Annexes

Annex I
Glossary

Editorial Team
Andy Reisinger (New Zealand), Diego Cammarano (Italy), Andreas Fischlin (Switzerland), Jan S. Fuglestvedt (Norway), Gerrit
Hansen (Germany), Yonghun Jung (Republic of Korea), Chloé Ludden (Germany/France), Valérie Masson-Delmotte (France), J.B.
Robin Matthews (France/United Kingdom), Katja Mintenbeck (Germany), Dan Jezreel Orendain (Philippines/Belgium), Anna Pirani
(Italy), Elvira Poloczanska (UK/Australia), José Romero (Switzerland)

This Annex should be cited as: IPCC, 2023: Annex I: Glossary [Reisinger, A., D. Cammarano, A. Fischlin, J.S. Fuglestvedt, G.
Hansen, Y. Jung, C. Ludden, V. Masson-Delmotte, R. Matthews, J.B.K Mintenbeck, D.J. Orendain, A. Pirani, E. Poloczanska,
and J. Romero (eds.)]. In: Climate Change 2023: Synthesis Report. Contribution of Working Groups I, II and III to the
Sixth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change [Core Writing Team, H. Lee and J. Romero
(eds.)]. IPCC, Geneva, Switzerland, pp. 119-130, doi:10.59327/IPCC/AR6-9789291691647.002.

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 Annex I
This concise Synthesis Report (SYR) Glossary defines selected key
terms used in this report, drawn from the glossaries of the three
Working Group contributions to the AR6. A more comprehensive,
harmonised set of definitions for terms used in this SYR and the
three AR6 Working Group reports is available from the IPCC
Online Glossary: https://apps.ipcc.ch/glossary/
Readers are requested to refer to this comprehensive online
glossary for definitions of terms of a more technical nature, and
for scientific references relevant to individual terms. Italicized
words indicate that the term is defined in this or/and the online
glossary. Subterms appear in italics beneath main terms.
2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development
A UN resolution in September 2015 aadopting a plan of action for
people, planet and prosperity in a new global development framework
anchored in 17 Sustainable Development Goals.
Abrupt climate change
A large-scale abrupt change in the climate system that takes place over
a few decades or less, persists (or is anticipated to persist) for at least
a few decades and causes substantial impacts in human and/or natural
systems. See also: Abrupt change, Tipping point.
Adaptation
In human systems, the process of adjustment to actual or expected
climate and its effects, in order to moderate harm or exploit beneficial
opportunities. In natural systems, the process of adjustment to actual
climate and its effects; human intervention may facilitate adjustment
to expected climate and its effects. See also: Adaptation options,
Adaptive capacity, Maladaptive actions (Maladaptation).
Adaptation gap
The difference between actually implemented adaptation and a
societally set goal, determined largely by preferences related to
tolerated climate change impacts and reflecting resource limitations
and competing priorities.
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Adaptation limits
The point at which an actor’s objectives (or system needs) cannot be
secured from intolerable risks through adaptive actions.
• Hard adaptation limit - No adaptive actions are possible to
avoid intolerable risks.
• Soft adaptation limit - Options may exist but are currently
not available to avoid intolerable risks through adaptive
action.
Transformational adaptation
Adaptation that changes the fundamental attributes of a
social-ecological system in anticipation of climate change and
its impacts.
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Aerosol
A suspension of airborne solid or liquid particles, with typical particle
size in the range of a few nanometres to several tens of micrometres
and atmospheric lifetimes of up to several days in the troposphere
and up to years in the stratosphere. The term aerosol, which includes
both the particles and the suspending gas, is often used in this report
in its plural form to mean ‘aerosol particles’. Aerosols may be of either
natural or anthropogenic origin in the troposphere; stratospheric
aerosols mostly stem from volcanic eruptions. Aerosols can cause an
effective radiative forcing directly through scattering and absorbing
radiation (aerosol–radiation interaction), and indirectly by acting as
cloud condensation nuclei or ice nucleating particles that affect the
properties of clouds (aerosol–cloud interaction), and upon deposition
on snow- or ice-covered surfaces. Atmospheric aerosols may be either
emitted as primary particulate matter or formed within the atmosphere
from gaseous precursors (secondary production). Aerosols may be
composed of sea salt, organic carbon, black carbon (BC), mineral
species (mainly desert dust), sulphate, nitrate and ammonium or
their mixtures. See also: Particulate matter (PM), Aerosol–radiation
interaction, Short-lived climate forcers (SLCFs).
Afforestation
Conversion to forest of land that historically has not contained forests.
See also: Anthropogenic removals, Carbon dioxide removal (CDR),
Deforestation, Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and Forest
Degradation (REDD+), Reforestation.
[Note: For a discussion of the term forest and related terms such as
afforestation, reforestation and deforestation, see the 2006 IPCC
Guidelines for National Greenhouse Gas Inventories and their
2019 Refinement, and information provided by the United Nations
Framework Convention on Climate Change]
Agricultural drought
See: Drought.
Agriculture, Forestry and Other Land Use (AFOLU)
In the context of national greenhouse gas (GHG) inventories under
the United Nations Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC),
AFOLU is the sum of the GHG inventory sectors Agriculture and
Land Use, Land-Use Change and Forestry (LULUCF); see the 2006
IPCC Guidelines for National GHG Inventories for details. Given the
difference in estimating the ‘anthropogenic’ carbon dioxide (CO2)
removals between countries and the global modelling community, the
land-related net GHG emissions from global models included in this
report are not necessarily directly comparable with LULUCF estimates
in national GHG Inventories. See also: Land use, land-use change and
forestry (LULUCF), Land-use change (LUC).
Agroforestry
Collective name for land-use systems and technologies where woody
perennials (trees, shrubs, palms, bamboos, etc.) are deliberately used
on the same land-management units as agricultural crops and/or
animals, in some form of spatial arrangement or temporal sequence.
In agroforestry systems there are both ecological and economical
interactions between the different components. Agroforestry can
also be defined as a dynamic, ecologically based, natural resource
management system that, through the integration of trees on farms

and in the agricultural landscape, diversifies and sustains production for
increased social, economic and environmental benefits for land users at
all levels.
Anthropogenic
Resulting from or produced by human activities.
Behavioural change
In this report, behavioural change refers to alteration of human
decisions and actions in ways that mitigate climate change and/or
reduce negative consequences of climate change impacts.
Biodiversity
Biodiversity or biological diversity means the variability among living
organisms from all sources including, among other things, terrestrial,
marine and other aquatic ecosystems, and the ecological complexes
of which they are part; this includes diversity within species, between
species and of ecosystems. See also: Ecosystem, Ecosystem services.
Bioenergy
Energy derived from any form of biomass or its metabolic by-products.
See also: Biofuel.
Bioenergy with carbon dioxide capture and storage (BECCS)
Carbon dioxide capture and storage (CCS) technology applied to
a bioenergy facility. Note that, depending on the total emissions
of the BECCS supply chain, carbon dioxide (CO 2) can be removed
from the atmosphere. See also: Anthropogenic removals,
Carbon dioxide capture and storage (CCS), Carbon dioxide removal (CDR).
Blue carbon
Biologically-driven carbon fluxes and storage in marine systems that
are amenable to management. Coastal blue carbon focuses on rooted
vegetation in the coastal zone, such as tidal marshes, mangroves and
seagrasses. These ecosystems have high carbon burial rates on a per
unit area basis and accumulate carbon in their soils and sediments.
They provide many non-climatic benefits and can contribute to
ecosystem-based adaptation. If degraded or lost, coastal blue carbon
ecosystems are likely to release most of their carbon back to the
atmosphere. There is current debate regarding the application of the
blue carbon concept to other coastal and non-coastal processes and
ecosystems, including the open ocean. See also: Ecosystem services,
Sequestration.
Blue infrastructure
See: Infrastructure.
Carbon budget
Refers to two concepts in the literature:
(1) an assessment of carbon cycle sources and sinks on a global level,
through the synthesis of evidence for fossil fuel and cement emissions,
emissions and removals associated with land use and land-use change,
ocean and natural land sources and sinks of carbon dioxide (CO2),
and the resulting change in atmospheric CO2 concentration. This is
referred to as the Global Carbon Budget; (2) the maximum amount of
cumulative net global anthropogenic CO2 emissions that would result in
limiting global warming to a given level with a given probability, taking
Glossary
into account the effect of other anthropogenic climate forcers. This is
referred to as the Total Carbon Budget when expressed starting from
the pre-industrial period, and as the Remaining Carbon Budget when
expressed from a recent specified date.
[Note 1: Net anthropogenic CO 2 emissions are anthropogenic
CO2 emissions minus anthropogenic CO 2 removals. See also:
Carbon Dioxide Removal (CDR).
Note 2: The maximum amount of cumulative net global anthropogenic
CO2 emissions is reached at the time that annual net anthropogenic
CO2 emissions reach zero.
Note 3: The degree to which anthropogenic climate forcers other than
CO2 affect the total carbon budget and remaining carbon budget
depends on human choices about the extent to which these forcers are
mitigated and their resulting climate effects.
Note 4: The notions of a total carbon budget and remaining carbon
budget are also being applied in parts of the scientific literature
and by some entities at regional, national, or sub-national level. The
distribution of global budgets across individual different entities and
emitters depends strongly on considerations of equity and other value
judgements.]
Carbon dioxide capture and storage (CCS)
A process in which a relatively pure stream of carbon dioxide (CO2)
from industrial and energy-related sources is separated (captured),
conditioned, compressed and transported to a storage location for
long-term isolation from the atmosphere. Sometimes referred to as
Carbon Capture and Storage. See also: Anthropogenic removals,
Bioenergy with carbon dioxide capture and storage (BECCS),
Carbon dioxide capture and utilisation (CCU), Carbon dioxide removal (CDR),
Sequestration.
Carbon dioxide removal (CDR)
Anthropogenic activities removing carbon dioxide (CO2) from the
atmosphere and durably storing it in geological, terrestrial, or
ocean reservoirs, or in products. It includes existing and potential
anthropogenic enhancement of biological or geochemical CO2 sinks
and direct air carbon dioxide capture and storage (DACCS) but excludes
natural CO 2 uptake not directly caused by human activities.
See also: Afforestation, Anthropogenic removals, Biochar, Bioenergy
with carbon dioxide capture and storage (BECCS), Carbon dioxide
capture and storage (CCS), Enhanced weathering, Ocean alkalinization/
Ocean alkalinity enhancement, Reforestation, Soil carbon sequestration (SCS).
Annexes
Cascading impacts
Cascading impacts from extreme weather/climate events occur when
an extreme hazard generates a sequence of secondary events in natural
and human systems that result in physical, natural, social or economic
disruption, whereby the resulting impact is significantly larger than the
initial impact. Cascading impacts are complex and multi-dimensional,
and are associated more with the magnitude of vulnerability than with
that of the hazard.
Climate
In a narrow sense, climate is usually defined as the average weather
-or more rigorously, as the statistical description in terms of the mean
and variability of relevant quantities- over a period of time ranging
from months to thousands or millions of years. The classical period
for averaging these variables is 30 years, as defined by the World
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Meteorological Organization (WMO). The relevant quantities are most
often surface variables such as temperature, precipitation and wind.
Climate in a wider sense is the state, including a statistical description,
of the climate system.
Climate change
A change in the state of the climate that can be identified (e.g., by using
statistical tests) by changes in the mean and/or the variability of its
properties and that persists for an extended period, typically decades
or longer. Climate change may be due to natural internal processes
or external forcings such as modulations of the solar cycles, volcanic
eruptions and persistent anthropogenic changes in the composition of
the atmosphere or in land use. See also: Climate variability, Detection
and attribution, Global warming, Natural (climate) variability, Ocean
acidification (OA).
[Note that the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate
Change (UNFCCC), in its Article 1, defines climate change as: ‘a change
of climate which is attributed directly or indirectly to human activity
that alters the composition of the global atmosphere and which is in
addition to natural climate variability observed over comparable time
periods’. The UNFCCC thus makes a distinction between climate change
attributable to human activities altering the atmospheric composition
and climate variability attributable to natural causes.]
Climate extreme (extreme weather or climate event)
The occurrence of a value of a weather or climate variable above
(or below) a threshold value near the upper (or lower) ends of the range
of observed values of the variable. By definition, the characteristics of
what is called extreme weather may vary from place to place in an
absolute sense. When a pattern of extreme weather persists for some
time, such as a season, it may be classified as an extreme climate event,
especially if it yields an average or total that is itself extreme (e.g., high
temperature, drought, or heavy rainfall over a season). For simplicity,
both extreme weather events and extreme climate events are referred
to collectively as ‘climate extremes’.
Climate finance
There is no agreed definition of climate finance. The term ‘climate
finance’ is applied to the financial resources devoted to addressing
climate change by all public and private actors from global to local
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scales, including international financial flows to developing countries
to assist them in addressing climate change. Climate finance aims to
reduce net greenhouse gas emissions and/or to enhance adaptation
and increase resilience to the impacts of current and projected climate
change. Finance can come from private and public sources, channelled
by various intermediaries, and is delivered by a range of instruments,
including grants, concessional and non-concessional debt, and internal
budget reallocations.
Climate governance
The structures, processes, and actions through which private and public
actors seek to mitigate and adapt to climate change.
Climate justice
See: Justice.
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Climate literacy
Climate literacy encompasses being aware of climate change, its
anthropogenic causes, and implications.
Climate resilient development (CRD)
Climate-resilient development refers to the process of implementing
greenhouse gas mitigation and adaptation measures to support
sustainable development for all.
Climate sensitivity
The change in the surface temperature in response to a change in the
atmospheric carbon dioxide (CO2) concentration or other radiative
forcing. See also: Climate feedback parameter.
Equilibrium climate sensitivity (ECS)
The equilibrium (steady state) change in the surface temperature
following a doubling of the atmospheric carbon dioxide (CO2)
concentration from pre-industrial conditions.
Climate services
Climate services involve the provision of climate information in such
a way as to assist decision-making. The service includes appropriate
engagement from users and providers, is based on scientifically credible
information and expertise, has an effective access mechanism, and
responds to user needs.
Climate system
The global system consisting of five major components: the atmosphere,
the hydrosphere, the cryosphere, the lithosphere and the biosphere,
and the interactions between them. The climate system changes in
time under the influence of its own internal dynamics and because of
external forcings such as volcanic eruptions, solar variations, orbital
forcing, and anthropogenic forcings such as the changing composition
of the atmosphere and land-use change.
Climatic impact-driver (CID)
Physical climate system conditions (e.g., means, events, extremes)
that affect an element of society or ecosystems. Depending on system
tolerance, CIDs and their changes can be detrimental, beneficial, neutral
or a mixture of each across interacting system elements and regions.
See also: Hazard, Impacts, Risk.
CO2-equivalent emission (CO2-eq)
The amount of carbon dioxide (CO2) emission that would have an
equivalent effect on a specified key measure of climate change, over
a specified time horizon, as an emitted amount of another greenhouse
gas (GHG) or a mixture of other GHGs. For a mix of GHGs it is obtained
by summing the CO2-equivalent emissions of each gas. There are
various ways and time horizons to compute such equivalent emissions
(see greenhouse gas emission metric). CO2-equivalent emissions are
commonly used to compare emissions of different GHGs but should not
be taken to imply that these emissions have an equivalent effect across
all key measures of climate change.
[Note: Under the Paris Rulebook [Decision 18/CMA.1, annex, paragraph
37], parties have agreed to use GWP100 values from the IPCC AR5 or
GWP100 values from a subsequent IPCC Assessment Report to report

