rates. By keep- eating the cheesecake a diner might
ing activity levels up and restricting weight loss to a have an appetizer, salad, entrée, and
pound or two per week at most, it is possible to slide beverage. This doesn’t include meals
weight loss under the radar of our vigilant weight and snacks consumed at other times
maintenance systems. throughout the day.
Efforts to use chemicals to control weight have been dis-
couraging. During the 1950s and 1960s, it was not uncommon
for American doctors to prescribe amphetamines for weight
loss. Although amphetamines suppress appetite, their psycho-
active and addictive properties make this approach less than
desirable. More recently, several new medications have been
approved for the treatment of obesity. One, orlistat (Xenical),
reduces the absorption of fats by the digestive tract. The re-
maining approved medications target appetite mechanisms in
the hypothalamus or prevent reabsorption of glucose by the
kidneys. Medications do not “work on their own” but instead
make it somewhat easier for obese individuals to maintain life-
styles that are more consistent with a healthy weight (Apovian
et al., 2015).
Some individuals who become discouraged with diets and
medication turn instead to surgical interventions, including
stomach stapling and gastric bypass procedures, which liter-
ally reduce the amount of nutrients that can be consumed or
processed. While the resulting weight loss can be dramatic (the
average gastric bypass patient loses 90 pounds within 3 months
Drew D. Saur
of surgery) (Maggard et al., 2005), these procedures represent
major surgery and often result in complications.
Although it is feasible that current research into brain
mechanisms for hunger and satiety may eventually lead to
Contrary to popular opinion, many better treatments for obesity, lifestyle changes leading to healthier eating and exercise habits
people lose weight by dieting and remain the most reliable approach.
are successful in maintaining their
weight loss for years. The National Anorexia Nervosa, Bulimia Nervosa, and Binge-Eating Disorder Coexisting
Weight Control Registry tracks more with our ongoing obesity epidemic are eating disorders characterized by unusual patterns of eating
than 5,000 case studies of successful and distortions of a person’s body image. Normally, we have an accurate view of what we look
maintainers, including Drew Saur. Saur like. People with distorted body image can be convinced they are obese when they are in danger
lost more than 150 pounds and has of starvation.
maintained his loss since 2005. He Traditionally, eating disorders have been viewed as a problem for females and as less
began by counting the calories he was typical for males. However, increasing numbers of males are experiencing eating disorders
consuming and was astonished to find and body dissatisfaction. The lifetime incidence of eating disorders in males is approximately
that he was eating about 5,000 calories 0.17%, compared to about 3% in females (Pedersen et al., 2014). Rates of eating disorders
per day, not surprising given his starting are about six times higher among homosexual and bisexual males compared to heterosexual
weight of 325 pounds. By gradually males, although sexual orientation does not seem to be associated with additional risks for
reducing calories and waiting to eat eating disorders among females (Matthews-Ewald, Zullig, & Ward, 2014).
until he felt hungry, Saur lost about 2 to Anorexia nervosa is characterized by the maintenance of unusually low body weight, an
3 pounds per week. He began walking, intense fear of gaining weight, and a distorted view of the body as obese (APA, 2013). Anorexia
and when his weight loss permitted literally means “loss of appetite.” People with anorexia can show two patterns of behavior
more activity, he switched to running. (APA, 2013). In the restricting type, people simply eat little food. In the bingeing-purging type,
Successful dieters and maintainers people combine restricted eating most of the time with behaviors associated with bulimia
such as Saur do not view dieting as nervosa, which we discuss later.
something drastic to do before a Anorexia nervosa is dramatic but rare, affecting about 0.4% of females and perhaps 0.04%
wedding or class reunion but as a of males (APA, 2013). Anorexia nervosa is one of the few psychological disorders that can kill,
gradual lifestyle change that is livable. with up to 5% of people with the disorder dying per decade from causes related to the condi-
tion, which includes an elevated risk for suicide (APA, 2013). Other symptoms include inter-
anorexia nervosa An eating disorder ruption of normal menstruation in females, very dry and yellow skin, fine downy hair (lanugo)
characterized by the maintenance of on the face and other parts of the body, increased sensitivity to cold, and cardiovascular and
unusually low body weight and a distorted gastrointestinal problems.
body image. Bulimia nervosa is characterized by cycles of binge eating, in which unusually large
bulimia nervosa An eating disorder amounts of food are consumed, and purging through the use of vomiting or laxatives. Binge-
characterized by bingeing, purging, and
ing is often followed by feelings of depression, disgust, and a sense of lost control. Bulimia is
having feelings of depression, disgust, and
lost control. more common than anorexia, affecting 1.5% of females and between 0.15% and 0.5% of males
(APA, 2013; Hudson et al., 2007).
Binge-eating disorder is similar to bulimia nervosa in
regard to eating abnormally large amounts of food at one sit- We have defined healthy weight as
ting and feeling that eating is out of control, but it does not a BMI score between 18.5 and 24.9,