aggregate emissions and removals of GHGs. In addition, parties may
use other metrics to report supplemental information on aggregate
emissions and removals of GHGs.]
Compound weather/climate events
The terms ‘compound events’, ‘compound extremes’ and ‘compound
extreme events’ are used interchangeably in the literature and this
report, and refer to the combination of multiple drivers and/or hazards
that contribute to societal and/or environmental risk.
Deforestation
Conversion of forest to non-forest. See also: Afforestation,
Reforestation, Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and Forest
Degradation (REDD+).
[Note: For a discussion of the term forest and related terms such
as afforestation, reforestation and deforestation, see the 2006
IPCC Guidelines for National Greenhouse Gas Inventories and their
2019 Refinement, and information provided by the United Nations
Framework Convention on Climate Change]
Demand-side measures
Policies and programmes for influencing the demand for goods and/ or
services. In the energy sector, demand-side mitigation measures aim at
reducing the amount of greenhouse gas emissions emitted per unit of
energy service used.
Developed / developing countries (Industrialissed / developed /
developing countries)
There is a diversity of approaches for categorizing countries on the
basis of their level of development, and for defining terms such as
industrialised, developed, or developing. Several categorisations
are used in this report. (1) In the United Nations (UN) system, there
is no established convention for the designation of developed and
developing countries or areas. (2) The UN Statistics Division specifies
developed and developing regions based on common practice. In
addition, specific countries are designated as least developed countries,
landlocked developing countries, Small Island Developing States (SIDS),
and transition economies. Many countries appear in more than one of
these categories. (3) The World Bank uses income as the main criterion
for classifying countries as low, lower middle, upper middle, and high
income. (4) The UN Development Programme (UNDP) aggregates
indicators for life expectancy, educational attainment, and income
into a single composite Human Development Index (HDI) to classify
countries as low, medium, high, or very high human development.
Development pathways
See: Pathways.
Disaster risk management (DRM)
Processes for designing, implementing and evaluating strategies,
policies and measures to improve the understanding of current and
future disaster risk, foster disaster risk reduction and transfer, and
promote continuous improvement in disaster preparedness, prevention
and protection, response and recovery practices, with the explicit
purpose of increasing human security, well-being, quality of life and
sustainable development (SD).
Glossary
Displacement (of humans)
The involuntary movement, individually or collectively, of persons
from their country or community, notably for reasons of armed conflict,
civil unrest, or natural or human-made disasters.
Drought
An exceptional period of water shortage for existing ecosystems and the
human population (due to low rainfall, high temperature and/or wind).
See also: Plant evaporative stress.
Agricultural and ecological drought
Depending on the affected biome: a period with abnormal
soil moisture deficit, which results from combined shortage of
precipitation and excess evapotranspiration, and during the growing
season impinges on crop production or ecosystem function in
general.
Early warning systems (EWS)
The set of technical and institutional capacities to forecast, predict, and
communicate timely and meaningful warning information to enable
individuals, communities, managed ecosystems, and organisations
threatened by a hazard to prepare to act promptly and appropriately
to reduce the possibility of harm or loss. Depending upon context, EWS
may draw upon scientific and/or Indigenous knowledge, and other
knowledge types. EWS are also considered for ecological applications,
e.g., conservation, where the organisation itself is not threatened by
hazard but the ecosystem under conservation is (e.g., coral bleaching alerts),
in agriculture (e.g., warnings of heavy rainfall, drought, ground frost,
and hailstorms) and in fisheries (e.g., warnings of storm, storm surge,
and tsunamis).
Ecological drought
See: Drought.
Ecosystem
An ecosystem is a functional unit consisting of living organisms,
their nonliving environment and the interactions within and between
them. The components included in a given ecosystem and its spatial
boundaries depend on the purpose for which the ecosystem is defined:
in some cases, they are relatively sharp, while in others they are diffuse.
Ecosystem boundaries can change over time. Ecosystems are nested
within other ecosystems and their scale can range from very small to
the entire biosphere. In the current era, most ecosystems either contain
Annexes
people as key organisms, or are influenced by the effects of human
activities in their environment. See also: Ecosystem health, Ecosystem
services.
Ecosystem-based adaptation (EbA)
The use of ecosystem management activities to increase the
resilience and reduce the vulnerability of people and ecosystems to
climate change. See also: Adaptation, Nature-based solution (NbS).
Ecosystem services
Ecological processes or functions having monetary or non-monetary
value to individuals or society at large. These are frequently classified as
(1) supporting services such as productivity or biodiversity maintenance,
(2) provisioning services such as food or fibre, (3) regulating services
such as climate regulation or carbon sequestration, and (4) cultural
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services such as tourism or spiritual and aesthetic appreciation.
See also: Ecosystem, Ecosystem health, Nature’s contributions to
people (NCP).
Emission scenario
See: Scenario.
Emission pathways
See: Pathways.
Enabling conditions (for adaptation and mitigation options)
Conditions that enhance the feasibility of adaptation and mitigation
options. Enabling conditions include finance, technological innovation,
strengthening policy instruments, institutional capacity, multi-level
governance, and changes in human behaviour and lifestyles.
Equality
A principle that ascribes equal worth to all human beings, including
equal opportunities, rights and obligations, irrespective of origins.
See also: Equity, Fairness.
Inequality
Uneven opportunities and social positions, and processes of
discrimination within a group or society, based on gender,
class, ethnicity, age, and (dis)ability, often produced by uneven
development. Income inequality refers to gaps between highest and
lowest income earners within a country and between countries.
Equilibrium climate sensitivity (ECS)
See: Climate sensitivity.
Equity
The principle of being fair and impartial, and a basis for understanding
how the impacts and responses to climate change, including costs and
benefits, are distributed in and by society in more or less equal ways.
Often aligned with ideas of equality, fairness and justice and applied
with respect to equity in the responsibility for, and distribution of,
climate impacts and policies across society, generations, and gender,
and in the sense of who participates and controls the processes of
decision-making.
Exposure
The presence of people; livelihoods; species or ecosystems; environmental
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functions, services, and resources; infrastructure; or economic, social, or
cultural assets in places and settings that could be adversely affected.
See also: Hazard, Exposure, Vulnerability, Impacts, Risk.
Feasibility
In this report, feasibility refers to the potential for a mitigation or
adaptation option to be implemented. Factors influencing feasibility
are context-dependent, temporally dynamic, and may vary between
different groups and actors. Feasibility depends on geophysical,
environmental-ecological, technological, economic, socio-cultural and
institutional factors that enable or constrain the implementation of an
option. The feasibility of options may change when different options
are combined and increase when enabling conditions are strengthened.
See also: Enabling conditions (for adaptation and mitigation options).
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Fire weather
Weather conditions conducive to triggering and sustaining wildfires,
usually based on a set of indicators and combinations of indicators
including temperature, soil moisture, humidity, and wind. Fire weather
does not include the presence or absence of fuel load.
Food loss and waste
The decrease in quantity or quality of food. Food waste is part of food
loss and refers to discarding or alternative (non-food) use of food that
is safe and nutritious for human consumption along the entire food
supply chain, from primary production to end household consumer
level. Food waste is recognized as a distinct part of food loss because
the drivers that generate it and the solutions to it are different from
those of food losses.
Food security
A situation that exists when all people, at all times, have physical, social
and economic access to sufficient, safe and nutritious food that meets
their dietary needs and food preferences for an active and healthy life.
The four pillars of food security are availability, access, utilization and
stability. The nutritional dimension is integral to the concept of food
security.
Global warming
Global warming refers to the increase in global surface temperature
relative to a baseline reference period, averaging over a period
sufficient to remove interannual variations (e.g., 20 or 30 years). A
common choice for the baseline is 1850–1900 (the earliest period
of reliable observations with sufficient geographic coverage), with
more modern baselines used depending upon the application.
See also: Climate change, Climate variability, Natural (climate)
variability.
Global warming potential (GWP)
An index measuring the radiative forcing following an emission of a unit
mass of a given substance, accumulated over a chosen time horizon,
relative to that of the reference substance, carbon dioxide (CO2). The
GWP thus represents the combined effect of the differing times these
substances remain in the atmosphere and their effectiveness in causing
radiative forcing. See also: Lifetime, Greenhouse gas emission metric.
Green infrastructure
See: Infrastructure.
Greenhouse gases (GHGs)
Gaseous constituents of the atmosphere, both natural and
anthropogenic, that absorb and emit radiation at specific wavelengths
within the spectrum of radiation emitted by the Earth’s surface, by the
atmosphere itself, and by clouds. This property causes the greenhouse
effect. Water vapour (H2O), carbon dioxide (CO2), nitrous oxide (N2O),
methane (CH4) and ozone (O3) are the primary GHGs in the Earth’s
atmosphere. Human-made GHGs include sulphur hexafluoride
(SF6), hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs), chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) and
perfluorocarbons (PFCs); several of these are also O3-depleting
(and are regulated under the Montreal Protocol). See also: Well-mixed
greenhouse gas.
Grey infrastructure
See: Infrastructure.

Hazard
The potential occurrence of a natural or human-induced physical event
or trend that may cause loss of life, injury or other health impacts,
as well as damage and loss to property, infrastructure, livelihoods,
service provision, ecosystems and environmental resources. See also:
Exposure, Vulnerability, Impacts, Risk.
Impacts
The consequences of realised risks on natural and human systems,
where risks result from the interactions of climate-related hazards
(including extreme weather/climate events), exposure, and vulnerability.
Impacts generally refer to effects on lives, livelihoods, health and well-
being, ecosystems and species, economic, social and cultural assets,
services (including ecosystem services), and infrastructure. Impacts may
be referred to as consequences or outcomes and can be adverse or
beneficial. See also: Adaptation, Hazard, Exposure, Vulnerability, Risk.
Inequality
See: Equality.
Indigenous knowledge (IK)
The understandings, skills and philosophies developed by societies with
long histories of interaction with their natural surroundings. For many
Indigenous Peoples, IK informs decision-making about fundamental
aspects of life, from day-to-day activities to longer term actions. This
knowledge is integral to cultural complexes, which also encompass
language, systems of classification, resource use practices, social
interactions, values, ritual and spirituality. These distinctive ways of
knowing are important facets of the world’s cultural diversity. See also:
Local knowledge (LK).
Indigenous Peoples
Indigenous Peoples and nations are those that, having a historical
continuity with pre-invasion and pre-colonial societies that developed
on their territories, consider themselves distinct from other sectors of the
societies now prevailing on those territories, or parts of them. They form
at present principally non-dominant sectors of society and are often
determined to preserve, develop, and transmit to future generations
their ancestral territories, and their ethnic identity, as the basis of their
continued existence as peoples, in accordance with their own cultural
patterns, social institutions, and common law system.
Informal settlement
A term given to settlements or residential areas that by at least one
criterion fall outside official rules and regulations. Most informal
settlements have poor housing (with widespread use of temporary
materials) and are developed on land that is occupied illegally with
high levels of overcrowding. In most such settlements, provision for safe
water, sanitation, drainage, paved roads, and basic services is inadequate
or lacking. The term ‘slum’ is often used for informal settlements,
although it is misleading as many informal settlements develop into
good quality residential areas, especially where governments support
such development.
Infrastructure
The designed and built set of physical systems and corresponding
institutional arrangements that mediate between people, their
communities, and the broader environment to provide services that
support economic growth, health, quality of life, and safety.
Glossary
Blue infrastructure
Blue infrastructure includes bodies of water, watercourses, ponds,
lakes and storm drainage, that provide ecological and hydrological
functions including evaporation, transpiration, drainage, infiltration,
and temporary storage of runoff and discharge.
Green infrastructure
The strategically planned interconnected set of natural and
constructed ecological systems, green spaces and other landscape
features that can provide functions and services including air
and water purification, temperature management, floodwater
management and coastal defence often with co-benefits for
people and biodiversity. Green infrastructure includes planted and
remnant native vegetation, soils, wetlands, parks and green open
spaces, as well as building and street level design interventions that
incorporate vegetation.
Grey infrastructure
Engineered physical components and networks of pipes, wires,
tracks and roads that underpin energy, transport, communications
(including digital), built form, water and sanitation, and solid-waste
management systems.
Irreversibility
A perturbed state of a dynamical system is defined as irreversible on a
given time scale if the recovery from this state due to natural processes
takes substantially longer than the time scale of interest. See also:
Tipping point.
Just transition
See: Transition.
Justice
Justice is concerned with ensuring that people get what is due to them,
setting out the moral or legal principles of fairness and equity in the
way people are treated, often based on the ethics and values of society.
Climate justice
Justice that links development and human rights to achieve a human-
centred approach to addressing climate change, safeguarding the
rights of the most vulnerable people and sharing the burdens and
benefits of climate change and its impacts equitably and fairly.
Annexes
Social justice
Just or fair relations within society that seek to address the
distribution of wealth, access to resources, opportunity, and support
according to principles of justice and fairness.
Key risk
See: Risk.
Land use, land-use change and forestry (LULUCF)
In the context of national greenhouse gas (GHG) inventories under the
United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change, LULUCF is a
GHG inventory sector that covers anthropogenic emissions and removals
of GHG in managed lands, excluding non-CO2 agricultural emissions.
Following the 2006 IPCC Guidelines for National GHG Inventories and
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 Annex I
their 2019 Refinement, ‘anthropogenic’ land-related GHG fluxes are
defined as all those occurring on ‘managed land’, i.e., ‘where human
interventions and practices have been applied to perform production,
ecological or social functions’. Since managed land may include carbon
dioxide (CO2) removals not considered as ‘anthropogenic’ in some of the
scientific literature assessed in this report (e.g., removals associated with
CO2 fertilisation and N deposition), the land-related net GHG emission
estimates from global models included in this report are not necessarily
directly comparable with LULUCF estimates in National GHG Inventories
(IPCC 2006, 2019).
Least Developed Countries (LDCs)
A list of countries designated by the Economic and Social Council of the
United Nations (ECOSOC) as meeting three criteria: (1) a low income
criterion below a certain threshold of gross national income per capita
of between USD 750 and USD 900, (2) a human resource weakness
based on indicators of health, education, adult literacy, and (3) an
economic vulnerability weakness based on indicators on instability
of agricultural production, instability of export of goods and services,
economic importance of non-traditional activities, merchandise export
concentration, and the handicap of economic smallness. Countries in this
category are eligible for a number of programmes focused on assisting
countries most in need. These privileges include certain benefits under
the articles of the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate
Change (UNFCCC).
Livelihood
The resources used and the activities undertaken in order for people to
live. Livelihoods are usually determined by the entitlements and assets
to which people have access. Such assets can be categorised as human,
social, natural, physical or financial.
Local knowledge (LK)
The understandings and skills developed by individuals and
populations, specific to the places where they live. Local knowledge
informs decision-making about fundamental aspects of life, from
day-to-day activities to longer term actions. This knowledge is a
key element of the social and cultural systems which influence
observations of and responses to climate change; it also informs
governance decisions. See also: Indigenous knowledge (IK).
Lock-in
A situation in which the future development of a system, including
Annexes
infrastructure, technologies, investments, institutions, and behavioural
norms, is determined or constrained (‘locked in’) by historic developments.
See also: Path dependence.
Loss and Damage, and losses and damages
Research has taken Loss and Damage (capitalised letters) to refer to
political debate under the United Nations Framework Convention on
Climate Change (UNFCCC) following the establishment of the Warsaw
Mechanism on Loss and Damage in 2013, which is to ‘address loss
and damage associated with impacts of climate change, including
extreme events and slow onset events, in developing countries that
are particularly vulnerable to the adverse effects of climate change.’
Lowercase letters (losses and damages) have been taken to refer
broadly to harm from (observed) impacts and (projected) risks and can
be economic or non-economic.
126
Low-likelihood, high-impact outcomes
Outcomes/events whose probability of occurrence is low or not well
known (as in the context of deep uncertainty) but whose potential
impacts on society and ecosystems could be high. To better inform risk
assessment and decision-making, such low-likelihood outcomes are
considered if they are associated with very large consequences and may
therefore constitute material risks, even though those consequences do
not necessarily represent the most likely outcome. See also: Impacts.
Maladaptive actions (Maladaptation)
Actions that may lead to increased risk of adverse climate-related
outcomes, including via increased greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions,
increased or shifted vulnerability to climate change, more inequitable
outcomes, or diminished welfare, now or in the future. Most often,
maladaptation is an unintended consequence.
Migration (of humans)
Movement of a person or a group of persons, either across an
international border, or within a State. It is a population movement,
encompassing any kind of movement of people, whatever its length,
composition and causes; it includes migration of refugees, displaced
persons, economic migrants, and persons moving for other purposes,
including family reunification.
Mitigation (of climate change)
A human intervention to reduce emissions or enhance the sinks of
greenhouse gases.
Mitigation potential
The quantity of net greenhouse gas emission reductions that can be
achieved by a given mitigation option relative to specified emission
baselines. See also: Sequestration potential.
[Note: Net greenhouse gas emission reductions is the sum of reduced
emissions and/or enhanced sinks]
Natural (climate) variability
Natural variability refers to climatic fluctuations that occur without
any human influence, that is internal variability combined with the
response to external natural factors such as volcanic eruptions,
changes in solar activity and, on longer time-scales, orbital effects and
plate tectonics. See also: Orbital forcing.
Net zero CO2 emissions
Condition in which anthropogenic carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions
are balanced by anthropogenic CO2 removals over a specified period.
See also: Carbon neutrality, Land use, land-use change and forestry
(LULUCF), Net zero greenhouse gas emissions.
[Note: Carbon neutrality and net zero CO2 emissions are overlapping
concepts. The concepts can be applied at global or sub-global
scales (e.g., regional, national and sub-national). At a global
scale, the terms carbon neutrality and net zero CO2 emissions are
equivalent. At sub-global scales, net zero CO2 emissions is generally
applied to emissions and removals under direct control or territorial
responsibility of the reporting entity, while carbon neutrality generally
includes emissions and removals within and beyond the direct control