include compensatory behaviors such as induced vomiting yet the typical runway model held up
or the use of laxatives (APA, 2013). People with binge-eating as a cultural standard for beauty has
disorder eat rapidly, eat until they are uncomfortably full, an average BMI score of only 16.5. In
eat when they are not hungry, and often eat alone because response to several deaths of ultrathin
of embarrassment about the quantities they consume. Com- models, some European countries now
pared to other eating disorders, differences between males require models to maintain a minimum
and females with binge-eating disorder are smaller. Approxi- BMI score of 18.5. The United States
mately 1.6% of adult females and 0.8% of adult males meet has not followed suit, and American
the criteria for this disorder (APA, 2013). designers have complained that this
Environmental factors, especially cultural attitudes to- standard would require a 6-foot-tall
ward beauty, can play a significant role in the development model to “balloon” to 136 pounds.
of eating disorders. Anne Becker and her colleagues were In contrast, a 6-foot-tall model
observing eating patterns in the Fiji Islands when American with a BMI score of 16.5 would
television became available in 1995 (Becker et al., 2002). weigh a scant 121 pounds. It
Prior to this time, Becker reported that dieting was unknown is not surprising that young
in this culture, which valued a “robust, well-muscled body” women exposed to these
for both men and women. The Fijian language has a term for standards of beauty
“going thin” that is used to express concern about someone occasionally develop
who may be losing weight because of health problems. In the distorted images of
AP Images/Diane Bondareff
United States, people may say, “Have you lost weight? You their own bodies.
look great!” In Fiji, a person is more likely to say, “Are you
okay? You look like you’re going thin.”
These cultural norms underwent nearly overnight change with the introduction
of American television, with its frequent images of glamorous, ultrathin actresses.
Suddenly, 74% of the adolescent girls in Becker et al.’s study reported themselves
as being “too big or too fat.” Teens began to report dieting with the same frequency as their
American counterparts, a radical shift from the researchers’ observations since 1988. Because
Becker et al.’s data are correlational, we cannot conclude that watching television produced
disordered eating in Fiji. However, the results are suggestive of strong cultural influences on
patterns of disordered eating.
It is likely that general personality characteristics that increase a person’s risk for eating binge-eating disorder An eating
disorder characterized by eating abnor-
disorders may be heritable, not the disorders themselves (Farstad et al., 2016). Evidence from mally large amounts of food at one sitting
twin studies has been mixed, with some authors reporting heritability of 48% to 88% for eating and feeling that eating is out of control,
disorders and others finding no evidence of genetic influences (Hinney & Volckmar, 2013). without compensatory behaviors such as
People might have a genetic vulnerability to disordered eating in general but not toward a induced vomiting or the use of laxatives.
specific type of eating disorder (Bulik et al., 2016). Genetic studies have focused primarily on
anorexia nervosa, and further work on the other types of eating disorders is needed (Hübel
et al., 2018).
Once an eating disorder is established, biological factors contribute to maintaining abnor-
mal patterns of eating. Even after people with anorexia nervosa regain normal weight, some
still show evidence of elevated levels of hormones that typically raise metabolism and inhibit
feeding (Stanley et al., 2003). Bingeing has been discussed within a framework of food addic-
tion, which is similar to an addiction to psychoactive drugs (Leslie et al., 2018; Mestre-Bach
et al., 2019). A questionnaire known as the Yale Food Addiction Scale 2.0 shows that nearly
all individuals with bulimia act as though they have a food addiction (Vries & Meule, 2016).
Treating anorexia nervosa can be challenging because the therapist is facing a person
who is terrified of gaining weight. The first priority is keeping the person alive, and this effort
typically involves hospitalization and careful monitoring of food intake. Cognitive behavioral
therapy may be used to address distortions of body image (see Chapter 15), but no known
medications are effective in treating anorexia (Dold et al., 2015). About 50% of people with an-
orexia make a full recovery, but nearly 20% fail to respond. Treating bulimia and binge-eating
disorder is somewhat more encouraging. Antidepressant medications, particularly selective
serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs), are usually quite effective, especially when combined
with cognitive behavioral treatment (Kass et al., 2013).
Sexual Motivation
Unlike eating, sexual behavior is not essential to the survival of an individual
organism. However, individuals’ sexual behavior appears to be maintained by
processes similar to the life-sustaining motivations we have already discussed.
Sexuality is an extremely complex aspect of human behavior. In this chapter,
we will focus on the more physical aspects of sexual motivation. In Chapter 11,
we will explore sexuality across the life span, and in Chapter 13, we will discuss
phenomena related to attraction and maintaining relationships. Most of our dis-
cussion relies on research with individuals who identify as heterosexual, simply
due to the relatively sparse amount of research to date about sexual minorities
(Mark et al., 2018). Hopefully, more scientists will step up to fill this gap soon.
Biology and Sexual Motivation The females of most mammalian