or territorial responsibility of the reporting entity. Accounting rules
specified by GHG programmes or schemes can have a significant
influence on the quantification of relevant CO2 emissions and removals.]
Net zero GHG emissions
Condition in which metric-weighted anthropogenic greenhouse gas
(GHG) emissions are balanced by metric-weighted anthropogenic
GHG removals over a specified period. The quantification of net zero
GHG emissions depends on the GHG emission metric chosen to compare
emissions and removals of different gases, as well as the time horizon
chosen for that metric. See also: Greenhouse gas neutrality, Land use,
land-use change and forestry (LULUCF), Net zero CO2 emissions.
[Note 1: Greenhouse gas neutrality and net zero GHG emissions are
overlapping concepts. The concept of net zero GHG emissions can
be applied at global or sub-global scales (e.g., regional, national
and sub-national). At a global scale, the terms GHG neutrality and
net zero GHG emissions are equivalent. At sub-global scales, net
zero GHG emissions is generally applied to emissions and removals
under direct control or territorial responsibility of the reporting entity,
while GHG neutrality generally includes anthropogenic emissions
and anthropogenic removals within and beyond the direct control
or territorial responsibility of the reporting entity. Accounting rules
specified by GHG programmes or schemes can have a significant
influence on the quantification of relevant emissions and removals.
Note 2: Under the Paris Rulebook (Decision 18/CMA.1, annex, paragraph
37), parties have agreed to use GWP100 values from the IPCC AR5 or
GWP100 values from a subsequent IPCC Assessment Report to report
aggregate emissions and removals of GHGs. In addition, parties may
use other metrics to report supplemental information on aggregate
emissions and removals of GHGs.]
New Urban Agenda
The New Urban Agenda was adopted at the United Nations Conference
on Housing and Sustainable Urban Development (Habitat III) in Quito,
Ecuador, on 20 October 2016. It was endorsed by the United Nations
General Assembly at its sixty-eighth plenary meeting of the seventy-first session
on 23 December 2016.
Overshoot pathways
See: Pathways.
Pathways
The temporal evolution of natural and/or human systems towards
a future state. Pathway concepts range from sets of quantitative
and qualitative scenarios or narratives of potential futures to
solution-oriented decision-making processes to achieve desirable
societal goals. Pathway approaches typically focus on biophysical,
techno-economic and/or socio-behavioural trajectories and involve
various dynamics, goals and actors across different scales. See also:
Scenario, Storyline.
Development pathways
Development pathways evolve as the result of the countless
decisions being made and actions being taken at all levels of societal
structure, as well due to the emergent dynamics within and between
institutions, cultural norms, technological systems and other drivers
of behavioural change. See also: Shifting development pathways
(SDPs), Shifting development pathways to sustainability (SDPS).
Glossary
Emission pathways
Modelled trajectories of global anthropogenic emissions over
the 21st century are termed emission pathways.
Overshoot pathways
Pathways that first exceed a specified concentration, forcing or
global warming level, and then return to or below that level again
before the end of a specified period of time (e.g., before 2100).
Sometimes the magnitude and likelihood of the overshoot are also
characterised. The overshoot duration can vary from one pathway
to the next, but in most overshoot pathways in the literature and
referred to as overshoot pathways in the AR6, the overshoot occurs
over a period of at least one decade and up to several decades.
See also: Temperature overshoot.
Shared socio-economic pathways (SSPs)
Shared socio-economic pathways (SSPs) have been developed to
complement the Representative Concentration Pathways (RCPs). By
design, the RCP emission and concentration pathways were stripped
of their association with a certain socio-economic development.
Different levels of emissions and climate change along the
dimension of the RCPs can hence be explored against the backdrop
of different socio-economic development pathways (SSPs) on the
other dimension in a matrix. This integrative SSP-RCP framework is
now widely used in the climate impact and policy analysis literature
(see, e.g., http://iconics-ssp.org), where climate projections obtained
under the RCP scenarios are analysed against the backdrop of
various SSPs. As several emission updates were due, a new set of
emission scenarios was developed in conjunction with the SSPs.
Hence, the abbreviation SSP is now used for two things: On the one
hand SSP1, SSP2, …, SSP5 is used to denote the five socio-economic
scenario families. On the other hand, the abbreviations SSP1-1.9,
SSP1-2.6, …, SSP5-8.5 are used to denote the newly developed
emission scenarios that are the result of an SSP implementation
within an integrated assessment model. Those SSP scenarios are
bare of climate policy assumption, but in combination with so-called
shared policy assumptions (SPAs), various approximate radiative
forcing levels of 1.9, 2.6, …, or 8.5 W m−2 are reached by the
end of the century, respectively. denote trajectories that address
social, environmental and economic dimensions of sustainable
development, adaptation and mitigation, and transformation, in a
Annexes
generic sense or from a particular methodological perspective such
as integrated assessment models and scenario simulations.
Planetary health
A concept based on the understanding that human health and human
civilisation depend on ecosystem health and the wise stewardship of
ecosystems.
Reasons for concern (RFCs)
Elements of a classification framework, first developed in the IPCC Third
Assessment Report, which aims to facilitate judgements about what
level of climate change may be dangerous (in the language of Article
2 of the UNFCCC; UNFCCC, 1992) by aggregating risks from various
sectors, considering hazards, exposures, vulnerabilities, capacities to
adapt, and the resulting impacts.
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 Annex I
Reforestation
Conversion to forest of land that has previously contained forests but
that has been converted to some other use. See also: Afforestation,
Anthropogenic removals, Carbon dioxide removal (CDR), Deforestation,
Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and Forest Degradation (REDD+).
[Note: For a discussion of the term forest and related terms such as
afforestation, reforestation and deforestation, see the 2006 IPCC
Guidelines for National Greenhouse Gas Inventories and their 2019
Refinement, and information provided by the United Nations Framework
Convention on Climate Change]
Residual risk
The risk related to climate change impacts that remains following
adaptation and mitigation efforts. Adaptation actions can redistribute
risk and impacts, with increased risk and impacts in some areas or
populations, and decreased risk and impacts in others. See also: Loss
and Damage, losses and damages.
Resilience
The capacity of interconnected social, economic and ecological systems
to cope with a hazardous event, trend or disturbance, responding or
reorganizing in ways that maintain their essential function, identity and
structure. Resilience is a positive attribute when it maintains capacity
for adaptation, learning and/or transformation. See also: Hazard, Risk,
Vulnerability.
Restoration
In the environmental context, restoration involves human interventions
to assist the recovery of an ecosystem that has been previously
degraded, damaged or destroyed.
Risk
The potential for adverse consequences for human or ecological
systems, recognising the diversity of values and objectives associated
with such systems. In the context of climate change, risks can arise from
potential impacts of climate change as well as human responses to
climate change. Relevant adverse consequences include those on lives,
livelihoods, health and well-being, economic, social and cultural assets
and investments, infrastructure, services (including ecosystem services),
ecosystems and species.
In the context of climate change impacts, risks result from dynamic
Annexes
interactions between climate-related hazards with the exposure and
vulnerability of the affected human or ecological system to the hazards.
Hazards, exposure and vulnerability may each be subject to uncertainty
in terms of magnitude and likelihood of occurrence, and each may
change over time and space due to socio-economic changes and human
decision-making.
In the context of climate change responses, risks result from the
potential for such responses not achieving the intended objective(s), or
from potential trade-offs with, or negative side-effects on, other societal
objectives, such as the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). Risks can
arise for example from uncertainty in the implementation, effectiveness
or outcomes of climate policy, climate-related investments, technology
development or adoption, and system transitions.
See also: Hazard, Exposure, Vulnerability, Impacts, Risk management,
Adaptation, Mitigation.
128
Key risk
Key risks have potentially severe adverse consequences for humans
and social-ecological systems resulting from the interaction of
climate related hazards with vulnerabilities of societies and systems
exposed.
Scenario
A plausible description of how the future may develop based on a
coherent and internally consistent set of assumptions about key driving
forces (e.g., rate of technological change, prices) and relationships.
Note that scenarios are neither predictions nor forecasts but are used
to provide a view of the implications of developments and actions.
See also: Scenario, Scenario storyline.
Emission scenario
A plausible representation of the future development of emissions
of substances that are radiatively active (e.g., greenhouse gases
(GHGs) or aerosols) based on a coherent and internally consistent
set of assumptions about driving forces (such as demographic
and socio-economic development, technological change, energy
and land use) and their key relationships. Concentration scenarios,
derived from emission scenarios, are often used as input to a climate
model to compute climate projections.
Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction
The Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction 2015-2030 outlines
seven clear targets and four priorities for action to prevent new, and
to reduce existing disaster risks. The voluntary, non-binding agreement
recognises that the State has the primary role to reduce disaster
risk, but that responsibility should be shared with other stakeholders
including local government, the private sector and other stakeholders,
with the aim for the substantial reduction of disaster risk and losses
in lives, livelihoods and health and in the economic, physical, social,
cultural and environmental assets of persons, businesses, communities
and countries.
Settlements
Places of concentrated human habitation. Settlements can range from
isolated rural villages to urban regions with significant global influence.
They can include formally planned and informal or illegal habitation
and related infrastructure. See also: Cities, Urban, Urbanisation.
Shared socio-economic pathways (SSPs)
See: Pathways
Shifting development pathways (SDPs)
In this report, shifting development pathways describes transitions
aimed at redirecting existing developmental trends. Societies may put
in place enabling conditions to influence their future development
pathways, when they endeavour to achieve certain outcomes. Some
outcomes may be common, while others may be context-specific,
given different starting points. See also: Development pathways,
Shifting development pathways to sustainability.
Sink
Any process, activity or mechanism which removes a greenhouse gas,
an aerosol or a precursor of a greenhouse gas from the atmosphere.
See also: Pool - Carbon and nitrogen, Reservoir, Sequestration,
Sequestration potential, Source, Uptake.

Small Island Developing States (SIDS)
Small Island Developing States (SIDS), as recognised by the United
Nations OHRLLS (UN Office of the High Representative for the
Least Developed Countries, Landlocked Developing Countries and
Small Island Developing States), are a distinct group of developing
countries facing specific social, economic and environmental
vulnerabilities. They were recognised as a special case both for
their environment and development at the Rio Earth Summit
in Brazil in 1992. Fifty-eight countries and territories are presently
classified as SIDS by the UN OHRLLS, with 38 being UN member states
and 20 being Non-UN Members or Associate Members of the Regional
Commissions.
Social justice
See: Justice.
Social protection
In the context of development aid and climate policy, social protection
usually describes public and private initiatives that provide income
or consumption transfers to the poor, protect the vulnerable against
livelihood risks, and enhance the social status and rights of the
marginalized, with the overall objective of reducing the economic and
social vulnerability of poor, vulnerable, and marginalized groups. In
other contexts, social protection may be used synonymously with social
policy and can be described as all public and private initiatives that
provide access to services, such as health, education, or housing, or
income and consumption transfers to people. Social protection policies
protect the poor and vulnerable against livelihood risks and enhance
the social status and rights of the marginalized, as well as prevent
vulnerable people from falling into poverty.
Solar radiation modification (SRM)
Refers to a range of radiation modification measures not related to
greenhouse gas (GHG) mitigation that seek to limit global warming.
Most methods involve reducing the amount of incoming solar radiation
reaching the surface, but others also act on the longwave radiation
budget by reducing optical thickness and cloud lifetime.
Source
Any process or activity which releases a greenhouse gas, an aerosol
or a precursor of a greenhouse gas into the atmosphere. See also:
Pool - carbon and nitrogen, Reservoir, Sequestration, Sequestration
potential, Sink, Uptake.
Stranded assets
Assets exposed to devaluations or conversion to ‘liabilities’ because
of unanticipated changes in their initially expected revenues due
to innovations and/or evolutions of the business context, including
changes in public regulations at the domestic and international levels.
Sustainable development (SD)
Development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the
ability of future generations to meet their own needs and balances social,
economic and environmental concerns. See also: Development pathways,
Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs).
Glossary
Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs)
The 17 Global Goals for development for all countries established by the
United Nations through a participatory process and elaborated in the
2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development, including ending poverty
and hunger; ensuring health and well-being, education, gender equality,
clean water and energy, and decent work; building and ensuring resilient
and sustainable infrastructure, cities and consumption; reducing
inequalities; protecting land and water ecosystems; promoting peace,
justice and partnerships; and taking urgent action on climate change.
See also: Development pathways, Sustainable development (SD).
Sustainable land management
The stewardship and use of land resources, including soils, water, animals
and plants, to meet changing human needs, while simultaneously
ensuring the long-term productive potential of these resources and the
maintenance of their environmental functions.
Temperature overshoot
Exceedance of a specified global warming level, followed by a decline
to or below that level during a specified period of time (e.g., before
2100). Sometimes the magnitude and likelihood of the overshoot is also
characterized. The overshoot duration can vary from one pathway to the
next but in most overshoot pathways in the literature and referred to as
overshoot pathways in the AR6, the overshoot occurs over a period of
at least one and up to several decades. See also: Overshoot Pathways.
Tipping point
A critical threshold beyond which a system reorganises, often abruptly
and/or irreversibly. See also: Abrupt climate change, Irreversibility,
Tipping element.
Transformation
A change in the fundamental attributes of natural and human systems.
Transformational adaptation
See: Adaptation.
Transition
The process of changing from one state or condition to another in a
given period of time. Transition can be in individuals, firms, cities,
regions and nations, and can be based on incremental or transformative
change.
Annexes
Just transitions
A set of principles, processes and practices that aim to ensure
that no people, workers, places, sectors, countries or regions are
left behind in the transition from a high-carbon to a low-carbon
economy. It stresses the need for targeted and proactive measures
from governments, agencies, and authorities to ensure that any
negative social, environmental or economic impacts of economy-
wide transitions are minimized, whilst benefits are maximized for
those disproportionately affected. Key principles of just transitions
include: respect and dignity for vulnerable groups; fairness in energy
access and use, social dialogue and democratic consultation with
relevant stakeholders; the creation of decent jobs; social protection;
and rights at work. Just transitions could include fairness in energy,
land use and climate planning and decision-making processes;
129
 Annex I

economic diversification based on low-carbon investments; realistic

training/retraining programs that lead to decent work; gender
specific policies that promote equitable outcomes; the fostering of
international cooperation and coordinated multilateral actions; and
the eradication of poverty. Lastly, just transitions may embody the
redressing of past harms and perceived injustices.

Urban
The categorisation of areas as “urban” by government statistical
departments is generally based either on population size, population
density, economic base, provision of services, or some combination
of the above. Urban systems are networks and nodes of intensive
interaction and exchange including capital, culture, and material
objects. Urban areas exist on a continuum with rural areas and tend to
exhibit higher levels of complexity, higher populations and population
density, intensity of capital investment, and a preponderance of
secondary (processing) and tertiary (service) sector industries. The
extent and intensity of these features varies significantly within and
between urban areas. Urban places and systems are open, with much
movement and exchange between more rural areas as well as other
urban regions. Urban areas can be globally interconnected, facilitating
rapid flows between them, of capital investment, of ideas and culture, human
migration, and disease. See also: Cities, City region, Peri-urban areas,
Urban Systems, Urbanisation.

Urbanisation
Urbanisation is a multi-dimensional process that involves at least
three simultaneous changes: 1) land use change: transformation of
formerly rural settlements or natural land into urban settlements;
2) demographic change: a shift in the spatial distribution of a population
from rural to urban areas; and 3) infrastructure change: an increase in
provision of infrastructure services including electricity, sanitation, etc.
Urbanisation often includes changes in lifestyle, culture, and behaviour,
and thus alters the demographic, economic, and social structure of both
urban and rural areas. See also: Settlement, Urban, Urban Systems.

Vector-borne disease
Illnesses caused by parasites, viruses and bacteria that are transmitted
by various vectors (e.g. mosquitoes, sandflies, triatomine bugs, blackflies,
ticks, tsetse flies, mites, snails and lice).

Vulnerability
The propensity or predisposition to be adversely affected. Vulnerability
encompasses a variety of concepts and elements including sensitivity or
Annexes

susceptibility to harm and lack of capacity to cope and adapt. See also:
Hazard, Exposure, Impacts, Risk.

Water security
The capacity of a population to safeguard sustainable access to adequate
quantities of acceptable-quality water for sustaining livelihoods, human
well-being and socio-economic development, for ensuring protection
against water-borne pollution and water-related disasters and for
preserving ecosystems in a climate of peace and political stability.

Well-being
A state of existence that fulfills various human needs, including
material living conditions and quality of life, as well as the ability
to pursue one’s goals, to thrive and to feel satisfied with one’s life.
Ecosystem well-being refers to the ability of ecosystems to maintain
their diversity and quality.

130
 Annex II
Acronyms, Chemical Symbols
and Scientific Units

Editorial Team
Andreas Fischlin (Switzerland), Yonhung Jung (Republic of Korea), Noëmie Leprince-Ringuet (France), Chloé Ludden (Germany/
France), Clotilde Péan (France), José Romero (Switzerland)

This Annex should be cited as: IPCC, 2023: Annex II: Acronyms, Chemical Symbols and Scientific Units [Fischlin, A., Y. Jung, N.
Leprince-Ringuet, C. Ludden, C. Péan, J. Romero (eds.)]. In: Climate Change 2023: Synthesis Report. Contribution of Working
Groups I, II and III to the Sixth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change [Core Writing Team, H. Lee
and J. Romero (eds.)]. IPCC, Geneva, Switzerland, pp. 131-133, doi:10.59327/IPCC/AR6-9789291691647.003.

131
 Annex II

AFOLU Agriculture, Forestry and Other Land Use * Gt Gigatonnes

AR5 Fifth Assessment Report GW Gigawatt

AR6 Sixth Assessment Report GWL Global Warming Level

BECCS Bioenergy with Carbon Dioxide Capture and Storage * GWP100 Global Warming Potential over a 100 year time horizon *

CCS Carbon Capture and Storage * HFCs Hydrofluorocarbons

CCU Carbon Capture and Utilization IEA International Energy Agency

CDR Carbon Dioxide Removal * IEA-STEPS International Energy Agency Stated Policies Scenario

CH4 Methane IMP Illustrative Mitigation Pathway

CID Climatic impact-driver * IMP-LD Illustrative Mitigation Pathway - Low Demand

CMIP5 Coupled Model Intercomparison Project Phase 5 IMP-NEG Illustrative Mitigation Pathway
- NEGative emissions deployment
CMIP6 Coupled Model Intercomparison Project Phase 6
IMP-SP Illustrative Mitigation Pathway
CO2 Carbon Dioxide - Shifting development Pathways

IMP-REN Illustrative Mitigation Pathway

CO2-eq Carbon Dioxide Equivalent * - Heavy reliance on RENewables

CRD Climate Resilient Development * IP-ModAct Illustrative Pathway Moderate Action

CO2-FFI CO2 from Fossil Fuel combustion and Industrial processes IPCC Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change

CO2-LULUCF CO2 from Land Use, Land-Use Change and Forestry kWh Kilowatt hour

CSB Cross-Section Box LCOE Levelized Cost of Energy

DACCS Direct Air Carbon Capture and Storage LDC Least Developed Countries *

DRM Disaster Risk Management * Li-on Lithium-ion

EbA Ecosystem-based Adaptation * LK Local Knowledge *

ECS Equilibrium climate sensitivity * LULUCF Land Use, Land-Use Change and Forestry *

ES Executive Summary MAGICC Model for the Assessment of Greenhouse Gas Induced
Climate Change
EV Electric Vehicle
Annexes

MWh Megawatt hour

EWS Early Warning System *
N2O Nitrous oxide
FaIR Finite Amplitude Impulse Response simple climate model
NDC Nationally Determined Contribution
FAO Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations
NF3 Nitrogen trifluoride
FFI Fossil-Fuel combustion and Industrial processes
O3 Ozone
F-gases Fluorinated gases
PFCs Perfluorocarbons
GDP Gross Domestic Product
ppb parts per billion
GHG Greenhouse Gas *
PPP Purchasing Power Parity

132
 Acronyms, Chemical Symbols and Scientific Units

ppm parts per million WIM Warsaw International Mechanism on Loss and Damage under
UNFCCC *
PV Photovoltaic
Wm-2 Watts per square meter

R&D Research and Development

RCB Remaining Carbon Budget

RCPs Representative Concentration Pathways (e.g. RCP2.6, * For a full definition see also Annex I: Glossary
pathway for which radiative forcing by 2100 is limited to
2.6 Wm-2) Definitions of additional terms are available in the IPCC Online
Glossary: https://apps.ipcc.ch/glossary/
RFCs Reasons for Concern *

SDG Sustainable Development Goal *

SDPs Shifting Development Pathways *

SF6 Sulphur Hexafluoride

SIDS Small Island Developing States *

SLCF Short-Lived Climate Forcer

SPM Summary For Policymakers

SR1.5 Special Report on Global Warming of 1.5°C

SRCCL Special Report on Climate Change and Land

SRM Solar Radiation Modification *

SROCC Special Report on the Ocean and Cryosphere in a

Changing Climate

SSP Shared Socioeconomic Pathway *

SYR Synthesis Report

tCO2-eq Tonne of carbon dioxide equivalent

tCO2-FFI Tonne of carbon dioxide from Fossil Fuel combustion

and Industrial processes

TS Technical Summary

Annexes
UNFCCC United Framework Convention on Climate Change

USD United States Dollar

WG Working Group

WGI IPCC Working Group I

WGII IPCC Working Group II

WGIII IPCC Working Group III

WHO World Health Organization

133
134
 Annex III
Contributors

135
 Annex III

Core Writing Team Members CHEUNG, William W. L.

The University of British Columbia
LEE, Hoesung Canada
IPCC Chair
Korea University CONNORS, Sarah L.
Republic of Korea WGI Technical Support Unit
France / United Kingdom (of Great Britain and Northern Ireland)

CALVIN, Katherine
DENTON, Fatima
The National Aeronautics and Space Administration
United Nations Economic Commission for Africa
USA
The Gambia

DASGUPTA, Dipak
DIONGUE-NIANG, Aïda
The Energy and Resources Institute, India (TERI)
National Agency of Civil Aviation and Meteorology
India / USA
Senegal

KRINNER, Gerhard DODMAN, David

The French National Centre for Scientific Research The Institute for Housing and Urban Development Studies
France / Germany Jamaica / United Kingdom (of Great Britain and Northern Ireland) /
Netherlands
MUKHERJI, Aditi
International Water Management Institute GARSCHAGEN, Matthias
India Ludwig Maximilian University of Munich
Germany
THORNE, Peter
Maynooth University GEDEN, Oliver
Ireland / United Kingdom (of Great Britain and Northern Ireland) German Institute for International and Security Affairs
Germany
TRISOS, Christopher
HAYWARD, Bronwyn
University of Cape Town
University of Canterbury
South Africa
New Zealand

ROMERO, José
JONES, Christopher
IPCC SYR TSU
Met Office
Switzerland
United Kingdom (of Great Britain and Northern Ireland)
Annexes

ALDUNCE, Paulina
JOTZO, Frank
University of Chile
The Australian National University
Chile Australia

BARRETT, Ko KRUG, Thelma

IPCC Vice-Chair IPCC Vice-Chair
National Oceanographic and Atmospheric Administration INPE, retired
USA Brazil

BLANCO, Gabriel LASCO, Rodel

National University of the Center of the Province of Buenos Aires Consultative Group for International Agricultural Research
Argentina Philippines

136
 Authors and Review Editors

LEE, June-Yi ROBERTS, Debra C.

Pusan National University IPCC WGII Co-Chair
Republic of Korea eThekwini Municipality
South Africa
MASSON-DELMOTTE, Valérie
IPCC WGI Co-Chair ROY, Joyashree
Laboratoire des sciences du climat et de l’environnement Asian Institute of Technology
France India / Thailand

MEINSHAUSEN, Malte RUANE, Alex C.

University of Melbourne The National Aeronautics and Space Administration
Australia / Germany USA

MINTENBECK, Katja SHUKLA, Priyadarshi R.

IPCC WGII TSU / Alfred Wegener Institute IPCC WGIII Co-Chair

Ahmedabad University
Germany
India

MOKSSIT, Abdalah
SKEA, Jim
IPCC Secretariat
IPCC WGIII Co-Chair
Morocco / WMO
Imperial College London
United Kingdom (of Great Britain and Northern Ireland)
OTTO, Friederike E. L.
Imperial College London
SLADE, Raphael
United Kingdom (of Great Britain and Northern Ireland) / Germany
WG III Technical Support Unit
United Kingdom (of Great Britain and Northern Ireland)
PATHAK, Minal
IPCC WGIII Technical Support Unit
SLANGEN, Aimée
Ahmedabad University
Royal Netherlands Institute for Sea Research
India
The Netherlands

PIRANI, Anna
SOKONA, Youba
IPCC WGI Technical Support Unit IPCC Vice-Chair
Italy African Development Bank
Mali

Annexes
POLOCZANSKA, Elvira
IPCC WGII Technical Support Unit SÖRENSSON, Anna A.
United Kingdom (of Great Britain and Northern Ireland) / Australia Germany Universidad de Buenos Aires
Argentina
PÖRTNER, Hans-Otto
IPCC WGII Co-Chair TIGNOR, Melinda
Alfred Wegener Institute IPCC WGII Technical Support Unit
Germany USA / Germany

REVI, Aromar VAN UUREN, Detlef

Indian Institute for Human Settlements Netherlands Environmental Assessment Agency
India The Netherlands

137
 Annex III

WEI, Yi-Ming Review Editors

Beijing Institute of Technology
China ARIAS, Paola
Escuela Ambiental, Universidad de Antioquia
WINKLER, Harald Colombia
University of Cape Town
South Africa
BUSTAMANTE, Mercedes
University of Brasília
ZHAI, Panmao
Brazil
IPCC WGI Co-Chair
Chinese Academy of Meteorological Sciences
ELGIZOULI, Ismail A.
China
Sudan

ZOMMERS, Zinta
FLATO, Gregory
United Nations Office for Disaster Risk Reduction
Latvia IPCC WGI Vice-Chair
Environment and Climate Change Canada
Canada
Extended Writing Team Members
HOWDEN, Mark
HOURCADE, Jean-Charles IPCC WGII Vice-Chair
International Center for Development and Environment The Australian National University
France Australia

JOHNSON, Francis X. MÉNDEZ, Carlos

Stockholm Environment Institute IPCC WGII Vice-Chair
Thailand / Sweden Instituto Venezolano de Investigaciones Científicas
Venezuela
PACHAURI, Shonali
International Institute for Applied Systems Analysis PEREIRA, Joy Jacqueline
Austria / India
IPCC WGII Vice-Chair
Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia
SIMPSON, Nicholas P.
Malaysia
University of Cape Town
South Africa / Zimbabwe
PICHS-MADRUGA, Ramón
Annexes

IPCC WGIII Vice-Chair

SINGH, Chandni
Centre for World Economy Studies
Indian Institute for Human Settlements
Cuba
India

THOMAS, Adelle ROSE, Steven K.

University of The Bahamas Electric Power Research Institute

Bahamas USA

TOTIN, Edmond Saheb, Yamina

Université Nationale d’Agriculture OpenExp
Benin Algeria / France

138
 Authors and Review Editors

SÁNCHEZ RODRÍGUEZ, Roberto A. ERIKSEN, Siri

IPCC WGII Vice-Chair Norwegian University of Life Sciences
The College of the Northern Border Norway
Mexico
FISCHER, Erich
ÜRGE-VORSATZ, Diana ETH Zurich
IPCC WGIII Vice-Chair Switzerland
Central European University
Hungary GARNER, Gregory
Rutgers University
XIAO, Cunde USA
Beijing Normal University
China GUIVARCH, Céline
Centre International de Recherche sur l’Environnement et le développement
YASSAA, Noureddine France
IPCC WGI Vice-Chair
Centre de Développement des Energies Renouvelables HAASNOOT, Marjolijn
Algeria Deltares
The Netherlands

Contributing authors HANSEN, Gerrit

German Institute for International and Security Affairs
ALEGRÍA, Andrés Germany
IPCC WGII TSU
Alfred Wegener Institute HAUSER, Matthias
Germany / Honduras ETH Zurich
Switzerland
ARMOUR, Kyle
University of Washington HAWKINS, Ed
USA University of Reading
United Kingdom (of Great Britain and Northern Ireland)
BEDNAR-FRIEDL, Birgit
Universität Graz HERMANS, Tim
Austria Royal Netherlands Institute for Sea Research
The Netherlands

Annexes
BLOK, Kornelis
Delft University of Technology KOPP, Robert
The Netherlands Rutgers University
USA
CISSÉ, Guéladio
Swiss Tropical and Public Health Institute and University of Basel LEPRINCE-RINGUET, Noëmie
Mauritania / Switzerland / France France

DENTENER, Frank LEWIS, Jared

European commission University of Melbourne and Climate Resource
EU Australia / New Zealand

139
 Annex III

LEY, Debora ALDRIAN, Edvin

Latinoamérica Renovable, UN ECLAC IPCC WGI Co-Chair
Mexico / Guatemala Agency for Assessment and Application of Technology
Indonesia
LUDDEN, Chloé
WG III Technical Support Unit
CALVO, Eduardo
Germany / France
IPCC TFI Co-Chair
National University of San Marcos
NIAMIR, Leila
International Institute for Applied Systems Analysis Peru
Iran / The Netherlands / Austria
CARRARO, Carlo
NICHOLLS, Zebedee IPCC WGIII Vice-Chair
University of Melbourne Ca’ Foscari University of Venice
Australia Italy

SOME, Shreya
DRIOUECH, Fatima
IPCC WGIII Technical Support Unit
IPCC WGI Vice-Chair
Asian Institute of Technology
University Mohammed VI Polytechnic
India / Thailand
Morocco
SZOPA, Sophie
Laboratoire des Sciences du Climat et de l’Environnement FISCHLIN, Andreas
France IPCC WGII Vice-Chair
ETH Zurich
TREWIN, Blair Switzerland
Australian Bureau of Meteorology
Australia
FUGLESTVEDT, Jan
IPCC WGI Vice-Chair
VAN DER WIJST, Kaj-Ivar
Center for International Climate Research (CICERO)
Netherlands Environmental Assessment Agency
Norway
The Netherlands

WINTER, Gundula DADI, Diriba Korecha

Deltares IPCC WGIII Vice-Chair
The Netherlands / Germany Ethiopian Meteorological Institute
Annexes

Ethiopia
WITTING, Maximilian
Ludwig Maximilian University of Munich MAHMOUD, Nagmeldin G.E.
Germany
IPCC WGIII Vice-Chair
Higher Council for Environment and Natural Resources
Sudan
Scientific Steering Commitee

ABDULLA, Amjad REISINGER, Andy

IPCC WGIII Vice-Chair IPCC WGIII Co-Chair
IRENA He Pou A Rangi Climate Change Commission
Maldives New Zealand

140
 Authors and Review Editors

SEMENOV, Sergey
IPCC WGII Co-Chair
Yu.A. Izrael Institute of Global Climate and Ecology
Russian Federation

TANABE, Kiyoto
IPCC TFI Co-Chair
Institute for Global Environmental Strategies
Japan

TARIQ, Muhammad Irfan

IPCC WGI Co-Chair
Ministry of Climate Change
Pakistan

VERA, Carolina
IPCC WGI Co-Chair
Universidad de Buenos Aires (CONICET)
Argentina

YANDA, Pius
IPCC WGII Co-Chair
University of Dar es Salaam
United Republic of Tanzania

YASSAA, Noureddine
IPCC WGI Co-Chair
Centre de Développement des Energies Renouvelables
Algeria

ZATARI, Taha M.
IPCC WGII Co-Chair
Ministry of Energy, Industry and Mineral Resources
Saudi Arabia

Annexes

141
142
 Annex IV
Expert Reviewers AR6 SYR

143
 Annex IV

ABDELFATTAH, Eman ANORUO, Chukwuma

Cairo University University of Nigeria
Egypt Nigeria

ABULEIF, Khalid Mohamed ANWAR RATEB, Samy Ashraf

Ministry of Petroleum and Mineral Resources Egyptian Meteorological Authority
Saudi Arabia Egypt

ACHAMPONG, Leia APPADOO, Chandani

European Network on Debt and Development (Eurodad) University of Mauritius
United Kingdom (of Great Britain and Northern Ireland) Mauritius

AGRAWAL, Mahak ARAMENDIA, Emmanuel

Center on Global Energy Policy University of Leeds
United States of America United Kingdom (of Great Britain and Northern Ireland)

AKAMANI, Kofi ASADNABIZADEH, Majid

Southern Illinois University Carbondale UMCS
United States of America Poland

ÅKESSON, Ulrika ÁVILA ROMERO, Agustín

Sida SEMARNAT
Sweden Mexico

ALBIHN, Ann BADRUZZAMAN, Ahmed

Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences Uppsala University of California, Berkeley, CA
Sweden United States of America

ALCAMO, Joseph BALA, Govindasamy

University of Sussex Indian Institute of Science
United Kingdom (of Great Britain and Northern Ireland) India

ALSARMI, Said BANDYOPADHYAY, Jayanta

Oman Civil Aviation Authority Observer Research Foundation
Oman India
Annexes

AMBRÓSIO, Luis Alberto BANERJEE, Manjushree

Instituto de Zootecnia The Energy and Resources Institute
Brazil India

AMONI, Alves Melina BARAL, Prashant

WayCarbon Soluções Ambientais e Projetos de Carbono Ltda ICIMOD
Brazil Nepal

ANDRIANASOLO, Rivoniony BAXTER, Tim

Ministère de l’Environnement et du Développement Durable Climate Council of Australia
Madagascar Australia

144
 Expert Reviewers AR6 SYR

BELAID, Fateh BOLLINGER, Dominique

King Abdullah Petroleum Studies and Research Center HEIG-VD / HES-SO
Saudi Arabia Switzerland

BELEM, Andre BONDUELLE, Antoine

Universidade Federal Fluminense E&E Consultant sarl
Brazil France

BENDZ, David BRAGA, Diego

Swedish Geotechnical Institute Universidade Federal do ABC and WayCarbon Environmental Solutions
Sweden Brazil

BENKO, Bernadett BRAUCH, Hans Guenter

Ministry of Innovation and Technology Hans Günter Brauch Foundation on Peace and Ecology in the Anthropocene
Hungary Germany

BENNETT, Helen BRAVO, Giangiacomo

Department of Industry, Science, Energy and Resources Linnaeus University
Australia Sweden