species undergo estrus, a period of hours or days during which the female is
receptive or willing to have sex. In these species, hormone levels and sexual
behavior are tightly linked. In humans and Old World primates, menstrual
cycles replace periods of estrus. The sexual behavior of estrus and nonestrus
species is quite different (Rushton et al., 2001).
Human females show receptivity throughout the menstrual cycle. However,
females who are not using chemical contraception report feeling more interest
Michael DeFreitas/Photoshot
in sex around the time of ovulation (Cappelletti & Wallen, 2016). This situation
has obvious advantages for the reproduction of the species because this is when
sexual behavior is most likely to lead to pregnancy.
Female sexual interest forms complex correlations with hormones. Female
sexual interest has a negative relationship with progesterone levels and weaker
positive associations with levels of estradiol, the major female sex hormone
(Jones et al., 2018). For decades, female sexual interest was viewed as a function
Before the introduction of American of testosterone levels, and testosterone has been administered to women reporting low sexual
television programming to the islands interest. However, more contemporary research has thrown some doubt on this conclusion
of Fiji in 1995, the cultural ideal for (Cappelletti & Wallen, 2016).
both men and women was a “robust, Testosterone is clearly correlated with sexual interest in males. However, as long as
well-muscled body,” as evidenced by a man’s testosterone falls within a normal range, it does not provide a strong predictor of an
this traditional dancer. Dieting and individual’s sexual frequency (Mazur & Booth, 1998; Gray et al.,). Below-normal levels of
eating disorders were unknown. A testosterone, as in castration, are usually accompanied by very low sexual desire and activity.
short time after American television Male testosterone levels fluctuate over the course of a day and are influenced not only
was available, however, Fijian rates by a man’s biology but also by several environmental factors, notably situations perceived as
of dieting and eating disorders grew competitive. Male collegiate athletes experience increases in testosterone in anticipation of
to match American rates and ideal upcoming competitive events. Following a competition, testosterone continues to rise among
beauties became slimmer. the winners and temporarily decreases among the losers (Booth et al., 1989). Simply observ-
ing a competition may influence testosterone levels. Men cheering for the successful Brazilian
soccer team at the 1994 World Cup experienced increased testosterone levels, whereas men
supporting the losing Italian team experienced a decrease (Bernhardt et al., 1998). These
fluctuations are more dramatic when taking the location of the venue into account. Losing at
estradiol An important type of estrogen, home produces a more dramatic decrease in testosterone than losing a game as the visiting
or female sex hormone.
team. This response to losing a competition at home may represent a remnant of our ancestors’
testosterone A male hormone. need to defend their territory. We can assume that losing a battle is catastrophic in any circum-
stance, but losing near your family and home makes them especially vulnerable to destruction.
Male testosterone levels are also influenced by relationship status. Men in stable, long-
term relationships have lower testosterone levels than single men or men who are within a few
years of divorce (Mazur & Michalek, 1998). Men’s testosterone levels also drop significantly
after the birth of a child (Gettler et al., 2011). These changes might reflect a feedback loop in
which reproductive success signals a decrease in testosterone (Puts et al., 2015). High testos-
terone levels not only interfere with pair-bonding and parental care by stimulating continued
competition for mates, but also reduce immune system functioning. It makes sense that the
achievement of reproductive goals would lead to a reduction in the competitive behaviors and
physical costs associated with high testosterone levels (see ● Figure 7.21).
BananaStock/Getty Images
Testosterone
1 FIGURE 7.21
A Negative Feedback Loop of Male Testosterone and Sexual Behavior. In males,
higher testosterone levels are associated with psychological factors including increased
competitiveness and sexual desire, which then lead to increased sexual behavior. As
reproductive goals (e.g., mating and producing children) are achieved, male testosterone
Psychology
2 levels drop again. High testosterone levels are not compatible with pair-bonding and
Evgeny Atamanenko/Shutterstock.com
parenting and have detrimental effects on the immune system, so this decrease
represents an effective adaptation.
Source: Adapted from D. A. Puts et al. (2015). “Fulfilling Desire: Evidence for Negative Feedback
Between Men’s Testosterone, Sociosexual Psychology, and Sexual Partner Number,” Hormones
Behavior
1 and Behavior, 70, 14–21, doi: 10.1016/j.yhbeh.2015.01.006
We have seen how sexual desire is correlated with testosterone for males and estradiol
and low progesterone for females, but romantic love is associated with two other hormones,
oxytocin and vasopressin (see ● Figure 7.22). In humans, both hormones are active in the brain,
but vasopressin is expressed more by males, and oxytocin is expressed more by females (van
Londen et al., 1997; Ishunina & Swaab, 1999). In all cases, oxytocin enhances bonding. Females
release oxytocin during breastfeeding and even respond to a brief hug from their partners with
a spike in oxytocin release (Light et al., 2005). Oxytocin is released at orgasm. However, because
of the greater overall expression of oxytocin in the brains of females, along with the 10 times
higher testosterone levels in males than in females, females are more likely than males to equate
sexual desire with feelings of romantic love (Diamond, 2004). We do not mean to imply that
males do not bond, but high testosterone levels are likely to make sexual activity highly salient
for young men, with or without the bonding associated with oxytocin release.
Although cultural values often link sexual desire and romantic love, these two functions Mating
represent distinct biological and emotional states. Romantic love promotes the establish-
ment of long-term relationships, whereas sexual desire promotes mating (Cacioppo, 2016).
Both romantic love and sexual desire involve the insula. Sexual desire is correlated with
activity toward the rear of the insula, consistent with other observations that the back of
the brain is more involved with current and short-term sensory experiences. In contrast,
romantic love is associated with activity toward the front of the insula, consistent with Separation
FIGURE 7.22
Oxytocin, Vasopressin, and Two Species of Voles. The discovery of the
importance of oxytocin and vasopressin to bonding originated in the study of
two types of rodents: the prairie vole and the montane vole. Although similar
Partner Neutral
N
Neutra
al Stranger
in many ways, the two types of vole differed in both their bonding to a partner
and their parenting behaviors. Prairie voles are monogamous for life, but
120
montane voles are not. Prairie voles share parenting duties, but montane voles
Time spent in chamber (min)
do not. Differences between the two types of vole in oxytocin and vasopressin 100
were closely associated with the behavioral differences, with the prairie voles
showing higher levels of both hormones than the montane voles. In one type 80
of study, voles are allowed to mate, and then they are placed in a test box. On 60
either side of the male, who can move freely, are two females—a stranger and
the partner—who are tethered in their boxes and can’t move. The chart shows 40
how much time the average male prairie vole and montane vole spend with the Partner
Pa
20 Ne
Neutral
partner, with the stranger, or alone. As you can see, the prairie voles prefer to
be with their partners, but the montane voles prefer to be alone. Str
Stranger
0
Source: H. P. Nair & L. J. Young (2006). “Vasopressin and Pair Bond Formation: Genes to Prairie Montane
Brain to Behavior,” Journal of Physiology, 21(2), 146–152. doi: 10.1152/physiol.00049.2005 Species of vole
future-thinking about more abstract concepts (Cacioppo & Cacioppo, 2013). Ro-
mantic love and sexual desire often occur along a time continuum, with the pleasant
sensorimotor experiences associated with sexual desire leading to the more cognitive
feelings of romantic love (Cacioppo et al., 2012). A study of a rare patient with a le-
sion in the insula suggests that activity in the insula does not simply correlate with
romantic love and sexual desire but actually contributes to differences between these
processes (Cacioppo et al., 2013).
Sexual and Emotional Satisfaction Humans show wide variations in