BENTATA, Salah Eddine BROCKWAY, Paul

Algerian Space Agency University of Leeds
Algeria United Kingdom (of Great Britain and Northern Ireland)

BERK, Marcel BRUN, Eric

Ministry of Economic Affairs and Climate Policy Ministère de la Transition Ecologique et Solidaire
Netherlands France

BERNDT, Alexandre BRUNNER, Cyril

EMBRAPA Institute of Atmospheric and Climate Science, ETH Zürich
Brazil Switzerland

BEST, Frank BUDINIS, Sara

HTWG Konstanz International Energy Agency, Imperial College London
Germany France

Annexes
BHATT, Jayavardhan Ramanlal BUTO, Olga
Ministry of Environment, Forests and Climate Change Wood Plc
India United Kingdom (of Great Britain and Northern Ireland)

BHATTI, Manpreet CARDOSO, Manoel

Guru Nanak Dev University Brazilian Institute for Space Research (INPE)
India Brazil

BIGANO, Andrea CASERINI, Stefano

Euro-Mediterranean Centre on Climate Change (CMCC) Politecnico di Milano
Italy Italy

145
 Annex IV

CASTELLANOS, Sebastián CHORLEY, Hanna

World Resources Institute Ministry for the Environment
United States of America New Zealand

CATALANO, Franco CHRISTENSEN, Tina

ENEA Danish Meteorological Institute
Italy Denmark

CAUBEL, David CHRISTOPHERSEN, Øyvind

Ministry of Ecological Transition Norwegian Environment Agency
France Norway

CHAKRABARTY, Subrata CIARLO, James

World Resources Institute International Centre for Theoretical Physics
India Italy

CHAN SIEW HWA, Nanyang CINIRO, Costa Jr

Technological University CGIAR
Singapore Brazil

CHANDRASEKHARAN, Nair Kesavachandran

COOK, Jolene
CSIR-National Institute for Interdisciplinary Science and Technology
Department for Business, Energy & Industrial Strategy
India
United Kingdom (of Great Britain and Northern Ireland)

CHANG, Hoon
COOK, Lindsey
Korea Environment Institute
FWCC
Republic of Korea
Germany

CHANG’A Ladislaus
COOPER, Jasmin
Tanzania Meteorological Authority (TMA)
Imperial College London
United Republic of Tanzania
United Kingdom (of Great Britain and Northern Ireland)

CHERYL, Jeffers
COPPOLA, Erika
Ministry of Agriculture, Marine Resources, Cooperatives, Environment
and Human Settlements ICTP
Saint Kitts and Nevis Italy
Annexes

CHESTNOY, Sergey CORNEJO RODRÍGUEZ, Maria del Pilar

UC RUSAL Escuela Superior Politécnica del Litoral
Russian Federation Ecuador

CHOI, Young-jin CORNELIUS, Stephen

Phineo gAG WWF
Germany United Kingdom (of Great Britain and Northern Ireland)

CHOMTORANIN, Jainta CORTES, Pedro Luiz

Ministry of Agriculture and Cooperatives University of Sao Paulo
Thailand Brazil

146
 Expert Reviewers AR6 SYR

COSTA, Inês DEKKER, Sabrina

Ministry of Environment and Climate Action Dekker Dublin City Council
Portugal Ireland

COVACIU, Andra DENTON, Peter

Centre of Natural Hazards and Disaster Science Royal Military College of Canada, University of Winnipeg, University of
Sweden Manitoba
Canada

COX, Janice
DEVKOTA, Thakur Prasad
World Federation for Animals
ITC
South Africa
Nepal

CURRIE-ALDER, Bruce
DICKSON, Neil
International Development Research Centre
ICAO
Canada
Canada

CZERNICHOWSKI-LAURIOL, Isabelle
DIXON, Tim
BRGM
IEAGHG
France
United Kingdom (of Great Britain and Northern Ireland)

D’IORIO, Marc
DODOO, Ambrose
Environment and Climate Change Canada
Linnaeus University
Canada
Sweden

DAS, Anannya
DOMÍNGUEZ Sánchez, Ruth
Centre for Science and Environment
Creara
India
Spain

DAS, Pallavi
DRAGICEVIC, Arnaud
Council on Energy, Environment and Water (CEEW) INRAE
India France

DE ARO GALERA, Leonardo DREYFUS, Gabrielle

Universität Hamburg Institute for Governance & Sustainable Development
Germany United States of America

Annexes
DE MACEDO PONTUAL COELHO, Camila DUMBLE, Paul
Rio de Janeiro City Hall Retired Land, Resource and Waste Specialist
Brazil United Kingdom (of Great Britain and Northern Ireland)

DE OLIVEIRA E AGUIAR, Alexandre DUNHAM, Maciel André

Invento Consultoria Ministry of Foreign Affairs
Brazil Brazil

DEDEOGLU, Cagdas DZIELIŃSKI, Michał

Yorkville University Stockholm University
Canada Sweden

147
 Annex IV

ELLIS, Anna FUGLESTVEDT, Jan

The Open University IPCC WGI Vice-Chair
United Kingdom (of Great Britain and Northern Ireland) CICERO
Norway
EL-NAZER, Mostafa
National Research Centre GARCÍA MORA, Magdalena
Egypt ACCIONA ENERGíA
Spain
FARROW, Aidan
Greenpeace Research Laboratories GARCÍA PORTILLA, Jason
United Kingdom (of Great Britain and Northern Ireland) University of St. Gallen
Switzerland
FERNANDES, Alexandre
Belgian Science Policy Office GARCÍA SOTO, Carlos
Belgium Spanish Institute of Oceanography
Spain
FINLAYSON, Marjahn
Cape Eleuthera Institute GEDEN, Oliver
Bahamas German Institute for International and Security Affairs
Germany
FINNVEDEN, Göran
KTH GEHL, Georges
Sweden Ministère du Développement Durable et des Infrastructures
Luxembourg
FISCHER, David
International Energy Agency GIL, Ramón Vladimir
France Catholic University of Peru
Peru
FLEMING, Sea
University of British Columbia, Oregon State University, and US GONZÁLEZ, Fernando Antonio Ignacio
Department of Agriculture IIESS
United States of America Argentina

FORAMITTI, Joël GRANSHAW, Frank D.

Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona Portland State University
Spain United States of America
Annexes

FRA PALEO, Urbano GREEN, Fergus

University of Extremadura University College London
Spain United Kingdom (of Great Britain and Northern Ireland)

FRACASSI, Umberto GREENWALT, Julie

Istituto Nazionale di Geofisica e Vulcanologia Go Green for Climate
Italy Netherlands

FRÖLICHER, Thomas GRIFFIN, Emer

University of Bern Department of Communications, Climate Action and Environment
Switzerland Ireland

148
 Expert Reviewers AR6 SYR

GRIFFITHS, Andy HATZAKI, Maria

Diageo National and Kapodistrian University of Athens
United Kingdom (of Great Britain and Northern Ireland) Greece

GUENTHER, Genevieve HAUSKER, Karl

The New School World Resources Institute
United States of America United States of America

GUIMARA, Kristel HEGDE, Gajanana

North Country Community College UNFCCC
United States of America Germany

GUIOT, Joël HENRIIKKA, Säkö

CEREGE / CNRS Forward Advisory
France Switzerland

HAIRABEDIAN, Jordan HIGGINS, Lindsey

EcoAct Pale Blue Dot

France Sweden

HOFFERBERTH, Elena
HAMAGUCHI, Ryo
University of Leeds
UNFCCC
Switzerland
Germany

IGNASZEWSKI, Emma
HAMILTON, Stephen
Good Food Institute
Michigan State University and Cary Institute of Ecosystem Studies
United States of America
United States of America

IMHOF, Lelia
HAN, In-Seong
IRNASUS (CONICET-Universidad Católica de Córdoba)
National Institute of Fisheries Science
Argentina
Republic of Korea

JÁCOME POLIT, David

HANNULA, Ilkka
Universidad de las Américas
IEA
Ecuador
France

Annexes
JADRIJEVIC GIRARDI, Maritza
HARJO, Rebecca
Ministry of Environment
NOAA/National Weather Service
Chile
United States of America

JAMDADE, Akshay Anil

HARNISCH, Jochen Central European University
KFW Development Bank Austria
Germany
JAOUDE, Daniel
HASANEIN, Amin Studies Center for Public Policy in Human Rights at Federal University
Islamic Relief Deutschland of Rio de Janeiro
Germany Brazil

149
 Annex IV

JATIB, María Inés KASKE-KUCK, Clea

Institute of Science and Technology of the National University of Tres de WBCSD
Febrero (ICyTec-UNTREF) Switzerland
Argentina
KAUROLA, Jussi
JIE, Jiang Finnish Meteorological Institute
Institute of Atmospheric Physics Finland
China

KEKANA, Maesela
JÖCKEL, Dennis Michael
Department of Environmental Affairs
Fraunhofer-Einrichtung für Wertstoffkreisläufe und Ressourcenstrategie IWKS
South Africa
Germany

KELLNER, Julie
JOHANNESSEN, Ase
ICES and WHOI
Global Center on Adaptation and Lund University
Denmark
Sweden

KEMPER, Jasmin
JOHNSON, Francis Xavier
IEAGHG United
Stockholm Environment Institute
Kingdom (of Great Britain and Northern Ireland)
Thailand

KHANNA, Sanjay
JONES, Richard
McMaster University
Met Office Hadley Centre
Canada
United Kingdom (of Great Britain and Northern Ireland)

KIENDLER-SCHARR, Astrid
JRAD, Amel
Forschungszentrum Jülich and University Cologne
Consultant
Austria
Tunisia

JUNGMAN, Laura KILKIS, Siir

Consultant The Scientific and Technological Research Council of Turkey

United Kingdom (of Great Britain and Northern Ireland) Turkey

KÄÄB, Andreas KIM, Hyungjun

University of Oslo Korea Advanced Institute of Science and Technology
Norway Republic of Korea
Annexes

KADITI, Eleni KIM, Rae Hyun

Organization of the Petroleum Exporting Countries Central Government
Austria Republic of Korea

KAINUMA, Mikiko KIMANI, Margaret

Institute for Global Environmental Strategies Kenya Meteorological services
Japan Kenya

KANAYA, Yugo KING-CLANCY, Erin

Japan Agency for Marine-Earth Science and Technology King County Prosecuting Attorney’s Office
Japan United States of America

150
 Expert Reviewers AR6 SYR

KOFANOV, Oleksii LABINTAN, Adeniyi

National Technical University of Ukraine “Igor Sikorsky Kyiv Polytechnic Institute” African Development Bank (AfDB)
Ukraine South Africa

KOFANOVA, Olena LABRIET, Maryse

National Technical University of Ukraine “Igor Sikorsky Kyiv Polytechnic Institute” Eneris Consultants
Ukraine Spain

KONDO, Hiroaki LAMBERT, Laurent

National Institute of Advanced Industrial Science and Technology Doha Institute for Graduate Studies (Qatar) and Sciences Po Paris (France)
Japan France / Qatar

KOPP, Robert LE COZANNET, Gonéri

Rutgers University BRGM
United States of America France

KOREN, Gerbrand LEAVY, Sebastián

Utrecht University Instituto Nacional de Tecnología Agropecuaria / Universidad Nacional de Rosario
Netherlands Argentina

KOSONEN, Kaisa LECLERC, Christine

Greenpeace Simon Fraser University
Finland Canada

KRUGLIKOVA, Nina LEE, Arthur

University of Oxford Chevron Services Company
United Kingdom (of Great Britain and Northern Ireland) United States of America

KUMAR, Anupam LEE, Joyce

National Environment Agency Global Wind Energy Council
Singapore Germany

KUNNAS, Jan LEHOCZKY, Annamaria

University of Jyväskylä Fauna and Flora International
Finland United Kingdom (of Great Britain and Northern Ireland)

Annexes
KUSCH-BRANDT, Sigrid LEITER, Timo
University of Southampton and ScEnSers Independent Expertise London School of Economics and Political Science
Germany Germany

KVERNDOKK, Snorre LENNON, Breffní

Frisc University College Cork
Norway Ireland

LA BRANCHE, Stéphane LIM, Jinsun

International Panel On behavioural Chante International Energy Agency
France France

151
 Annex IV

LLASAT, Maria Carmen MBATU, Richard

Universidad de Barcelona University of South Florida
Spain United States of America

LOBB, David MCCABE, David

University of Manitoba Clean Air Task Force
Canada United States of America

LÓPEZ DÍEZ, Abel MCKINLEY, Ian

University of La Laguna McKinley Consulting
Spain Switzerland

LUENING, Sebastian MERABET, Hamza

Institute for Hydrography, Geoecology and Climate Sciences Ministère de l’Enseignement Supérieur et de la Recherche Scientifique
Germany Algeria

LYNN, Jonathan
LUBANGO, Louis Mitondo
IPCC
United Nations
Switzerland
Ethiopia

MABORA, Thupana
MKUHLANI, Siyabusa
University of South Africa and Rhodes University
International Institute for Tropical Agriculture
South Africa
Kenya

MARTINERIE, Patricia
MOKIEVSKY, Vadim
Institut des Géosciences de l’Environnement, CNRS
IO RAS
France
Russian Federation

MARTIN-NAGLE, Renée
MOLINA, Luisa
A Ripple Effect
Molina Center for Strategic Studies in Energy and the Environment
United States of America
United States of America

MASSON-DELMOTTE, Valerie
IPCC WGI Co-Chair MORENO, Ana Rosa

IPSL/LSCE, Université Paris Saclay National Autonomous University of Mexico

France Mexico
Annexes

MATHESON, Shirley MUDELSEE, Manfred

WWF EPO Climate Risk Analysis - Manfred Mudelsee e.K.
Belgium Germany

MATHISON, Camilla MUDHOO, Ackmez

UK Met Office University of Mauritius
United Kingdom (of Great Britain and Northern Ireland) Mauritius

MATKAR, Ketna MUKHERJI, Aditi

Cipher Environmental Solutions LLP IWMI
India India
152
 Expert Reviewers AR6 SYR

MULCHAN, Neil NKUBA, Michael

Retired from University System of Florida University of Botswana
United States of America Botswana

MÜLLER, Gerrit NOHARA, Daisuke

Utrecht University Kajima Technical Research Institute
Netherlands Japan

NAIR, Sukumaran NOONE, Clare

Center for Green Technology & Management Maynooth University
India Ireland

NASER, Humood NORDMARK, Sara

University of Bahrain The Swedish Civil Contingencies Agency
Bahrain Sweden

NDAO, Séga NTAHOMPAGAZE, Pascal

New Zealand Agricultural Greenhouse Gas Research Centre Expert
Senegal Belgium

NDIONE, Jacques André NYINGURO, Patricia

ANSTS Kenya Meteorological Service
Senegal Kenya

NEGREIROS, Priscilla NZOTUNGICIMPAYE, Claude-Michel

Climate Policy Initiative Concordia University
United Kingdom (of Great Britain and Northern Ireland) Canada

NELSON, Gillian OBBARD, Jeff

We Mean Business Coalition Cranfield University (UK) and Centre for Climate Research (Singapore)
France Singapore

NEMITZ , Dirk O’BRIEN, Jim

UNFCCC Irish Climate Science Forum
Germany Ireland

Annexes
NG, Chris O’CALLAGHAN, Donal
Greenpeace Retired from Teagasc Agriculture Development Authority
Canada Ireland

NICOLINI, Cecilia OCKO, Ilissa

Ministry of Environment and Sustainable Development Environmental Defense Fund
Argentina United States of America

NISHIOKA, Shuzo OH, Yae Won

Institute for Global Environmental Strategies Korea Meteorological Administration
Japan Republic of Korea

153
 Annex IV

O’HARA, Ryan PEIMANI, Hooman

Harvey Mudd College International Institute for Asian Studies and Leiden University (The Netherlands)
United States of America Canada

OHNEISER, Christian PELEJERO, Carles

University of Otago ICREA and Institut de Ciències del Mar, CSIC
New Zealand Spain

OKPALA, Denise PERUGINI, Lucia

ECOWAS Commission Euro-Mediterranean Center on Climate Change
Nigeria Italy

OMAR, Samira PETERS, Aribert

Kuwait Institute for Scientific Research Bund der Energieverbraucher e.V.

Kuwait Germany

PETERSON, Bela
ORLOV, Alexander
coneva GmbH
Ukraine
Germany

ORTIZ, Mark
PETTERSSON, Eva
The University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill
Royal Swedish Academy of Agriculture and Forestry
United States of America
Sweden

OSCHLIES, Andreas
PINO MAESO, Alfonso
GEOMAR
Ministerio de la Transición Ecológica
Germany
Spain

OTAKA, Junichiro
PLAISANCE, Guillaume
Ministry of Foreign Affairs
Bordeaux University
Japan
France

PACAÑOT, Vince Davidson PLANTON, Serge

University of the Philippines Diliman Association Météo et Climat
Philippines France
Annexes

PALMER, Tamzin PLENCOVICH, María Cristina

Met Office Universidad de Buenos Aires
United Kingdom (of Great Britain and Northern Ireland) Argentina

PARRIQUE, Timothée PLESNIK, Jan

Université Clermont Auvergne Nature Conservation Agency of the Czech Republic
France Czech Republic

PATTNAYAK, Kanhu Charan POLONSKY, Alexander

Ministry of Sustainability and Environment Institute of Natural Technical Systems
Singapore Russian Federation

154
 Expert Reviewers AR6 SYR

POPE, James REISINGER, Andy

Met Office IPCC WGIII Vice-Chair
United Kingdom (of Great Britain and Northern Ireland) Climate Change Commission
New Zealand
PÖRTNER, Hans-Otto
IPCC WGII Co-Chair RÉMY, Eric
Alfred-Wegener-Institute for Polar and Marine Research Université Toulouse III Paul Sabatier
Germany France

PRENKERT, Frans REYNOLDS, Jesse

Örebro University Consultant
Sweden Netherlands

PRICE, Joseph RIZZO, Lucca

UNEP Mattos Filho
United Kingdom (of Great Britain and Northern Ireland) Brazil

QUENTA, Estefania RÓBERT, Blaško

Universidad Mayor de San Andrés Slovak Environment Agency
Bolivia Slovakia

RADUNSKY, Klaus ROBOCK, Alan

Austrian Standard International Rutgers University
Austria United States of America

RAHAL, Farid RODRIGUES, Mónica A.

University of Sciences and Technology of Oran - Mohamed Boudiaf University of Coimbra
Algeria Portugal

RAHMAN, Syed Masiur ROELKE, Luisa

King Fahd University of Petroleum & Minerals Federal Ministry for the Environment, Nature Conservation and Nuclear Safety
Saudi Arabia Germany

RAHMAN, Mohammad Mahbubur ROGERS, Cassandra

Lancaster University Australian Bureau of Meteorology
United Kingdom (of Great Britain and Northern Ireland) Australia

RAYNAUD, Dominique ROMERI, Mario Valentino Annexes

CNRS Consultant
France Italy

REALE, Marco ROMERO, Javier

National Institute of Oceanography and Applied Geophysics University of Salamanca
Italy Spain

RECALDE, Marina ROMERO, Mauricio

FUNDACION BARILOCHE / CONICET National Unit for Disaster Risk Management
Argentina Colombia
155
 Annex IV

RUIZ-LUNA, Arturo SHAH, Parita

Centro de Investigación en Alimentación y Desarrollo, A.C. - Unidad Mazatlán University of Nairobi
Mexico Kenya

RUMMUKAINEN, Markku SILVA, Vintura

Swedish Meteorological and Hydrological Institute UNFCCC
Sweden Grenada

SAAD-HUSSEIN, Amal SINGH, Bhawan

Environment & Climate Change Research Institute, National Research Centre University of Montreal
Egypt Canada

SALA, Hernan E. SMITH, Sharon

Argentine Antarctic Institute - National Antarctic Directorate Geological Survey of Canada, Natural Resources Canada
Argentina Canada

SALADIN, Claire
SMITH, Inga Jane
IUCN / WIDECAST
University of Otago
France
New Zealand

SALAS Y MELIA, David

SOLMAN, Silvina Alicia
Météo-France
CIMA (CONICET/UBA)-DCAO (FCEN/UBA)
France
Argentina

SANGHA, Kamaljit K.
SOOD, Rashmi
Charles Darwin University
Concentrix
Australia
India

SANTILLO, David
SPRINZ, Detlef
Greenpeace Research Laboratories (University of Exeter)
PIK
United Kingdom (of Great Britain and Northern Ireland)
Germany

SCHACK, Michael
ENGIE, Consultant STARK, Wendelin

France ETH Zurich,

Switzerland
Annexes

SCHNEIDER, Linda
Heinrich Boell Foundation STRIDBÆK, Ulrik
Germany Ørsted A/S
Denmark
SEMENOV, Sergey
IPCC WGII Vice-Chair SUGIYAMA, Masahiro
Institute of Global Climate and Ecology University of Tokyo
Russian Federation Japan

SENSOY, Serhat SUN, Tianyi

Turkish State Meteorological Service Environmental Defense Fund
Turkey United States of America
156
 Expert Reviewers AR6 SYR

SUTTON, Adrienne TREGUIER, Anne Marie

NOAA CNRS
United States of America France

SYDNOR, Marc TULKENS, Philippe

Apex Clean Energy European Union
United States of America Belgium

SZOPA, Sophie TURTON, Hal

Commissariat à l’Energie Atomique et aux Energies Alternatives International Atomic Energy Agency
France Austria

TADDEI, Renzo TUY, Héctor

Federal University of Sao Paulo Organismo Indígena Naleb’
Brazil Guatemala

TAIMAR, Ala TYRRELL, Tristan

Estonian Meteorological & Hydrological Institute Ireland
Estonia
URGE-VORSATZ, Diana
TAJBAKHSH, Mosalman Sahar IPCC WGIII Vice-Chair
Islamic Republic of Iran Meteorological Organization Central European University
Iran Hungary

TALLEY, Trigg VACCARO, James

U.S. Department of State Climate Safe Lending Network
United States of America United Kingdom (of Great Britain and Northern Ireland)

TANCREDI, Elda VAN YPERSELE, Jean-Pascal

National University of Lujan Université Catholique de Louvain
Argentina Belgium

TARTARI, Gianni VASS, Tiffany

Water Research Institute - National Research Council of Italy IEA
Italy France

Annexes
TAYLOR, Luke VERCHOT, Louis
Otago Innovation Ltd (University of Otago) Alliance Bioversity Ciat
New Zealand Colombia

THOMPSON, Simon VICENTE-VICENTE, Jose Luis

Chartered Banker Institute Leibniz Centre for Agricultural Landscape Research
United Kingdom (of Great Britain and Northern Ireland) Germany

TIRADO, Reyes VILLAMIZAR, Alicia

Greenpeace International and University of Exeter Universidad Simón Bolívar
Spain Venezuela

157
 Annex IV

VOGEL, Jefim YAHYA, Mohammed

University of Leeds IUCN
United Kingdom (of Great Britain and Northern Ireland) Kenya

VON SCHUCKMANN, Karina YANG, Liang Emlyn

Mercator Ocean International LMU Munich
France Germany

VORA, Nemi YOMMEE, Suriyakit

Amazon Worldwide Sustainability and IIASA Thammasat University
United States of America Thailand

WALZ, Josefine YU, Jianjun

Federal Agency for Nature Conservation National Environment Agency
Germany Singapore

WEI, Taoyuan
YULIZAR, Yulizar
CICERO
Universitas Pertamina
Norway
Indonesia

WEIJIE, Zhang
ZAELKE, Durwood
Ministry of Environment and Natural Resources
Institute for Governance & Sustainable Development
Singapore
United States of America

WESSELS, Josepha
ZAJAC, Joseph
Malmö University
Technical Reviewer
Sweden
United States of America

WITTENBRINK, Heinrich
ZANGARI DEL BALZO, Gianluigi
FH Joanneum
Sapienza University of Rome
Austria
Italy

WITTMANN, Veronika
Johannes Kepler University Linz ZDRULI, Pandi

Austria CIHEAM
Annexes

Italy
WONG, Li Wah
CEARCH ZHUANG, Guotai
Germany China Meteorological Administration
China
WONG, Poh Poh
University of Adelaide ZOMMERS, Zinta
Australia / Singapore Latvia

WYROWSKI, Lukasz ZOPATTI, Alvaro

UNECE University of Buenos Aires
Switzerland Argentina

158
 Annex V
List of Publications of the
Intergovernmental Panel
on Climate Change

159
 Annex V
Assessment Reports
Sixth Assessment Report
Climate Change 2021: The Physical Science Basis
Contribution of Working Group I to the Sixth Assessment Report
Climate Change 2022: Impacts, Adaptation, and Vulnerability
Contribution of Working Group II to the Sixth Assessment Report
Climate Change 2022: Mitigation of Climate Change
Contribution of Working Group III to the Sixth Assessment Report
Climate Change 2023: Synthesis Report
A Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change
Fifth Assessment Report
Climate Change 2013: The Physical Science Basis
Contribution of Working Group I to the Fifth Assessment Report
Climate Change 2014: Impacts, Adaptation, and Vulnerability
Contribution of Working Group II to the Fifth Assessment Report
Climate Change 2014: Mitigation of Climate Change
Contribution of Working Group III to the Fifth Assessment Report
Climate Change 2014: Synthesis Report
A Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change
Fourth Assessment Report
Annexes
Climate Change 2007: The Physical Science Basis
Contribution of Working Group I to the Fourth Assessment Report
Climate Change 2007: Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability
Contribution of Working Group II to the Fourth Assessment Report
Climate Change 2007: Mitigation of Climate Change
Contribution of Working Group III to the Fourth Assessment Report
Climate Change 2007: Synthesis Report
A Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change
160
Third Assessment Report
Climate Change 2001: The Scientific Basis
Contribution of Working Group I to the Third Assessment Report
Climate Change 2001: Impacts, Adaptation, and Vulnerability
Contribution of Working Group II to the Third Assessment Report
Climate Change 2001: Mitigation
Contribution of Working Group III to the Third Assessment Report
Climate Change 2001: Synthesis Report
Contribution of Working Groups I, II and III to the Third Assessment Report
Second Assessment Report
Climate Change 1995: Science of Climate Change
Contribution of Working Group I to the Second Assessment Report
Climate Change 1995: Scientific-Technical Analyses of Impacts,
Adaptations and Mitigation of Climate Change
Contribution of Working Group II to the Second Assessment Report
Climate Change 1995: Economic and Social Dimensions of
Climate Change
Contribution of Working Group III to the Second Assessment Report
Climate Change 1995: Synthesis of Scientific-Technical
Information Relevant to Interpreting Article 2 of the UN
Framework Convention on Climate Change
A Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change
Supplementary Reports to the First Assessment Report
Climate Change 1992: The Supplementary Report to the IPCC
Scientific Assessment
Supplementary report of the IPCC Scientific Assessment Working Group I
Climate Change 1992: The Supplementary Report to the IPCC
Impacts Assessment
Supplementary report of the IPCC Impacts Assessment Working Group II
Climate Change: The IPCC 1990 and 1992 Assessments
IPCC First Assessment Report Overview and Policymaker Summaries
and 1992 IPCC Supplement
 List of Publications of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change
First Assessment Report
Climate Change: The Scientific Assessment
Report of the IPCC Scientific Assessment Working Group I, 1990
Climate Change: The IPCC Impacts Assessment
Report of the IPCC Impacts Assessment Working Group II, 1990
Climate Change: The IPCC Response Strategies
Report of the IPCC Response Strategies Working Group III, 1990
Special Reports
The Ocean and Cryosphere in a Changing Climate 2019
Climate Change and Land
An IPCC Special Report on climate change, desertification, land
degradation, sustainable land management, food security, and
greenhouse gas fluxes in terrestrial ecosystems 2019
Global Warming of 1.5 ºC
An IPCC special report on the impacts of global warming of 1.5 °C
above pre-industrial levels and related global greenhouse gas emission
pathways, in the context of strengthening the global response to the
threat of climate change, sustainable development, and efforts to
eradicate poverty. 2018
Managing the Risks of Extreme Events and Disasters to Advance
Climate Change Adaptation 2012
Renewable Energy Sources and Climate Change Mitigation 2011
Carbon Dioxide Capture and Storage 2005
Safeguarding the Ozone Layer and the Global Climate System:
Issues Related to Hydrofluorocarbons and Perfluorocarbons
(IPCC/TEAP joint report) 2005
Land Use, Land-Use Change, and Forestry 2000
Emissions Scenarios 2000
Methodological and Technological Issues in Technology Transfer 2000
Aviation and the Global Atmosphere 1999
The Regional Impacts of Climate Change: An Assessment of
Vulnerability 1997
Climate Change 1994: Radiative Forcing of Climate Change and
an Evaluation of the IPCC IS92 Emission Scenarios 1994
Methodology Reports and Technical Guidelines
2019 Refinement to the 2006 IPCC Guidelines for National
Greenhouse Gas Inventories 2019
2013 Revised Supplementary Methods and Good Practice
Guidance Arising from the Kyoto Protocol (KP Supplement) 2014
2013 Supplement to the 2006 IPCC Guidelines for National
Greenhouse Gas Inventories: Wetlands (Wetlands Supplement) 2014
2006 IPCC Guidelines for National Greenhouse Gas Inventories
(5 Volumes) 2006
Definitions and Methodological Options to Inventory Emissions
from Direct Human-induced Degradation of Forests and
Devegetation of Other Vegetation Types 2003
Good Practice Guidance for Land Use, Land-use Change and
Forestry 2003
Good Practice Guidance and Uncertainty Management in
National Greenhouse Gas Inventories 2000
Revised 1996 IPCC Guidelines for National Greenhouse Gas
Inventories (3 volumes) 1996
IPCC Technical Guidelines for Assessing Climate Change Impacts
and Adaptations 1994
IPCC Guidelines for National Greenhouse Gas Inventories
(3 volumes) 1994
Preliminary Guidelines for Assessing Impacts of Climate Change
1992
Annexes
Technical Papers
Climate Change and Water
IPCC Technical Paper VI, 2008
Climate Change and Biodiversity
IPCC Technical Paper V, 2002
Implications of Proposed CO2 Emissions Limitations
IPCC Technical Paper IV, 1997
161
 Annex V

Stabilization of Atmospheric Greenhouse Gases: Physical,

Biological and Socio-Economic Implications
IPCC Technical Paper III, 1997

An Introduction to Simple Climate Models Used in the IPCC

Second Assessment Report
IPCC Technical Paper II, 1997

Technologies, Policies and Measures for Mitigating Climate Change

IPCC Technical Paper I, 1996

For a list of Supporting Material published by the IPCC (workshop

and meeting reports), please see www.ipcc.ch or contact the IPCC
Secretariat, c/o World Meteorological Organization, 7 bis Avenue
de la Paix, Case Postale 2300, Ch-1211 Geneva 2, Switzerland
Annexes