sexual and emotional satisfaction within relationships (see ● Figure 7.23). Cross-
cultural studies show that subjective sexual satisfaction depends on a number of
factors, including relative equality between men and women, mental and physical
health, and the importance of sexual behavior for an individual (Laumann et al.,
2006). In the United States, more committed relationships produce the highest levels
of both sexual and emotional satisfaction (Mark et al., 2015). Individuals who expect
to continue a relationship are more attentive to their partners, both emotionally
and sexually. In contrast, one-night stands receive the lowest sexual and emotional
satisfaction scores from participants and promote the strongest feelings of regret
(Fisher et al., 2012).
Historically, research on sexual satisfaction has focused on heterosexual couples.
iStock.com/jhorrocks
Relatively few studies have considered sexual satisfaction across sexual orientations.
Mark and her colleagues (2015) found no differences in sexual and emotional sat-
isfaction among heterosexual, bisexual, and homosexual individuals in committed
relationships but did observe differences in casual sexual contexts. Individuals of all
sexual orientations reported more emotional and sexual satisfaction from commit-
ted relationships than from casual sex situations. However, gay and bisexual men reported
experiencing higher amounts of sexual and emotional satisfaction from casual sex contexts
than heterosexual individuals, while lesbian women reported less, although the size of these
differences was relatively small. Across a similarly sexually diverse sample, attachment style
(see Chapter 11) was predictive of both relationship and sexual satisfaction (Mark et al., 2018).
Sexual Orientation Individual differences in human sexuality are substantial and