162
Index

163
 Index
Note: An asterisk (*) indicates the term
also appears in the Glossary. Page numbers
in bold indicate page spans for the four
Topics. Page numbers in italics denote
figures, tables and boxed material.
2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development*,
52
A 99, 103-104, 106, 108
Adaptation, 77, 84
characteristics of, 77, 84
co-benefits, 19, 21, 25-26, 28-29, 30-31,
33, 53, 55, 79, 87, 88, 95, 101-102, 104-
106, 108, 110, 113
effective, 8-10, 17-18, 19, 24-25, 28-33,
38, 43, 52-53, 55-56, 61-63, 78, 79, 82, 92,
95-96, 97, 99, 102, 104, 106-107, 110-114
emissions reductions and, 28-29, 31, 102,
105, 110
finance, 8-9, 11, 31, 33, 53, 55, 57, 62,
111-112
finance gaps, 112
gap, 11, 57, 58, 61, 110
hard limits, 8, 61, 78, 92, 99
limits, 8, 15, 19-20, 24-26, 33, 57-58, 61-
62, 71, 77, 78-79, 81, 87, 89, 92, 96, 97,
99, 108, 111
maladaptation, 8, 19, 25, 61-62, 78-79
options, 8-10, 19, 21, 25, 26, 27, 28-31, 38,
52-53, 54, 55-56, 61-63, 78, 80, 81, 86-89,
92, 93, 95-97, 102, 104, 105-111, 113-114
pathways, 3, 9-10, 11-12, 17-18, 20-21,
22-23, 23-24, 26, 31-33, 38, 53, 57, 58-60,
61, 63, 65-66, 68, 72, 75-77, 84, 85, 86,
86-89, 92-93, 94, 96, 97, 98, 101-102, 107,
110-112, 114
planning and implementation, 8, 19, 32,
52, 55, 61-62, 79
potential, 15, 16-17, 18-19, 21, 26, 27,
28-31, 33, 50, 52, 55, 60, 72, 73-74, 77,
78, 82, 85, 85-88, 95-96, 99, 102, 103-104,
105-106, 108, 109, 112, 114
soft limits, 8, 33, 57, 61, 62, 78, 111
sustainable development and, 21, 55,
88-89
Index
transformational, 29, 73, 77-78, 96, 105,
108
164
Adaptation gap*, 61
Adaptation limits*, 8, 19, 24, 25, 26, 61,
71, 77-78, 89, 97, 108
hard limits*, 8, 61, 78, 92, 99
soft limits*, 8, 33, 57, 61-62, 78, 111
Adaptation options, 8-9, 19, 25, 25, 27,
27-30, 52, 55-56, 62, 78, 81, 88, 92, 95-
97, 97 102, 103, 104, 106-110
Adaptation potential, 106
Aerosol*, 4, 13, 42, 43, 63, 66, 69, 72, 82,
98
Afforestation*, 21, 27-28,29, 56, 87-88,
Agricultural drought*. See Drought*
Agriculture, Forestry and Other Land Use
(AFOLU)*, 5, 29, 44, 61, 67, 106, 110,
114
Agriculture, 5-6, 7,8, 21, 27, 29, 44, 49,
51-52, 55, 60-61, 78, 85, 87-88, 95,
106, 113, 114
adaptation, 8, 29, 55, 61, 78, 88, 106
drought, 46, 48, 50, 55, 61
irrigation, 8, 55, 61, 71, 88
maladaptation, 61, 114
mitigation, 21, 27, 29, 44, 52, 60, 85, 87,
88, 94-95, 103-104, 106, 113
Agroforestry*, 8, 27, 29, 55-56, 78, 87,
103, 106, 109, 110
Anthropogenic*, 4, 9, 19, 42, 43, 44, 45-
46, 63, 69, 72, 77, 82, 83, 85
emissions, See also Emissions
Arctic sea ice, 13, 46, 47, 69, 76, 98
observed changes, 5, 42
projected changes, 13, 14, 16, 70, 73, 98
Atlantic Meridional Overturning
Circulation, 18, 78
Atmosphere, 5, 20, 21, 43, 46, 47, 58, 82,
86
Attribution. See Detection and attribution
B
Behavioural change*, 25, 28, 30, 86-87,
97, 102, 107
Biodiversity*, 3, 6, 7, 15, 17, 18-19, 21,
24, 26, 27, 29-30, 38, 50, 55-56, 71-72,
74, 75-76, 77-78, 88-89, 92, 98-99,
103, 106, 108, 110, 114
Bioenergy*, 23, 28, 87, 88, 95, 99, 104,
104, 106, 108
Bioenergy with carbon dioxide capture
and storage (BECCS), 23, 88
Blue carbon*, 21, 87-88, 106
Blue infrastructure*, 29, 55, 105
Buildings, 5, 21, 22, 27-28, 29, 44, 52-53,
56, 86, 93, 94, 103-104, 105, 110, 114
C
Carbon budget*, 19-20, 82, 83, 87, 121
Carbon cycle*, 9, 47, 63, 68
Carbon dioxide (CO2), 4, 19, 43, 60
emissions scenarios, 7-8, 9-10, 12, 17-18,
63, 65-66, 68-69, 75-77, 82, 83, 92, 98
projections, 8, 9, 12, 14, 16, 58, 63, 68, 70,
74, 76, 77-78, 80-81, 83, 85, 101
radiative forcing and, 43
Carbon dioxide capture and storage (CCS)*,
87-88
Carbon dioxide removal (CDR)*, 19, 23,
60, 72, 85, 99
Carbon sequestration, 21, 27, 87, 88, 103
Carbon sinks, 13, 23, 82, 87
Cascading impacts*, 76, 97
Certainty, 32, 53, 108
Clean energy, 31, 107, 108
Climate change*, 3, 5-7, 9, 13-16, 18, 24,
25-26, 28-31, 33, 38, 42, 44, 46, 50-53,
55, 61-62, 63-64, 65, 66, 68, 71-72, 73-
74, 77, 78, 87-89, 92-93, 95, 97, 98-99,
100, 101, 104-109, 111-112, 114
abrupt, 15, 18, 71, 77-78
attribution of, 7, 50
beyond 2100, 7, 15, 77
causes of, 62
drivers of, 6, 9, 38, 44, 50, 63, 127
future changes, 12, 18, 18, 68, 77, 81
irreversible or abrupt changes, 18
limiting, 18-21, 22-23, 26, 57-58, 59-60,
82, 84, 85-88, 92, 94-95, 95, 112
mitigation, 3, 4, 9-11, 18, 20-21, 22-23,
25, 25-26, 27-28, 29-34, 38, 44, 52-53, 54,
55-57, 60, 61-62, 63-64, 65-66, 68, 77, 79,
82, 84, 86, 85-89, 92-93, 94, 95-96, 97,
101-102, 103-104, 104-106, 109-110, 113,
108-115
timescales, 18, 77, 87
Climate extreme (extreme weather or
climate event)*, 5, 42, 46, 50, 50, 76,
99, 100

Climate finance*, 9, 11, 53, 55, 62, 112,
122
adaptation, 9, 30, 33, 52-53, 55, 62, 96,
107-108, 111-115
mitigation, 10-11, 26, 30, 33-34, 52, 61-62,
88, 96, 101-102, 105, 108, 111-115
Climate governance*, 32, 52-53, 61, 108,
110
Climate justice*, 30-31, 88, 96, 101, 110,
112
Climate literacy*, 9, 30, 73, 62, 107, 122
Climate Models, 16, 43, 73, 82
Climate resilient development (CRD)*,
24, 25, 29, 31-33, 88-89, 92, 96, 97,
101-102, 105, 111-112, 114
Climate sensitivity*, 9, 12, 18, 43, 68, 77
Equilibrium climate sensitivity (ECS)*, 12,
18, 68, 77
Climate services*, 8, 27, 28-30, 55-56, 78,
103, 105, 107
Climate system*, 4, 12, 14, 18, 24, 43, 44,
46, 47, 63, 68-69, 70, 77, 82, 97
human influence on, 50
observed changes in, 5, 46, 47, 48
responses of, 44
warming of, 3, 4, 11-12, 15, 25, 38, 42, 43,
47, 57, 68-69, 71, 77, 84, 97
Climatic impact-driver (CID)*, 64, 65-66,
69, 87
CO2, 4-5, 9-13, 19-21, 22-23, 23, 27, 28-
29, 32, 42, 43, 44, 45-46, 47, 51, 58,
59-60, 61, 63, 65, 68, 82, 83-85, 85, 86,
86-87, 93, 94-95, 104
CO2-equivalent emission (CO2-eq)*, 22
Coastal ecosystems, 17-18, 23, 75-77, 77,
98
Co-benefits, 19, 21, 25-26, 28-31, 33, 53,
55, 79, 87-88, 95, 101-102, 104-106,
108, 110, 113
Compound weather/climate events*, 122
Confidence, 92
Cooperation, 24, 30, 32-33, 53,57, 88, 96,
106, 108, 111, 112-115
Coral reefs, 17, 18-19, 61, 71, 75-76, 77,
98
Cost-effective, 9, 33, 56, 63, 96, 112
Costs of mitigation, 26, 88
Cryosphere, 3, 5, 15, 46, 51, 122
D Emissions, 4-5, 7-8, 10, 9-13, 18-21, 22-
Decarbonization, 53
Decision making, 24, 30-32, 52, 89, 101-
102, 105-106, 108, 114
Deforestation*, 10, 21, 29, 44, 53, 55,
87, 93, 94, 106, 114
Demand-side measures*, 21, 28-29, 86,
102, 104, 106
Detection and attribution*, 43, 50, 121
Developed / developing countries
(Industrialised / developed /
developing countries)*, 5, 8-9, 11, 26,
31, 33-34, 44, 52, 55, 57, 60, 61-62, 71,
86, 89, 96, 98-99, 102, 110-113
Development pathways*, 24, 25, 32, 33,
38, 53, 61, 72, 89, 96, 97, 102, 110-111
Diets, 26, 27, 29-30, 50, 55, 103, 106-108
Disaster risk management (DRM)*, 8, 27,
30, 55-56, 78, 103, 107
Displacement (of humans)*, 6, 7, 50, 51,
76-77, 107
Drought*, 7, 13, 14, 25, 29, 46, 48-50, 51,
55, 61, 69, 70, 71-72, 76, 87, 97, 99,
100-101, 105
agricultural and ecological drought, 46,
48, 50, 69
E overview of, 28, 104
Early warning systems (EWS)*, 8, 27, 30,
55-56, 78, 103, 106-107
Ecological drought*, 46, 48-50, 69
Economic growth, 9, 51
Economic instruments, 10, 31-32, 52-53,
107, 110
Economic losses, 6, 50-52, 62
Ecosystem*, 3, 5, 7, 8, 15, 16-18, 18-19,
21, 23-25, 25, 27, 28-30, 38, 46, 49-50,
50-51, 55-56, 61-62, 64,71-72, 73-77,
77-79, 80, 82, 87-89, 92, 95-96, 97, 97-
99, 102, 103, 106, 108, 109-110, 114
management, 3, 8, 19, 21, 24-25, 27, 28-
30, 38, 55-56, 61-62, 78-79, 80, 92, 95-96,
102, 103, 106, 108, 109-110, 114
risks, See also Risk*
Ecosystem-based adaptation (EbA)*, 8,
19, 55, 78, 80, 95, 106
Ecosystem services*, 27, 29-30, 55-56,
76, 78, 80, 88-89, 103, 106, 108, 114
Emission pathways*. See Emission scenario
3, 9, 23, 38, 63, 84
Index
23, 23-24, 25, 25-26, 27-28, 28-34, 42,
43, 44, 45-46, 46, 49-50, 50-53, 55,
57-58, 58-60, 61, 63, 65-66, 68-69, 72,
77, 77, 80-81, 82, 83-85, 85, 86, 86-89,
92-93, 94-95, 95, 97, 98-99, 101-102,
103-104, 104-108, 110-114
anthropogenic, 4, 9, 19, 43, 42-44, 45-46,
63, 69, 72, 77, 82, 83, 85
CO2-equivalent, 4, 22, 44, 59-60
drivers of, 6, 9, 38, 44, 50, 63
metrics, 4, 44
observed changes, 5, 42, 46, 47-50
reductions, 5, 10-12, 18-21, 21-22, 25, 26,
28, 28-33, 44, 52-55, 54, 57, 59-60, 68-69,
82, 84, 85-88, 92-93, 95, 97, 101-102, 104,
104-105, 110, 112, 114
See also Emission pathways*
See also Emission scenarios*
Emission scenarios*, 9, 12, 63, 92
baseline, 17-18, 28, 43, 75-77, 102, 104
categories, 9, 12, 15, 20, 28, 44, 59, 63-64,
65-66, 68, 71, 84, 104
mitigation pathways, 9, 11, 20-21, 22-23,
26, 31, 38, 57, 62-63, 84, 86, 86-88, 93,
94-95, 101
modelled, 9-10, 11-12, 20-23, 22, 33, 57,
59-60, 62-63, 68, 84-85, 86 86-88, 92-93,
95, 96, 111-112
Representative Concentration Pathways
(RCPs), 9, 63, 65
Shared socio-economic pathways (SSPs),
9, 63, 65
temperature and, 13, 16, 73-74, 98
Enabling conditions (for adaptation and
mitigation options)*, 21, 24, 25, 34,
61, 86, 95, 96, 97, 102, 113
Energy. See also Clean Energy, Fossil Fuels,
Renewable Energy, 31, 107, 108
Energy access, 101
Energy demand, 10, 51, 53, 87
demand-side management, 10, 28
Energy efficiency, 10, 21, 27, 28, 53, 86-
88, 103, 104, 113, 114
Energy intensity, 5, 44, 53
Energy system, 6, 28, 50, 104, 109
policy instruments, 11, 21, 52-53, 86, 110
transformation, 25, 29, 57, 61-62, 78, 89
Equality*. See also Equity, Inequality, 114
Index
Equilibrium climate sensitivity (ECS)*, 12,
18, 68, 77
165
 Index
Equity*, 6, 9, 24, 25, 30-32, 49, 51, 52, 55,
60, 62, 63, 78, 88-89, 96, 97, 101-102
Exposure*, 15, 16, 18, 19, 30, 56, 62, 63-
66, 71-72, 74, 77, 78-79, 97-98, 100,
107
reduction of, 55, 95, 104, 105-106, 128
Extinction risk, 71
Extreme weather events, 15, 17, 56, 71,
107
observed changes, 5, 42
precipitation, 5-6, 7, 12-13, 14, 15, 16, 29,
46, 47-50, 50-51, 69, 70, 73, 76, 87, 98-99,
105
as Reason for Concern, 17 ,75
projections, 8, 9, 12, 14, 16, 58, 63, 68, 70,
74, 76, 77-78, 80-81, 83, 85, 101
risks due to, 66
sea level, 5-6, 13, 15, 18, 23, 46, 50, 56,
68-69, 75-77, 77, 79, 80-81, 87, 98, 100-
101, 106
temperature, 4, 6, 7-8, 12-13, 14, 16-18,
18-20, 42, 43, 47, 50, 50, 58, 64-66, 68-69,
70, 73-77, 77, 82, 83-85, 85, 86, 87, 98
F of climate system, 12, 14, 18, 24, 43, 46,
Feasibility*, 19, 23, 25-26, 27-28, 28, 34,
56, 61, 87, 92, 95-96, 102, 103-104,
112, 114
Finance, 9-11, 24, 25, 26, 30-33, 52-53,
55, 61-62, 88-89, 96, 97, 101-102, 105,
107-108, 110-115
availability, 9, 3233, 62, 104, 111
barriers, 25, 32-33, 55, 57, 61-62, 97,
111-112
mitigation, 9, 11, 24, 25, 32-33, 51, 55,
61-62, 89, 97, 107, 111-112
private, 9, 11, 33, 55, 62, 111, 112
public, 9, 11, 32-33, 53, 55, 62, 86, 101,
107, 110-112
See also Climate finance
Fire weather*, 7, 13, 51, 69, 72, 103, 124
Fisheries, 6, 7, 16-17, 27, 30, 50, 73-74,
76, 103, 106, 110, 112
Floods, 5, 15, 25, 51, 76, 97, 99
Food loss and waste*, 30, 55, 106
Food production, 6, 7, 15, 16, 50, 55, 73-
Index
74, 76, 99
166
Food security*, 3, 5-6, 17-18, 26, 29-30,
38, 50-51, 55-56, 71, 74, 76-77, 87,
100, 106, 108, 114
Forests, 17, 18, 21, 28-30, 56, 75, 77, 87,
88, 99, 104, 106, 108
afforestation, 27-28, 87, 103-104
deforestation, 10, 21, 29, 44, 53, 55, 87,
93, 94, 106, 114
reforestation, 21, 27, 29, 56, 87, 93, 103,
104, 106
Fossil Fuels, 4, 11, 21, 28, 30, 43, 44, 54,
62, 86-87, 92, 95, 104, 108, 111
G Ice Sheets, 13, 18, 69, 77
Glaciers, 5, 13, 46, 47, 69, 71
observed changes, 5, 42
projected changes, 13, 14,16, 70, 73, 98
Global warming* See also Warming, 3-4,
9-10, 11-13, 14, 15, 16-18, 18-21,
23-24, 25, 26, 27, 30, 38, 42, 43, 50,
57-58, 59-60, 63-65, 68-69, 70, 71-72,
74-77, 77-79, 82, 83-84, 85-89, 92, 96,
95-99, 104, 112, 113
47, 68, 70, 77, 97
CO2 emissions and, 19, 68, 82, 83, 85, 87,
92
feedbacks and, 82
human activities, 4, 42, 43
irreversibility of, 77
projections of, 14, 16, 68, 70, 74, 77, 81
timescales of, 18, 80
Global warming potential (GWP)*, 4, 19,
44, 60, 85
Governance, 8, 24, 25, 30-33, 51-53, 61,
72, 78, 87, 89, 96, 97, 99, 101, 108,
110-112, 114
Governments 11, 25, 28, 33, 55, 89, 97,
104, 112
national, 8-10, 19, 22, 24, 26, 28, 32-33,
44, 45, 49, 51-53, 55, 57, 61-62, 78, 89,
96, 102, 104, 108, 110-113
Greenhouse gases (GHGs)*. See Emissions,
4, 20, 42, 43, 86
Green infrastructure*, 10, 27, 53, 103
Greenland ice sheet, 46, 47
Grey infrastructure*, 29
H
Hazard*, 15, 48, 51, 65-66, 71, 76-77,
97-98, 101
Heatwaves, 5, 13, 16-17, 29, 46, 48-50,
51, 69, 71-72, 73, 98-99, 105
Human health, 6, 15, 16, 18, 26, 29-31,
42, 50-51, 71, 73-74, 77, 88, 95, 102,
106-107
Human security, 71
I
Impacts*. See also Observed changes, 3,
5-6, 7, 14-15, 16-17, 18, 38, 42, 46, 49-
50, 50-51, 63-66, 68, 71, 73-77
attribution of, 7, 50
cascading, 14-15, 68, 71-72, 76-77, 97-99,
100-101, 105, 114
distribution of, 15, 71
future, 1, 3, 8, 12, 15, 60, 68, 98
global aggregate, 17, 71, 75, 88
irreversible, 5, 15, 18, 23, 24, 46, 68-69,
71, 76, 77, 82, 87, 95
of climate change, 3, 9, 16, 30, 38, 46, 49,
51, 55, 63, 72, 74, 87-88, 92, 95, 99, 108,
109, 111
of extreme events, 5-6, 16, 29, 50-51, 74,
78, 97, 100, 104-105
severe, 6, 15, 25, 46, 50, 62, 69, 71, 77-79,
87, 92, 97, 99, 101
timescales of, 18, 80
widespread, 3, 5-6, 7, 14, 15, 23, 28, 32,
38, 42, 51, 53, 70, 71-72, 87, 104, 111, 114
Indigenous knowledge (IK)*, 25, 32, 89,
97, 101, 107
Indigenous Peoples*, 5, 15, 19, 21, 30-32,
50-53, 61-62, 71, 88, 99, 101, 106, 108,
110
Industry, 5, 21, 22, 27-28, 29, 43, 44, 52-
53, 86, 93, 94, 102, 103, 104, 105, 110
emissions by, 22, 27, 32, 45-46, 53, 61, 94,
102, 110
mitigation potential, 27, 29, 87, 103-104,
106, 114
transition, 28, 31, 52, 77-78, 86, 94, 96,
101-102, 104
Inequality*. See also Equality, Equity, 15,
50, 76, 98, 112

Informal settlement*, 15, 30, 50, 62, 98,
105
Information measures. See Climate literacy
Infrastructure*, 6, 7, 10, 15, 19-20, 23,
25-26, 27, 28-31, 49-50, 50-51, 53, 55,
58, 61, 71, 76, 77, 80, 83, 86-87, 89,
92, 95-96, 98-99, 101-102, 103-104,
104-107, 109-110, 114
blue infrastructure, 29, 105
Institutions, 32, 34, 51, 55, 60-61, 110-
112
Integrated responses, 89
International cooperation, 24, 32-33, 53,
57, 88, 96, 108, 111-112
Investment, 17, 32-33, 62, 75, 89, 105,
111-113
Irreversibility*, 5, 15, 46, 71
irreversible impacts, 82
irreversible or abrupt changes, 18
J characteristics of, 77, 84
Just transition*, 30-31, 52, 101-102
Justice*, 9, 24, 25, 30-32, 63, 88-89, 96,
97, 101, 110, 112, 114
climate justice, 30-31, 88, 96, 101, 110,
112
social justice, 31, 101
K 53, 54, 61, 63, 87-89, 95, 103-104, 108,
Key risk*. See Risk, 15, 64, 71, 76-77
Kyoto Protocol, 10, 38, 52, 112
L 62, 112
Land Use, Land-Use Change and Forestry
(LULUCF)*, 5, 43, 93
Large-scale singular events, 15, 71, 77
Least Developed Countries (LDCs)*, 5, 9,
44, 71
Likelihood See Confidence, 3, 7, 9, 18-20,
38, 47, 58, 63, 77-78, 81-84, 92
Livelihood*, 21, 23-24, 26, 27, 29-30, 50,
51, 55, 76, 80, 87, 92, 102, 110
Local knowledge (LK)*, 25, 97, 101, 107
Lock-in*, 26, 62, 78, 95-96
Loss and Damage, and losses and damages*,
52
Low-likelihood, high-impact outcomes*,
77
M impacts of, 3, 5, 16, 18, 30, 32, 38, 46, 51,
Maladaptation*, 8, 19, 25, 57, 61, 62, 78,
79, 97
Methane, 4, 12, 19, 21, 22, 23, 26, 27, 28-
29, 42, 43, 85, 87, 92-93, 95, 103, 104
Migration*, 15, 27, 51-52, 98, 101, 104,
107
of humans, 16
of species, 5, 71, 77
Mitigation (of climate change*) 9-11, 18,
22-23, 24, 25-26, 27-28, 30-31, 52-53,
57-58, 59-60, 61, 63, 68, 73-75, 86, 98,
103-104, 111, 113, 114-115
barriers to, 9, 25, 32, 33, 61-62, 87, 92, 95,
97, 111
co-benefits of, 21, 88, 108
emissions reductions and, 28-29, 31, 102,
105, 110
integrated approach, 29, 106
national and sub-national, 10, 52-53, 110
Mitigation costs, 26, 95, 104
distribution of, 15, 71
Mitigation options, 9-10, 26, 27-28, 29,
109-110, 114
Mitigation pathways. See Mitigation, 9, 11,
20-21, 22-23, 26, 31, 38, 57, 63, 82, 84,
86, 86-88, 93, 95, 101
Mitigation potential*, 27, 29, 87, 103-
104, 106, 114
Mitigation scenarios, 82
characteristics of, 77, 84
N 61, 63, 65-66, 68, 72, 75-77, 82, 84-85,
National governments. See Government,
28, 104
Natural (climate) variability*, 8, 12-13, 98
Net zero CO2 emissions*, 19, 20, 21, 23,
23, 60, 61, 68, 85, 86, 93
Net zero GHG emissions*, 19, 20, 22, 60,
85
New Urban Agenda*, 52
Index
O
Observed changes, 5, 42, 46, 47-50
extreme events, 5-6, 16, 29, 50-51, 74, 78,
97, 100, 104, 105
53, 74, 76, 87, 108, 111, 114
in climate system, 18
in emissions, 33, 58, 68, 84, 85, 87, 111,
112
Ocean, 4-6, 7, 13, 15, 16-18, 29-30, 38,
42, 46, 47, 49, 50-51, 68-69, 72, 73,
75-76, 77, 82, 87, 98, 102, 106, 108,
109-110, 114
acidification, 6, 7, 13, 46, 47, 50, 69, 72,
76
heat content, 47
observed changes, 5, 42, 47-49
projected changes, 13, 14, 16, 70, 73, 98
warming of, 47
Ocean acidification, 6, 7, 13, 46, 50, 69,
72
impacts of, 3, 5, 16, 18, 30, 32, 38, 46, 51,
53, 74, 87, 108, 111, 114
projections, 8, 9, 12, 14, 16, 58, 63, 68, 70,
74, 78, 80-81, 83, 85, 101
risks associated, 18, 23, 77
Overshoot (pathways/scenarios)*, 9-11,
10, 20-21, 21-23, 23, 57-58, 58-59, 63,
65, 68, 71, 82, 84, 85, 86, 87, 92, 93,
94-95, 102
characteristics, 33, 38, 77, 84, 113
See also Impacts*
P
Paris Agreement, 10-11, 38, 52, 57, 60,
Pathways*, 3, 9-10, 10-12, 17-18, 20-21,
21-22, 22-24, 25, 26, 31-33, 38, 53, 57-
86, 86-89, 92-93, 94-95, 97, 101-102,
107, 110-112, 114
categories of, 12, 64, 68
development pathways, 24, 25, 32, 33, 38,
53, 61, 72, 89, 96, 97, 102, 110-112
emission pathways, 3, 9, 23, 38, 63, 84
overshoot pathways, 59, 87, 94, 127, 129
Index
shared socio-economic pathways (SSPs),
9, 63
167
 Index
Permafrost, 5, 13, 17, 69, 75, 77, 87, 98
Planetary health*, 24, 89, 102, 108, 114
Policies, 8-11, 18, 22, 24-26, 28, 30-33,
51-53, 55, 58-60, 63, 68-69, 77, 86, 89,
96, 101-102, 104, 106-108, 110-115
adaptation, 8, 18, 24, 25-26, 30-32, 55,
73-74, 75, 89, 111, 114-115
assessing, 15, 31, 50, 66, 71, 78, 101
distributional effects, 105
equity, 9, 24, 25, 30-32, 49, 55, 60, 62, 63,
88-89, 96, 97, 101-102, 108, 110-112, 114
finance, 9-11, 24, 25, 26, 30-33, 52-53, 55,
61-62, 88-9, 96, 97, 101-102, 105, 107-
108, 110-115
mitigation, 9-11, 18, 22-23, 24, 25-26, 27-
28, 30-31, 52-53, 57-58, 59-60, 61, 63, 68,
73-75, 86, 98, 103-104, 111, 113, 114-115
sectoral, 16, 19-20, 23, 28, 32, 33, 34, 56,
62, 74, 77, 78-79, 86, 89, 94-95, 96, 104,
108, 110-112, 114-115
sustainable development and, 3, 21, 38,
55, 88, 89
technology, 10-11, 21, 25, 28, 30-34, 52-
53, 54, 61, 68, 86, 96, 97, 102, 104, 107,
108, 111,-113
Population growth, 17, 75, 63
Poverty, 3, 25, 30, 38, 50, 51-52, 62, 76,
88, 97, 101-102, 108, 1123
Precipitation, 5-6, 7, 12-13, 14, 15, 16,
29, 46, 47-50, 50-51, 69, 70, 73, 76, 87,
98-99, 105
extreme events, 5-6, 16, 29, 50-51, 74, 78,
97, 100, 104, 105
observed changes, 5, 42
projected changes, 13, 98
Private finance. See Finance, 9, 11, 33, 62,
111, 112
Private sector, 9, 24, 25, 55, 61, 89, 97,
107, 111, 112
Public finance. See Finance, 33, 111, 112
R Scenario*. See Emission Scenario*,
Radiative forcing, 4, 9, 13, 42, 43, 62-63,
65, 98
Reasons for Concern (RFCs)*, 15, 17-18,
64, 71, 75-77
Reforestation*, 21, 27, 29, 56, 87, 93,
103-104, 106
Regions, 4-6, 7, 8, 10-11, 14, 16, 17-19,
24, 25, 28-33, 38, 42, 44, 46, 50-53, 55,
57 60-62, 64, 68-69, 70, 71-72, 73-74,
Index
76, 77-78, 88-89, 97, 95-99, 100, 101-
102, 103, 104, 106, 108, 110-112, 114
168
irreversible changes, 15, 18, 68, 71, 77
key risks, 15, 64, 71, 76-77
See also Impacts*
Renewable energy, 21, 53, 54, 88, 104,
105
Representative Concentration Pathways
(RCPs)*, 9, 63, 65
Residual risk*, 78, 105
Resilience*, 19, 23, 28-31, 55, 78, 87,
101-102, 104-107, 110
Restoration*, 8, 21, 27, 29-30, 55-56, 77,
88, 103-104, 105-106, 108
Risk*, 3, 6, 8-9, 12, 14-15, 16-18, 18-19,
21, 23-24, 26, 25-26, 29, 32, 33, 38,
42, 50-52, 55, 61-62, 63-66, 68, 71-72,
73-74, 77-79, 80, 82, 87-89, 92, 95, 97,
97-99, 100-101, 101, 104-108, 110-112
causes of, 62
from climate change, 6, 14-15, 26, 51, 64,
72, 88, 99
future, 4, 7-9, 12, 14-15, 16-18, 18, 20, 24,
25, 28, 44, 58, 60, 61, 63-66, 68-69, 73-74,
77, 80-81, 87-89, 92, 95-98, 97, 101, 102,
104, 107
key risks, 15, 64, 71, 76-77
of adaptation, 8-9, 18, 19, 25-26, 33, 38,
55-56, 61-62, 77, 78-79, 88, 92, 95, 99,
101-102, 107, 109, 111
of mitigation, 26, 27, 28, 31, 57, 88, 89,
95, 103, 102, 109, 112-114
region-specific, 61
unavoidable, 15, 18, 30, 77, 80, 85, 108
uneven distribution of, 15, 71
Risk management/reduction. See also
Disaster risk management, 52,
Rural areas, 15, 98
S Source*, 50, 82
Emission Pathway* and Pathways*
Sea ice, 13, 46, 47, 69, 76, 98
arctic, 4, 5, 13, 16-17, 18, 26, 42, 46, 47,
50-51, 69, 71, 73-74, 76, 77, 93, 98
observed changes, 5, 42, 46, 47-50
projected changes, 13, 14, 16, 70, 73, 98
Sea level, 5-6, 13, 15, 17-18, 23, 46, 47,
50, 56, 68, 69, 75-77, 77, 79, 80-81, 87,
98, 100-101, 106
extremes, 5-6, 7, 12, 14, 42, 46, 48-50,
50-51, 69, 70, 76, 98-99
observed changes, 5, 42
Sea level rise, 5-6, 7, 13, 15, 17-18, 18,
23, 46, 47, 50, 56, 68, 75-77, 79, 80-81,
87, 98, 100-101, 106
contributions to, 3, 5, 28, 38, 43, 44, 104,
119
observed, 77, 80-81, 89, 92
projected, 100-101
risks associated with, 18, 23, 77, 112
variability in, 12, 14, 70
Seasonal, 7-8, 46, 47, 49-50, 69, 72
Sectors, 5-6, 7, 8, 10-11, 15, 19-21, 22, 24,
25, 27-28, 29-31, 33, 44, 51-53, 54, 55-
57, 60, 61-62, 64, 68, 71-72, 76, 78-79,
82, 86, 89, 93, 94, 95-96, 97, 99, 101,
101-102, 104-108, 110-112, 113, 114
GHG emissions by, 32, 45-46, 53, 102, 110
key risks, 15, 64, 71, 76-77
policy instruments, 11, 21, 52-53, 86, 110
See also Adaptation*
See also Mitigation*
Settlements*, 7, 15, 18, 23, 27, 28-29, 31,
49-51, 62, 71, 76, 80, 87, 89, 98-99,
103, 105-106
Shared socio-economic pathways (SSPs)*,
9, 63, 65
Shifting development pathways (SDPs)*,
32, 34, 102, 112
Sink*, 13, 22-23, 28, 42, 44, 82, 87, 94,
104, 106
Small Island Developing States (SIDS)*, 5,
26, 44, 51, 98
Snow cover, 13, 46, 47, 51, 69
Social justice*, 31, 101
Social protection*, 26, 28, 30-31, 55, 96,
101, 106-108
Solar Radiation Modification (SRM)*, 72
Species range shifts, 49
Stranded assets*, 25-26, 58, 62, 95
Subsidies, 11, 32, 53, 102, 107, 110
Sustainable development (SD)*, 108, 109,
110, 114
climate policy and, 52
equity and, 24, 25, 31-32, 53, 91, 101
Sustainable Development Goals* (SDGs),
6, 30, 33, 52, 96, 101, 108, 109, 114
Sustainable land management*, 3, 8, 38,
55, 56, 106, 114
Synergies, 21, 25, 27-28, 30, 88, 97, 103-
104, 108, 109-110, 114
 Index

T Urban*, 6, 8, 10, 15, 27, 29, 31, 44, 50, 53,

55, 61, 75-76, 78, 86, 89, 99, 103, 105,
106, 108, 109, 114
Technology, 10-11, 21, 25, 27, 28, 30-34,
Urbanisation*, 14, 15, 44, 50, 70, 98
52-53, 54, 61, 68, 86, 96, 97, 102, 104,
107-108, 111-113
technology-push policies, 52 V
Temperature. See also Warming, 4, 6, 7-8,
12-13, 14, 16-18, 18-20, 42, 43, 47, 50,
Values, 25, 31-32, 79, 80-81, 84, 96, 97,
50, 58, 64, 65-66, 68-69, 70, 73-77, 77,
101
82, 83-85, 85, 86, 87, 98
Vector-borne disease*, 6, 15, 50, 56, 76,
emissions and, 10, 19, 22-23, 23-24, 25,
98, 107
28, 32, 55, 59-60, 63, 68, 82, 83, 85, 86,
87, 89, 92, 97, 102, 104, 106, 111 Violent conflict, 51, 72, 101
extremes, 5-6, 7, 12, 14, 42, 46, 48-50, 50- Vulnerability*, 3, 5, 15, 16, 18, 19, 24,
51, 69, 70, 76, 98-99 29-31, 33, 49-50, 50-51, 62-64, 65-66,
71-72, 73, 78, 89, 96-97, 101, 106-107,
human influence on, 50
111-114
observed changes, 5, 46, 47-48, 50
reduction of, 29
variability in, 12, 14, 70
Temperature projections, 83, 85
global surface temperature, 4, 7-8, 12, 14, W
17-18, 18-19, 42-43, 64-66, 68, 70, 75-77,
82, 83, 85, 98 Warming See Global Warming, and
mitigation and, 10-14, 82-87 Temperature
warming to 1.5°C above pre-industrial, 10 Water, 5-6, 7, 12, 15, 19, 21, 27-28, 29-30,
warming to 2°C above pre-industrial, 10 42, 47, 49-50, 50-51, 55-56, 61, 69,
71-72, 73, 75-76, 78, 80, 88, 95, 98-99,
warming greater than 2°C above pre-industrial,
101, 103-104, 104-108, 110, 112, 114
10
security, 3, 5, 6, 17, 18, 21, 26, 29-31, 38,
Tipping point*, 18, 77
42, 50-51, 55-56, 71, 74, 77, 87-88, 98-99,
Transformation*, 25, 29, 57, 61-62, 78, 106, 108, 114
89, 96, 97
quality, 50, 76, 88
Transformational adaptation*, 57, 61, 78,
resources, 19, 50, 76, 78, 105
108
Water cycle, 12, 47, 69, 78
Transition*, 11, 21, 25, 28-31, 53, 61-62,
78, 86, 94, 96-111 Well-being*, 3, 6, 7, 24, 29-31, 38, 50, 55,
56, 76, 80, 89, 95, 98, 100, 102, 105,
just transitions, 30, 31, 53, 101-102, 108,
106, 108, 114
111
system transitions, 25, 28, 78, 96, 97, 102,
104 Y
Transportation, 6, 50, 51, 76
Yields, 7-8, 16, 17, 49-50, 50, 73-74, 100-
U 101, 104

Uncertainty. See also Confidence, 9, 17, 18,

22, 28, 33, 46, 59, 61, 68, 75-76, 82,
83, 96, 104, 112
UNFCCC (United Nations Framework
Convention on Climate Change), 10-
11, 38, 52, 57, 62, 112
Index

Unique and threatened systems, 15, 65,

71

169