sexual orientation A stable pattern of normal. One of the ways individuals vary is in their sexual orientation, which refers to a
attraction to members of a particular sex. stable pattern of attraction to members of a particular sex. A person’s sexual orientation can
incorporate behavior, attraction, and identity (Ward et al., 2014). These three components are
often congruent, but not necessarily so. Many people engage in same-sex behavior and fantasy
Cluster 1 Spain Austria

70 USA
New Zealand Bulgaria Canada
Australia
Mexico
FIGURE 7.23 United Kingdom Germany
Sweden
Relational satisfaction (%)
A Cross-Cultural Comparison of Relational and Sexual South Africa France

Malaysia Israel
50
Satisfaction. A survey of nearly 30,000 people in 29 countries Korea Brazil
showed wide variations in sexual satisfaction. In most countries, Philippines Morocco
Singapore
Turkey
there was a strong correlation between relational satisfaction Cluster 2 Italy
(defined as a combination of physical pleasure with a partner and
emotional satisfaction with a partner) and sexual satisfaction. Gender 30 Egypt
Algeria Thailand
differences in satisfaction with sexual function were the smallest in China
Cluster 1 countries. Cluster 3
Taiwan
Source: Adapted from E. O. Laumann et al. (2006). “A Cross-National Indonesia
Study of Subjective Sexual Well-Being Among Older Women and Men: Japan
Findings from the Global Study of Sexual Attitudes and Behaviors,” 10
Archives of Sexual Behavior, 35(2), 145–161. doi: 10.1007/s10508-005- 50 60 70 80 90
9005-3 Sexual satisfaction (%)

Emotion - Motivation 1

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

You might also like

Emotion - Motivation 1

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Description:

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Emotion - Motivation 1

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

SUMMARY 7.

Perceived Perceived Perceived

Specific Physical Subjective General

Specific Physical Subjective General

Physical Subjective General

What Does It Mean

252 Chapter 7 THE FEELING MIND: EMOTION AND MOTIVATION

Hunger and Eating

of body temperature through processes such as sweating or

ily influenced by emotion, learning, and culture. Humans take

WHAT DOES IT MEAN TO BE MOTIVATED? 253

Sonia Moskowitz-Globe Photos, Inc./Newscom

Location DALLAS CHICAGO WASHINGTON NEW YORK CITY

Grade level Sixth-, seventh-, Fourth- and

$50 for A’s

Average $139.43 (fourth-graders)

Study 1,780 from 4,396 from 3,495 from 8,320 from

Results Very Positive Mixed Positive No Effect

The Sensation of Hunger We respond to combinations of external and internal cues

254 Chapter 7 THE FEELING MIND: EMOTION AND MOTIVATION

and the smaller waves at the bottom

WHAT DOES IT MEAN TO BE MOTIVATED? 255

iStock.com/Weekend images Inc.

The Sensation of Satiety We reach the point of satiety

256 Chapter 7 THE FEELING MIND: EMOTION AND MOTIVATION

WHAT DOES IT MEAN TO BE MOTIVATED? 257

258 Chapter 7 THE FEELING MIND: EMOTION AND MOTIVATION

WHAT DOES IT MEAN TO BE MOTIVATED? 259

260 Chapter 7 THE FEELING MIND: EMOTION AND MOTIVATION

WHAT DOES IT MEAN TO BE MOTIVATED? 261

Biology and Sexual Motivation The females of most mammalian

262 Chapter 7 THE FEELING MIND: EMOTION AND MOTIVATION

WHAT DOES IT MEAN TO BE MOTIVATED? 263

Sexual and Emotional Satisfaction Humans show wide variations in

Sexual Orientation Individual differences in human sexuality are substantial and

Cluster 1 Spain Austria

A Cross-Cultural Comparison of Relational and Sexual South Africa France

264 Chapter 7 THE FEELING MIND: EMOTION AND MOTIVATION

You might also like